Articulo de referencia

hanfu

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Una mujer china que lleva un Aoqun reconstruido , un estilo popular de vestido femenino de la dinastía Ming.
Las fiestas nocturnas de Han Xizai , una pintura de la era Song basada en un original de Gu Hongzhong.
Músicos de la corte en Qixiong Ruqun ; relieve decorativo de piedra, Cinco dinastías .
Emperador Wanli en Mianfu , finales del siglo XVI.

Hanfu ( chino simplificado :汉服; chino tradicional :漢服; pinyin : Hànfú , lit. "ropa Han"), también conocido como Hanzhuang ( chino simplificado :汉装; chino tradicional :漢裝; pinyin : Hànzhuāng , "atuendo Han") o vestimenta tradicional china , [ 1 ] son ​​vestimentas chinas históricas usadas por la mayoría de los chinos Han desde al menos el segundo milenio a. C. hasta mediados del siglo XVII d. C., abarcando casi toda la historia registrada de China hasta el final de la dinastía Ming , hasta que la conquista violenta y la asimilación forzada por la dinastía Qing llevaron a su reemplazo por el qizhuang y el magua manchúes en un evento histórico conocido como Tifayifu . Debido al auge de China desde principios del siglo XXI , actualmente existe un creciente movimiento cultural entre las generaciones más jóvenes en China continental y la diáspora china para revivir y restablecer el hanfu como el representante genuino y ortodoxo dey la estética chinas , [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] en contraposición al qipao y tangzhuang de inspiración manchú y al traje de Mao inspirado en el uniforme escolar japonés ( gakuran ).

Hay varios estilos representativos de hanfu , como el ruqun (una falda larga que se lleva alta sobre la prenda superior), aoqun (una prenda superior con una enagua larga), beizi (un abrigo holgado y abierto por delante ) y shenyi ( túnica de una sola pieza ), [ 2 ] y el shanku (una prenda superior con pantalones ). [ 6 ] : 24 . Históricamente, el estilo formal más común de hanfu consiste en una túnica de manga ancha llamada paofu para hombres, o la combinación de una prenda superior llamada ru (chaqueta) con una prenda inferior llamada qun (falda) para mujeres. En casi todos estos estilos, al menos una de las prendas superiores, ya sea la prenda exterior o la prenda interior , tendrá cuellos cruzados (conocidos como jiaoling ) con el panel frontal izquierdo superpuesto al derecho y sujeto por una cinta anudada en la cintura derecha (conocida como youren ). Además de la ropa, el hanfu también incluye varias formas de tocados , calzado y accesorios como cinturones y hebillas , joyas , yupei y abanicos de mano . [ 2 ]

Como ocurre con muchas cosas tradicionales chinas, el hanfu deriva su nombre de la dinastía Han , la primera edad de oro de China con una esfera de influencia internacional . La prosperidad y estabilidad que duró siglos durante la dinastía Han permitió que el hanfu se desarrollara en una variedad de estilos debido a una serie de avances tecnológicos en la producción y el teñido de textiles , particularmente con los rápidos avances en la sericultura . [ 7 ] Debido al dominio histórico de China en el Lejano Oriente , el hanfu también ha influido en las modas tradicionales de muchos países vecinos dentro de la esfera cultural china , incluyendo el hanbok coreano , [ 8 ] el kimono japonés , [ 9 ] [ 10 ] el ryukyuan ryusou [ 11 ] [ 12 ] y el áo giao lĩnh vietnamita . [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Los elementos del diseño hanfu también han influido en la moda occidental , especialmente a través de la moda chinoiserie , debido a la popularidad de la chinoiserie en Europa y América del Norte desde el siglo XVII. [ 15 ]

Historia

Fragmento de seda de la era Han procedente de la tumba de Mawangdui , siglo II a. C.
Escultura mural de una tumba de la dinastía Han que representa al legendario Emperador Amarillo , quien se dice que vivió en el tercer milenio a. C.

El hanfu generalmente comprende todas las clasificaciones históricas de vestimenta de los chinos Han con una historia documentada de más de tres milenios. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Cada dinastía sucesiva produjo sus propios códigos de vestimenta distintivos, que reflejaban el entorno sociocultural de la época. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] La ropa hecha de seda se usaba inicialmente con fines decorativos y ceremoniales. Sin embargo, el cultivo de la seda impulsó el desarrollo del tejido , y para la época de la dinastía Han , se habían desarrollado el brocado , el damasco , el satén y la gasa . [ 20 ]

Desde el comienzo de su historia, el hanfu (especialmente en los círculos de élite) fue inseparable de la seda y el arte de la sericultura , supuestamente descubierto por la consorte del Emperador Amarillo , Leizu , quien también era venerada como la Diosa de la sericultura. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Incluso hay un dicho en el Libro de los Cambios que dice que: [ 23 ]

Huang Di, Yao y Shun simplemente vistieron sus prendas superiores e inferiores [衣裳; yī cháng ] (como modelos para el pueblo), y se aseguró el buen orden en todo el cielo.

El hanfu ha cambiado y evolucionado con la moda de cada época desde sus orígenes, comúnmente atribuidos a la dinastía Shang . Muchos de los diseños más antiguos son más neutros en cuanto al género y de corte más sencillo que los posteriores. Las prendas posteriores incorporan varias piezas, siendo los hombres quienes suelen usar pantalones y las mujeres, faldas. La ropa femenina generalmente acentúa las curvas naturales del cuerpo mediante el uso de solapas que se ajustan a la parte superior de la prenda o el uso de fajas en la cintura.

Desde la antigüedad, las prendas superiores ru del hanfu se usaban típicamente envueltas sobre el frente, en un estilo conocido como jiaoling youren ; el lado izquierdo cubría el derecho y se extendía hasta la cintura derecha del usuario. Inicialmente, este estilo se usaba debido a la costumbre de los diestros de envolver primero el lado derecho. Más tarde, la gente de la llanura central china desaconsejó el uso de la mano izquierda, considerándolo antinatural, bárbaro, incivilizado y desafortunado. El cuello youren sigue la teoría del yin y el yang , donde la solapa izquierda representa el yang (que simboliza la vida) que suprime el yin (que simboliza la muerte); por lo tanto, youren es la vestimenta de los vivos, mientras que si se usa de la manera opuesta en un estilo llamado zuoren , la vestimenta se convierte en vestimenta funeraria y, por lo tanto, se considera un tabú. [ 19 ] Zuoren también es utilizado por algunos grupos étnicos minoritarios en China. [ 24 ] [ 25 ]

Muchos factores contribuyeron a la moda de la antigua China : creencias, religiones, guerras y el gusto personal del emperador. [ 26 ] Tras la dinastía Qin , los colores utilizados en las leyes suntuarias de los chinos Han tenían un significado simbólico, basado en la teoría taoísta de los cinco elementos y la teoría del yin y el yang; cada dinastía favoreció ciertos colores. [ 27 ] Algunos elementos del Hanfu también fueron influenciados por la vestimenta de culturas vecinas, especialmente por los pueblos nómadas del norte y las culturas de Asia Central del oeste a través de la Ruta de la Seda . [ nota 1 ] [ 28 ] : 44–46 [ 29 ] [ 30 ] : 312

Dinastía Shang, segundo milenio a. C.

En China, la estructura sistémica de la vestimenta se desarrolló por primera vez durante la dinastía Shang , donde los colores, los diseños y las reglas que regían su uso se implementaron en todos los estratos sociales. [ 7 ] Debido al nivel tecnológico de la época, solo se utilizaban los colores primarios (es decir, rojo, azul y amarillo) y el verde. [ 31 ]

Los rudimentos del hanfu se desarrollaron en este período; la combinación de prendas superiores e inferiores, llamada yichang , se usaba generalmente con un bixi . [ 32 ] [ 33 ] [ 31 ] El jiaoling youren yi, un estilo de prenda superior, comenzó a usarse durante este período. [ 34 ] En invierno, se usaban chaquetas acolchadas. [ 31 ] El ku o jingyi , que eran pantalones hasta la rodilla atados a las pantorrillas pero que dejaban los muslos expuestos, se usaban debajo del chang . [ 35 ] Durante este período, este estilo de ropa era unisex. [ 31 ] Solo las personas ricas usaban seda; las personas pobres continuaron usando camisas sueltas y ku hechos de cáñamo o ramio . [ 31 ] Un ejemplo de vestimenta de la dinastía Shang se puede ver en una figurilla de jade antropomórfica excavada en la tumba de Fu Hao en Anyang , que muestra a una persona con un yi largo de mangas estrechas con una banda ancha que cubre la cintura y una falda debajo. [ 36 ] [ 37 ] [ 38 ] Esta vestimenta yichang parece haber sido diseñada para la clase aristocrática. [ 36 ]

Dinastía Zhou, 1046–256 a. C.

Gasa de seda del siglo IV a. C.; la industria serícola de la dinastía Zhou estaba muy avanzada.
Adorno de bronce para carro de la dinastía Zhou Occidental (c. siglo IX a. C.) que representa a un hombre con una túnica juling (矩领, "cuello cuadrado") y un tipo temprano de guan .

Tras la dinastía Shang, la dinastía Zhou Occidental estableció un nuevo sistema de etiqueta y ritos en la vestimenta, otorgándole un nuevo significado ceremonial, político y cultural. Esto vinculó la moda con los ritos y la cultura de su pueblo, sentando las bases de la ortodoxia Li (禮) del confucianismo , que dominó la cultura de Asia Oriental durante 2000 años. En referencia a esto, escritos ruistas como "El verdadero significado de Chunqiu - Zuo zhuan " de Kong Yingda sugieren que el término huaxia (華夏) se refería tanto a las normas ceremoniales de los estados centrales como a la vestimenta de sus habitantes. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] [ 42 ]

El principio de esta práctica fue la estandarización de un estilo de vestimenta llamado Shangyi Xiachang (上衣下裳, " parte superior y prenda inferior ", que significa separar las prendas superior e inferior en dos piezas). [ 43 ] [ 44 ] Aunque la moda evolucionó gradualmente y fue reemplazada por estilos como el shenyi , el Shangyi Xiachang se mantuvo como base para la vestimenta formal y ceremonial, como el mianfu y el chaofu . [ 45 ] Esto creó una sociedad jerárquica estricta que utilizaba la vestimenta como indicador de estatus, e inevitablemente, la altura del rango de una persona influía en la ornamentación de un traje. Los trajes también se distinguían por su uso ceremonial. Esto se convirtió en el antecedente del complejo sistema de vestimenta para todas las eras y dinastías posteriores. [ 24 ] [ 46 ] : 255–261 Por lo tanto, se otorgaba importancia a elementos como el guan y el mianfu , como se registra en los Ritos de Zhou y el Libro de los Ritos . [ 47 ] El guan se utilizaba para distinguir los rangos sociales; el uso del guan era una de las características distintivas del sistema Hanfu, y los hombres solo podían usarlo después de la ceremonia de la adultez conocida como Guan Li . [ 33 ] : 16 Otros marcadores de estatus incluían los materiales de la tela, la forma, el tamaño, el color de la ropa, el patrón decorativo, el largo de una falda, el ancho de una manga y el grado de ornamentación. [ 46 ] : 255–261 Había regulaciones estrictas sobre la vestimenta del emperador, los duques feudales, los altos funcionarios, los soldados, los adoradores de ancestros, las novias y los dolientes. [ 46 ] : 255–261 [ 48 ]

El mianfu era el tipo de vestimenta formal más distinguido, usado para ceremonias de culto y conmemoración; tenía una estructura compleja y había varias decoraciones que tenían un significado simbólico; había seis tipos jerarquizados de mianfu que eran usados ​​por emperadores, príncipes y funcionarios según sus títulos. [ 33 ] Los emperadores también usaban bianfu (solo superado por el mianfu ) cuando se reunían con funcionarios o si tenían que trabajar en asuntos oficiales. [ 33 ] Cuando el emperador no estaba en la corte, usaba el xuanduan . [ 46 ] : 255–261 [ 49 ] El xuanduan también podía ser usado por príncipes durante ocasiones de sacrificio y por eruditos que iban a presentar respeto a sus padres por la mañana. [ 33 ] El mianfu , el bianfu y el xuanduan consistían en cuatro partes separadas: una falda debajo, una túnica en el medio, un bixi encima y un cinturón largo de tela dadai ( chino :大带). [ 33 ] De manera similar a la dinastía Zhou Occidental, el código de vestimenta de la primera dinastía Zhou Oriental se regía por reglas estrictas que se utilizaban para mantener el orden social y distinguir las clases sociales. [ 36 ]

Además de estos desarrollos orientados a la clase, el hanfu diario en este período se volvió ligeramente más holgado, aunque manteniendo la forma básica de la dinastía Shang [ 24 ] en el uso del yichang . [ 50 ] Las mangas anchas y estrechas coexistían. El yi se cerraba con una faja que se ataba alrededor de la cintura; a veces se colgaban decoraciones de jade de la faja. [ 24 ] [ 51 ] El largo de las faldas y el ku podía variar desde hasta la rodilla hasta el suelo. [ 24 ] La gente común en la dinastía Zhou, incluidos los grupos minoritarios del suroeste de China, vestía ropa a base de cáñamo . [ 20 ]

La dinastía Zhou también formalizó el uso del ji por parte de las mujeres con una ceremonia de iniciación llamada Ji Li , que se realizaba después de que una joven se comprometiera y el uso del ji indicaba que ya estaba prometida en matrimonio. [ 52 ] Los hombres también podían usar el ji solo, sin embargo, era más común que lo usaran con el guan para sujetar el tocado. [ 53 ]

Este ritual marcaba una transición significativa de la niñez a la adultez, simbolizando la preparación de la mujer para el matrimonio y sus nuevas responsabilidades dentro de la sociedad. La evolución de estas horquillas, desde las sencillas Ji hasta las más elaboradas Zan, a menudo reflejaba cambios en los estilos dinásticos y el creciente arte de la joyería china. Materiales como el jade, el sándalo y los metales preciosos se elegían no solo por su atractivo estético, sino también por su significado cultural y simbólico, que representaba virtudes, conexión con la naturaleza o estatus. [1] [ 54 ]

Período de primavera y otoño, período de los Estados Combatientes

Figura de auriga con un juling paofu corto , dinastía Zhou Oriental .
Representación del siglo VIII de Confucio vistiendo lo que se consideraba la moda típica de la China preimperial.

Durante el período de Primavera y Otoño y el período de los Reinos Combatientes , surgieron numerosas escuelas de pensamiento en China, incluido el confucianismo ; estas diferentes escuelas de pensamiento influyeron naturalmente en el desarrollo de la vestimenta. [ 51 ] Además, debido a las frecuentes guerras ocurridas durante el período de los Reinos Combatientes, varias normas de etiqueta fueron revocadas lentamente. [ 55 ] El código de vestimenta de la dinastía Zhou Oriental comenzó a erosionarse a mediados del período de los Reinos Combatientes. [ 36 ] Más tarde, muchas regiones decidieron no seguir el sistema de la dinastía Zhou; la vestimenta durante este período se diferenció entre los siete estados principales (es decir, los estados de Chu , Han , Qin , Wei , Yan , Qi y Zhao ). [ 7 ] [ 46 ] : 255–261 [ 55 ] Además, el año 307 a. C. también marcó un año importante con la primera reforma del uniforme militar implementada por el rey Wuling de Zhao . Esta reforma, comúnmente conocida como Hufuqishe , exigía que todos los soldados Zhao vistieran los uniformes de estilo Hufu de los pueblos Donghu , Linhu y Loufan en la batalla para facilitar la capacidad de combate. [ 33 ] [ 46 ] : 257 [ 56 ] Luego se introdujo el hedangku con una elevación suelta. [ 33 ] [ 35 ] [ 57 ]

Según los artefactos arqueológicos que datan de la dinastía Zhou Oriental, los hombres comunes, campesinos y trabajadores, vestían un youren yi largo con mangas estrechas, con una banda estrecha de seda llamada sitao ( chino :丝套) anudada en la cintura por encima. [ 36 ] [ 50 ] El youren yi también se usaba con ku (en un estilo generalmente conocido como shanku ) para permitir una mayor facilidad de movimiento, pero estaba hecho de tela lisa en lugar de tela de seda. [ 36 ] El shanku de este período también influyó en el Hufu . [ 36 ] Las figuras aristocráticas no usaban ese tipo de ropa, sin embargo, usaban paofu largo de mangas más anchas que se ceñía a la cintura con un cinturón; un ejemplo se puede ver en las figuras de madera de una tumba del período de los Reinos Combatientes de Xingyang . [ nota 2 ] [ 36 ] [ 50 ] Los cierres youren se podían encontrar en diferentes formas, como jiaoling youren y quju youren . [ 36 ]

También parece que se usaban faldas durante el período de los Reinos Combatientes según artefactos arqueológicos y figuras de bronce esculpidas, [ 58 ] y se usaban en el shanqun o ruqun . [ nota 3 ] [ 59 ] Un ejemplo arqueológico de una figura de bronce que usa shanqun es el guerrero armado de bronce que sostiene campanas de la tumba del marqués Yi de Zeng . [ 59 ] También se encontró una falda de color amarillo oscuro, que data del final del período de los Reinos Combatientes, en la tumba de Chu (M1) en el sitio de Mashan en el condado de Jiangling , provincia de Hubei . [ 60 ] [ 61 ] [ 62 ]

Durante el período de los Reinos Combatientes, también se desarrolló el shenyi . [ 63 ] : 9–14 [ 46 ] Se encontró que el qujupao , un tipo de shenyi que se envolvía en un efecto espiral y tenía mangas más amplias, era usado por figurillas de tumbas del mismo período. [ 6 ] : 24 [ 64 ] La ropa desenterrada de tumbas muestra que el shenyi era usado por aristócratas en el estado de Chu. [ 65 ] El aumento de popularidad del shenyi puede haberse debido en parte a la influencia del confucianismo. [ 24 ] El shenyi siguió siendo la forma dominante del Hanfu desde la dinastía Zhou hasta la dinastía Qin y posteriormente hasta la dinastía Han . [ 66 ] [ 46 ] : 255–261

Dinastía Qin

Una figura arrodillada vestida con shenyi o jiaolingpao , dinastía Qin.

Aunque la dinastía Qin fue efímera, estableció una serie de sistemas que impactaron enormemente a las generaciones posteriores. Tras la unificación de los siete estados, el emperador Qin Shihuang ordenó a su pueblo, sin importar la distancia ni la clase social, que siguiera una serie de regulaciones en todos los aspectos culturales, incluyendo la vestimenta. [ 46 ] Por lo tanto, el estilo de vestimenta en Qin era unitario. [ 67 ] La dinastía Qin adoptó un sistema de vestimenta de colores, que estipulaba que las personas que ocupaban un puesto superior (funcionarios de tercer rango y superiores) usaban shenyi verde , mientras que la gente común usaba shenyi blanco normal . [ 68 ] : 183 [ 33 ] Los chinos Han usaban el shenyi como vestimenta formal y se usaba junto con un guan y zapatos. [ 33 ] : 16 La dinastía Qin también abolió el sistema de rangos mianfu de la dinastía Zhou , reemplazándolo con un tipo uniforme de shenyi negro llamado junxuan (袀玄) [後漢書 1 ] y tongtianguan en lugar del mianguan para el emperador, [ 69 ] [ 70 ] con los funcionarios haciendo el mismo uso y vistiendo las mismas túnicas negras. [ 6 ] : 24 [ 68 ] : 183 En la corte, los funcionarios usaban sombreros, túnicas sueltas con cuchillos de tallar colgando de la cintura, sosteniendo hu y colocando el pincel de tinta entre la cabeza y las orejas. [ 6 ] : 24 [ 68 ] : 183 Hubo un aumento en la popularidad de las túnicas con mangas grandes con cordones en los puños entre los hombres. [ 6 ] : 24 [ 68 ] : 183

En tiempos normales, los hombres vestían ruku mientras que las mujeres vestían ruqun . [ 33 ] : 16 A los comerciantes, independientemente de su riqueza, nunca se les permitía usar ropa hecha de seda. [ 71 ] Los plebeyos y los trabajadores vestían jiaolingpao con mangas estrechas, pantalones y faldas; se trenzaban el cabello o simplemente usaban gorros y pañuelos. [ 6 ] : 23–33 [ 68 ] : 183 [ 60 ] La confección de diferentes tipos de qun (; ' falda ' ; llamada xie () en la dinastía Qin), shangru (上襦; ' chaqueta ' ), daru (大襦; ' prenda de abrigo ' ) y pantalones ku está registrada en una hoja de bambú de la dinastía Qin llamada Zhiyi (制衣; ' Confección de ropa ' ). [ 60 ] [ 61 ] El Ejército de Terracota también muestra las diferencias entre la vestimenta de soldados y oficiales, donde las élites usaban túnicas largas mientras que todos los plebeyos usaban chaquetas más cortas; también usaban tocados que iban desde simples pañuelos para la cabeza hasta gorras oficiales formales. [ 72 ] Los jinetes de caballería también fueron representados con chaquetas de manga larga hasta la cadera y pantalones acolchados. [ 72 ]

dinastía Han

Figurillas de banquetes y danzas al estilo Han Shenyi ; la coloración se ha deteriorado en su mayor parte; siglo II a. C.
La sericultura y el bordado de seda alcanzaron un nuevo nivel en el Han.
Seda con intrincados motivos dibujados a mano; Mawangdui , siglo II a. C.

Para la época de la dinastía Han , el shenyi seguía siendo popular y se desarrolló aún más en dos tipos: qujupao y zhijupao . [ 63 ] : 9–14 Las túnicas parecían similares, independientemente del género, en corte y confección: un cierre envolvente, sujeto por un cinturón o una faja, con mangas grandes fruncidas en un puño más estrecho; sin embargo, la tela, los colores y los adornos de las túnicas eran diferentes entre los géneros. [ 56 ] Sin embargo, más tarde, durante la dinastía Han Oriental , muy pocas personas usaban shenyi . [ 73 ]

Al comienzo de la dinastía Han, no había restricciones en la vestimenta que usaba la gente común. [ 7 ] Durante la dinastía Han Occidental , los edictos imperiales sobre el uso de la vestimenta general no eran lo suficientemente específicos como para ser restrictivos para la gente, y no se aplicaron en gran grado. [ 7 ] La vestimenta simplemente difería de acuerdo con las estaciones: azul o verde para la primavera, rojo para el verano, amarillo para el otoño y negro para el invierno. [ 7 ] [ 48 ] [ 63 ] : 4 Fue el emperador Ming de Han quien formalizó el código de vestimenta de la dinastía Han en el 59 d. C., durante la dinastía Han Oriental, restaurando el uso ceremonial del sistema mianfu del junxuan anterior de la dinastía Qin. [ 46 ] : 255–261 [後漢書 2 ] Según el nuevo código de vestimenta, el emperador debía vestir una prenda superior de color negro y una prenda inferior de color amarillo ocre. [ 46 ] : 255–261 El ShangshuYiji《尚书益稷》registra los 12 ornamentos utilizados en las vestimentas sacrificiales que se usaban para diferenciar los rangos sociales en tiempos anteriores. [ 74 ] [ 75 ] Además, se especificaron regulaciones sobre los ornamentos utilizados por emperadores, consejeros, duques, príncipes, ministros y funcionarios. [ 46 ] : 255–261 [ 74 ] Había estilos de vestimenta distintos basados ​​en los rangos sociales, estas regulaciones estaban acompañadas de rituales confucianos. [ 67 ] Diferentes tipos de tocados, tejidos y materiales de tela, así como cintas unidas a los sellos de los funcionarios, también se usaban para distinguir a los funcionarios. [ 33 ] : 16 [ 67 ] El sello oficial se colocaba en una bolsa de cuero, se ponía en la cintura de quien lo portaba y la cinta, que venía en diferentes colores, tamaños y texturas para indicar el rango, colgaba fuera de la bolsa. [ 67 ]

A lo largo de los años, las mujeres de la dinastía Han también solían usar ruqun de varios colores. [ 7 ] La combinación de prendas superiores e inferiores en el vestuario femenino acabó convirtiéndose en el modelo de vestimenta de la etnia Han de las generaciones posteriores. [ 63 ] : 4 Durante las dinastías Qin y Han, las mujeres usaban faldas compuestas de cuatro piezas de tela cosidas; a menudo se les unía un cinturón, pero a veces las mujeres usaban un cinturón aparte. [ 51 ] : 36

Los agricultores, trabajadores, comerciantes y eruditos varones vestían de manera similar durante la dinastía Han; los trabajadores varones usaban chaquetas , delantales y dubikun o polainas. [ 35 ] [ 73 ] [ 56 ] Las chaquetas que usaban los hombres que realizaban trabajos físicos se describen como una versión más corta del zhijupao y se usaban con pantalones. [ 51 ] [ 56 ] El jingyi continuó usándose en el período temprano de la dinastía Han; otras formas de pantalones en este período fueron el dakouku y el dashao ; ambos se desarrollaron a partir del hedangku de tiro holgado introducido por el rey Wuling. [ 35 ] Los hombres en la dinastía Han también usaban un pañuelo o un guan en la cabeza. [ 68 ] : 181–203 El guan se usaba como símbolo de estatus más alto y solo podían usarlo personas de distinguido origen. [ 68 ] : 181–203 [ 33 ] : 16 Los emperadores usaban tongtianguan (通天冠) cuando se reunían con sus súbditos imperiales, los duques y príncipes usaban yuanyouguan (遠遊冠); los funcionarios civiles usaban jinxianguan (進賢冠) mientras que los funcionarios militares usaban wuguan (武冠). [ 33 ] : 16 El pañuelo era una prenda que se envolvía alrededor de la cabeza y simbolizaba el estatus de adulto en los hombres. [ 68 ] : 181–203 Una forma de pañuelo era ze (帻); era una diadema que mantenía la cabeza caliente durante el clima frío. Con el tiempo, el ze se unió a una bufanda que cubría la cabeza, o jin (巾), y se desarrolló en un gorro completo llamado jinze (巾帻). [後漢書 3 ] El jinze se adoptó para un uso generalizado y era usado comúnmente por personal militar y plebeyos. El jinze militar era de color rojo, también llamado chize (赤帻). Otra variante con una parte superior en forma de techo llamada jieze (介帻) es usada por funcionarios públicos, generalmente de color negro verdoso hasta las estaciones de verano. [ 76 ] [後漢書 4 ]Los hombres y las mujeres también vestían una túnica larga y forrada llamada paofu . [ 63 ] : 12–13

Cuando el budismo llegó a China durante el último período de la dinastía Han, comenzaron a producirse las túnicas de los monjes budistas. [ 26 ] [ 72 ] La vestimenta usada en la dinastía Han sentó las bases para el desarrollo de la indumentaria en las dinastías posteriores. [ 51 ]

Los adornos y joyas, como anillos, pendientes, pulseras, collares, horquillas y palillos para el cabello, eran de uso común en China durante la dinastía Han. [ 78 ] : 384–417 [ 79 ] Los palillos para el cabello originales , los ji, evolucionaron a zanzi con más decoraciones. [ 80 ] Y un nuevo tipo de adorno para el cabello femenino inventado durante la dinastía Han fue el buyao , que era un zanzi al que se le añadieron adornos colgantes que se balanceaban cuando la usuaria caminaba y era exclusivo de las mujeres chinas Han. [ 78 ] : 384–417 [ 81 ] [後漢書 7 ]

Tres Reinos, dinastía Jin

El paofu usado en la dinastía Han continuó evolucionando. Durante este período, 220–589 d. C., la túnica se volvió suelta en el cuerpo del usuario, por lo que se usó una banda ancha que funcionaba como cinturón para organizar el ajuste, y las mangas de la túnica cambiaron a "ampliamente abiertas" en lugar de ceñidas en la muñeca; este estilo se conoce como bao yi bo dai , y generalmente se usaba con camisa y pantalones interiores. [ 63 ] [ 30 ] : 312–330 [ 56 ] En algunos casos, la parte superior de la túnica era suelta y abierta sin prenda interior; hombres que usaban este estilo de túnica fueron representados en la pintura Los siete sabios del bosque de bambú . [ 30 ] : 312–330 El estilo bao yi bo dai parece haber sido un estilo chino Han del norte, y la popularidad de la túnica fue resultado del taoísmo generalizado . [ 30 ] : 312–330 [ 51 ] En la dinastía Jin , en particular, si bien se mantuvieron muchas prendas de vestir de la dinastía Han, los eruditos y los seguidores del neotaoísmo rechazaron la vestimenta tradicional de la corte y se alejaron del rígido sistema confuciano; esto se manifestó en cómo se vestían. [ 82 ] El estilo del paofu de los hombres cambió gradualmente a un estilo más simple e informal, mientras que el estilo del paofu de las mujeres aumentó en complejidad. [ 63 ] Durante el período de los Tres Reinos y Jin, especialmente durante el período Jin Oriental (317 – 420 d. C.), las mujeres aristocráticas buscaron un estilo de vida despreocupado después del colapso del código ético de la dinastía Han Oriental ; este tipo de estilo de vida influyó en el desarrollo de la vestimenta femenina, que se volvió más elaborada. [ 63 ] La vestimenta típica de las mujeres durante este período es el guiyi , un paofu de mangas anchas adornado con xian (髾; largas cintas de seda onduladas) y shao (襳; un tipo de piezas triangulares de tela decorativa bordada) en el dobladillo inferior de la túnica que colgaban como estandartes y formaban un "efecto de capas". [ 83 ] [ 63 ] [ 84 ] [ 85 ] La túnica se siguió usando en elDinastías del Norte y del Sur, tanto hombres como mujeres, como se puede apreciar en el biombo lacado hallado en la tumba de Sima Jinlong, de la dinastía Wei del Norte (ca. 483 d. C.); sin embargo, se introdujeron algunas modificaciones menores en la túnica, como una cintura más alta y las mangas generalmente se dejaban abiertas con un vuelo dramático. [ 56 ]

Los zapatos usados ​​durante este período incluían (履; zapatos regulares para ocasiones formales), ji (屐; zuecos altos de madera para uso informal) y zapatos con puntas que se curvaban hacia arriba. [ 30 ] : 312–330 [ 79 ] Los zapatos con puntas curvadas hacia arriba se convertirían más tarde en una moda muy popular en la dinastía Tang. [ 79 ] Las botas de cuero (靴, xue ), quekua (缺胯; una túnica de cuello abierto con mangas ajustadas; no puede cubrir la camisa interior), capucha y conjunto de capa fueron introducidos por los nómadas del norte en China. [ 30 ] : 312–330 Los inventarios de tumbas encontrados durante este período incluyen: fangyi (方衣; prenda cuadrada), shan (衫; camisa), qun , hanshan (汗衫; sudadera), ru (襦; chaqueta forrada), ku (裤), kun (裈), liangdang (两裆; chaleco), ao (袄; chaqueta forrada de varias capas), xi (褶; un tipo de chaqueta), bixi ; Mientras que el estilo de ropa de las mujeres era generalmente ruqun (chaqueta forrada con falda larga) y shanqun (衫裙; camisa con falda larga), los estilos de ropa de los hombres son túnicas, shanku y xiku (褶裤; chaqueta con pantalones). [ 30 ] : 312–330 Durante este período, aparecieron los sombreros de gasa negra con la parte superior plana y una oreja a cada lado, que fueron populares tanto para hombres como para mujeres. [ 51 ]

Aunque tenían su propia identidad cultural, las dinastías Cao Wei (220–266 d. C.) y Jin Occidental (266–316 d. C.) continuaron el legado cultural de la dinastía Han. [ 78 ] : 384–417 La vestimenta durante la era de los Tres Reinos y la vestimenta en la dinastía Jin (266–420 d. C.) tenían aproximadamente las mismas formas básicas que la dinastía Han con características especiales en sus estilos; la vestimenta principal usada durante esos tiempos es: ruqun (chaqueta y falda), ku y qiu (裘; un abrigo de piel). [ 87 ] Durante este período, las élites generalmente usaban paofu mientras que los campesinos usaban shanku que consistía en chaquetas cortas y ku. [ 6 ] : 23–33 Los plebeyos varones usaban vestimenta similar a la que usaban los plebeyos varones de la dinastía Han; los artefactos arqueológicos de este período representan a plebeyos varones usando una chaqueta youren de manga larga hasta la rodilla ; El peinado del hombre suele ser un moño o una gorra plana que se usa para cubrir la cabeza. [ 30 ] : 312–330 Las mujeres plebeyas se vestían de manera similar a sus contrapartes masculinas, pero su chaqueta a veces se representaba más larga; también usaban faldas o pantalones largos. Los asistentes (que no deben confundirse con los sirvientes), por otro lado, se representan con dos capas de ropa y llevaban una falda larga que llegaba al suelo con una chaqueta de mangas largas y fluidas. [ 30 ] : 312–330 La chaqueta a veces se cierra con un cinturón o un broche. [ 30 ] : 312–330 El color blanco era el color que usaba la gente común durante el período de los Tres Reinos y el período Jin. [ 87 ] La ropa de estilo plebeyo de este período se puede ver en la pintura de ladrillos de Jiayuguan . [ 30 ] : 312–330

El dakouku siguió siendo popular. [ 35 ] Los dakouku que se ataban con cuerdas en las rodillas también se llamaban fuku . Durante la dinastía Jin Occidental , era popular usar un cordón de fieltro para atar el dakouku. [ 30 ] : 312–330 [ 56 ] Se usaba con una túnica ajustada acolchada de algodón hasta la rodilla como un conjunto de vestimenta llamado kuzhe . [ 35 ] El kuzhe era un estilo de vestimenta muy popular durante las dinastías del Norte y del Sur y era un Hanfu creado por la asimilación de culturas chinas no Han. [ 35 ] También se diseñaron nuevas formas de cinturones con hebillas, denominadas "estilo Jin", durante la dinastía Jin Occidental. [ 78 ] : 384–417 Los cinturones "estilo Jin" se exportaron posteriormente a varias etnias extranjeras (incluidos los Murong Xianbei , el Reino de Buyeo , los primeros turcos y los ávaros euroasiáticos ); Estos cinturones fueron posteriormente imitados por los Murong Xianbei y Buyeo antes de evolucionar hacia los cinturones dorados de desfile con correas metálicas colgantes de Goguryeo y Silla . [ 78 ] : 384–417

Dieciséis reinos, dinastías del norte y del sur

Ruqun, de una tumba de la dinastía Qin anterior.

Debido a las frecuentes guerras de esta época, se produjo una migración masiva que dio lugar a la convivencia de varias etnias y al intercambio de comunicaciones; por lo tanto, este período marcó una época importante de integración y fusión cultural, incluido el intercambio cultural de vestimenta. [ 68 ] : 181–203 [ 88 ] Los chinos Han que vivían en el sur preferían la vestimenta de conducción de las minorías del norte, pantalones y xi (褶; una chaqueta larga ajustada de manga ceñida, que llegaba por debajo de la entrepierna y por encima de las rodillas), mientras que los gobernantes de las minorías del norte preferían la vestimenta de la corte de los chinos Han. [ 33 ] Cerca de las zonas del río Amarillo , la popularidad del hufu de las minorías étnicas era alta, casi igual a la vestimenta de los chinos Han, en el período de los Dieciséis Reinos y las dinastías del Norte y del Sur . [ 46 ]

Liangdang (两裆;兩襠) es un tipo de camisa interior o chaleco que se usaba en el norte de China durante el período de los Dieciséis Reinos; [ 89 ] [ 90 ] no debe confundirse con un tipo de armadura de coraza de doble cara , también llamada liangdang , que se usaba durante este período. [ 30 ] : 333–334

Durante las dinastías del Norte y del Sur, el estilo de vestir siguió el estilo de los Tres Reinos y la dinastía Jin; se usaban túnicas, faldas, pantalones, chaquetas cortas, chaquetas sin mangas mientras que los abrigos de piel, especialmente los de marta, eran muy raros. [ 91 ] A los jóvenes les gustaba vestir pantalones; sin embargo, no era bien visto que las mujeres usaran pantalones; las mujeres usaban faldas. [ 91 ] Basándose en figuras de tumbas que datan de las dinastías del Sur, se sabe que las túnicas usadas durante ese período continuaron la tradición de mangas largas y anchas, con abertura youren . [ 79 ] Las túnicas continuaron siendo sujetas con un cinturón y se usaban sobre una prenda interior de cuello recto. [ 79 ] Las figuras de tumbas representadas como sirvientes en este período también se muestran usando faldas, delantales, pantalones y prendas superiores con abertura vertical o abertura youren . [ 79 ] Los sirvientes vestían prendas superiores de mangas estrechas, mientras que los asistentes llevaban mangas más anchas que podían anudarse por encima de la muñeca. [ 79 ] La vestimenta de la corte seguía siendo xuanyi (玄衣; tela oscura); sin embargo, existían regulaciones en cuanto a los materiales de tela utilizados. [ 91 ]

En las dinastías del norte (386 - 581 d. C.), las mujeres comunes siempre usaban chaquetas y abrigos cortos. [ 91 ] La etnia Xianbei fundó la dinastía Wei del Norte en 398 d. C. y continuó usando su vestimenta nómada tribal tradicional para denotar que eran miembros de la élite gobernante hasta c. 494 d. C. cuando el emperador Xiaowen de Wei del Norte decretó una prohibición de la vestimenta Xianbei entre muchas otras prohibiciones de la cultura Xianbei (por ejemplo, el idioma, los apellidos Xianbei) como una forma de políticas de sinización y permitió el matrimonio mixto entre las élites Xianbei y chinas. [ 18 ] [ 24 ] [ 93 ] [ 94 ] El Wei shu incluso afirmó que los gobernantes Xianbei eran descendientes del Emperador Amarillo , al igual que los chinos Han, a pesar de no ser chinos. [ 94 ] El Wei shu también registra que el emperador Xiaowen de Wei del Norte promovió túnicas largas de estilo chino y coronas oficiales en la corte para mostrar el rango del portador y su posición jerárquica en la corte y las funciones rituales. [ 95 ] Por ejemplo, tanto los mecenas masculinos como femeninos aparecieron con atuendos de estilo Xianbei durante el siglo V d. C., esto se puede ver particularmente en los templos de las cuevas de Yungang cerca de Datong y en las tallas más antiguas en Longmen , mientras que en el primer tercio del siglo VI, los mecenas tienden a aparecer con ropa de estilo chino en la mayoría de las cuevas de Wei del Norte en Longmen; se ha sugerido que este cambio en el estilo de vestimenta es el resultado de las políticas de sinización con respecto a la adopción de la vestimenta de estilo chino en la corte de Wei del Norte. [ 56 ] [ 78 ] : 384–417 Las primeras imágenes de la vestimenta nómada de estilo Xianbei en China tienden a ser representadas como una túnica hasta la rodilla con mangas estrechas, con una abertura frontal, que puede ser típicamente sin cuello, con cuello redondo y, a veces, con cuello en V; los hombres y las mujeres tienden a usar esa túnica hasta la rodilla sobre pantalones en el caso de los hombres y faldas largas hasta el suelo en el caso de las mujeres. [ 56 ] [ 94 ] [ 96 ] Cuando sus túnicas tenían solapas, la abertura de la solapa era típicamente zuoren. [ 78 ] : 384–417 [ 97 ] La gente Xianbei también usaba capas de estilo Xianbei y sombrero xianbei (鮮卑帽; xianbei mao). [ 30] : 312–330 [ 94 ]

A pesar de las políticas de sinización intentadas por la corte de Wei del Norte , la vestimenta de estilo nómada continuó existiendo en China hasta la dinastía Tang . [ 30 ] : 312–330 [ 99 ] Por ejemplo, las mangas estrechas y ajustadas, que se adaptaban bien al estilo de vida nómada, comenzaron a ser favorecidas y fueron adoptadas por los chinos Han. [ 30 ] : 424 En el templo Shuiyusi de las cuevas de Xiangtangshan que datan de las dinastías del norte, los fieles varones suelen vestir atuendos de estilo Xianbei, mientras que las mujeres visten atuendos de estilo chino Han con faldas y túnicas de cintura alta, de estilo envolvente con mangas anchas. [ 56 ] Además, después de la caída de Wei del Norte, comenzaron a aumentar las tensiones entre Wei Occidental (que estaba más sinizado) y Wei Oriental (que estaba menos sinizado y resentía la corte sinizada de Wei del Norte). [ 99 ] Debido al cambio político, surgieron tensiones étnicas entre chinos Han y no Han en los estados sucesores de Wei del Norte; [ 99 ] y reapareció la vestimenta de estilo Xianbei; sin embargo, su vestimenta sufrió cambios menores. [ 78 ] : 384–417

Al final de las dinastías del Norte y del Sur, los inmigrantes extranjeros comenzaron a establecerse en China; la mayoría de estos inmigrantes extranjeros eran comerciantes y misioneros budistas de Asia Central. [ 100 ] La diversidad cultural también fue la característica más llamativa en China en el siglo VI d. C. [ 99 ] En las pinturas murales encontradas en la tumba de Xu Xianxiu de Qi del Norte , se representan varios tipos de vestimenta que reflejan el internacionalismo y el multiculturalismo de Qi del Norte; muchos de los estilos de vestimenta derivan de Asia Central o diseños nómadas. [ 101 ] La esposa de Xu Xianxiu está representada con un moño de pájaro volando ; lleva un atuendo chino Han de cuello cruzado y mangas anchas que tiene el diseño básico de la vestimenta de la dinastía Han con algunos diseños alterados, como una cintura alta y un cuello alto ancho. [ 56 ] [ 101 ] Xu Xianxiu es representado vistiendo un abrigo de estilo de Asia Central, túnica de estilo Xianbei, pantalones y botas. [ 56 ] [ 101 ] Algunas de las sirvientas representadas en los murales de la tumba de Xu Xianxiu visten lo que parecen ser vestidos sogdianos, que tienden a asociarse con bailarinas y artistas de bajo estatus durante este período, mientras que las damas de compañía de la esposa de Xu Xianxiu visten ropa de manga estrecha que se parece más a la ropa de estilo Xianbei o de Asia Central; sin embargo, este estilo de vestimenta Xianbei es diferente de las representaciones de la vestimenta de estilo Xianbei usada antes del 500 d.C. [ 56 ] [ 101 ] Los hombres (es decir, soldados, mozos de cuadra y asistentes masculinos) en las pinturas murales de la tumba de Xu Xianxiu se representan con botas altas negras o marrones, cinturones, tocados y ropa que sigue el estilo Xianbei, es decir, cuello en V, túnica larga que llega por debajo de la rodilla, con la solapa izquierda del frente cubriendo la derecha; también se representan túnicas de manga estrecha que se usan sobre una prenda interior de cuello redondo. [ 56 ] [ 101 ] El estilo de falda de cintura alta, que probablemente provino de Asia Central, también se introdujo a los chinos Han durante la dinastía Wei del Norte. [ 102 ]

Cabe destacar que se produjeron cambios significativos en la forma de las prendas introducidas originalmente por los Xianbei y otros pueblos túrquicos que se asentaron en el norte de China tras la caída de la dinastía Han ; por ejemplo, en las artes y la literatura del siglo V, la vestimenta masculina parecía representar la etnia de quien la llevaba, pero en el siglo VI, la indumentaria perdió su significado étnico y dejó de identificar a quien la vestía como Xianbei o no chino. [ 56 ] En cambio, la vestimenta nómada se convirtió en un tipo de vestimenta masculina común durante las dinastías Sui y principios de la Tang , independientemente de la etnia. [ 56 ] [ 103 ] Por otro lado, las mujeres Xianbei abandonaron gradualmente su vestimenta étnica Xianbei y adoptaron la vestimenta de estilo chino Han y de Asia Central, hasta el punto de que, para la dinastía Sui, las mujeres en China ya no usaban vestimenta de la estepa . [ 103 ]

Período de las dinastías Sui y Tang, el período de las Cinco Dinastías y el período de los Diez Reinos.

Las dinastías Sui y Tang desarrollaron el pinsefu (品色服), un sistema de clasificación por colores de la vestimenta para diferenciar el rango social; este sistema de clasificación por colores para la vestimenta continuó desarrollándose en las dinastías posteriores. [ 104 ] [ 105 ]

Dinastía Sui

Tras la unificación de China bajo la dinastía Sui , la corte Sui abolió los rituales de Zhou del Norte y adoptó los rituales, prácticas e ideas de las dinastías Han y Cao Wei , y se restauró el código de vestimenta de la dinastía Han. [ 63 ] [ 99 ] El sistema Sui también se basó en el sistema de Jin Occidental y Qi del Norte . [ 106 ] El primer emperador de Sui, el emperador Gaozu , vestía tongtianfu en grandes ocasiones, gunyi (衮衣; túnica del dragón ) en ritos suburbanos y visitas al templo ancestral. [ 106 ] También estableció el color rojo como el color autoritario de las túnicas imperiales de la corte; esto incluía la vestimenta de los emperadores y la vestimenta ceremonial de los príncipes. [ 107 ] El carmesí era el color de la vestimenta marcial (es decir, guardias de cámara, guardias marciales, generales y duques generales) mientras que los sirvientes vestían ropa púrpura, que consistía en capucha y pantalones holgados. [ 107 ] Durante el reinado del emperador Gaozu, la vestimenta oficial de la corte era similar a la de los plebeyos, excepto que era de color amarillo. [ 106 ] Los censores de la corte durante el reinado del emperador Gaozu vestían el quefeiguan . [ 106 ]

El emperador Yangdi reformó posteriormente el código de vestimenta de acuerdo con las antiguas costumbres y se hicieron nuevos conjuntos de ropa imperial. [ 106 ] En 605 d. C., se decretó que los funcionarios de rango superior al quinto debían vestir de carmesí o púrpura, y en 611 d. C., cualquier funcionario que acompañara al emperador en una expedición debía usar ropa marcial. [ 107 ] En 610 d. C., el atuendo kuzhe usado por los funcionarios acompañantes durante las expediciones imperiales fue reemplazado por el atuendo rongyi (戎衣). [ 106 ] El emperador Yangdi también usó varios tipos de tocados imperiales, como wubian , baishamao (白紗帽; gorro de gasa blanca ) y wushamao . [ 106 ] Los funcionarios civiles usaban jinxianguan , y el wushamao era popular y lo usaban desde funcionarios de la corte hasta plebeyos. [ 106 ] El quefeiguan también fue reemplazado por el xiezhiguan , que también podía usarse para denotar el rango del censor según el material utilizado. [ 106 ]

Durante la dinastía Sui, un decreto imperial que regulaba el color de la ropa establecía que la clase baja solo podía usar ropa azul o negra apagada; la clase alta, por otro lado, podía usar colores más brillantes, como el rojo y el azul. [ 108 ] Las mujeres usaban ruqun, que consistía en chaquetas cortas y faldas largas. [ 63 ] Las faldas de las mujeres se caracterizaban por tener una cintura alta que creaba una silueta similar a los vestidos del Imperio de la Francia napoleónica ; sin embargo, la confección del conjunto difería de los usados ​​en los países occidentales, ya que el conjunto de las mujeres chinas Han consistía en una falda y una prenda superior separadas que mostraban un escote bajo. [ 6 ] : 23–33 En este período, los hombres comunes ya no usaban faldas. [ 109 ]

Rollo de los Trece Emperadores (歷代帝王圖), que representa a emperadores con sus vestimentas reales completas a lo largo de varias dinastías antes y después de la dinastía Sui.

Dinastía Tang y período de las Cinco Dinastías y los Diez Reinos

El emperador Taizong de la dinastía Tang, con un atuendo de la época influenciada por la cultura Xianbei . El propio Taizong era mestizo Xianbei .

Muchos elementos de las tradiciones de vestimenta de la dinastía Tang fueron heredados de la dinastía Sui. [ 68 ] : 181–203 Durante la dinastía Tang, las túnicas y camisas de color amarillo estaban reservadas para los emperadores; una tradición que se mantuvo hasta la dinastía Qing . [ 68 ] : 181–203 Además, a los súbditos de la dinastía Tang se les prohibió usar el color amarillo ocre , ya que el emperador Gaozu usó este color para su vestimenta informal. [ 68 ] : 181–203 [ 107 ] El guan fue reemplazado por el futou . [ 33 ] Los eruditos y funcionarios usaban el futou junto con el Panling Lanshan . [ 110 ] Los colores de la ropa y los materiales de la tela continuaron jugando un papel en la diferenciación de rangos; por ejemplo, los funcionarios de los tres niveles superiores y los príncipes tenían que usar túnicas púrpuras; los funcionarios por encima del quinto nivel tenían que usar túnicas rojas; Los funcionarios del sexto y séptimo nivel debían usar túnicas verdes; y los funcionarios del octavo y noveno nivel debían usar túnicas cian. [ 33 ] [ 68 ] : 181–203 Los emblemas de dragones con tres garras también comenzaron a representarse en la vestimenta de los funcionarios de la corte de rangos superiores al tercero y en la vestimenta de los príncipes; estas túnicas de dragones se documentaron por primera vez en el año 694 d. C. durante el reinado de la emperatriz Wu Zetian . [ 111 ] : 33 La gente común vestía de blanco y los soldados de negro. [ 33 ]

Fragmento de una pintura de Yan Liben que representa a eruditos-funcionarios vistiendo futou y yuanlingpao, prendas típicas de la moda de la dinastía Tang.
Damas de la corte con tocados florales, siglo VII

La vestimenta común de las mujeres en la dinastía Tang incluía shan (衫; un abrigo largo o blusa larga), ru (襦; un suéter corto), banbi , pibo (披帛) y qun (裙; una falda generalmente ancha y suelta que llegaba casi hasta los tobillos). El pibo (披帛), también conocido como pei (帔) en la dinastía Tang, es una bufanda larga de seda; sin embargo, no se usa para cubrir el cuello, a veces cubre los hombros y otras veces simplemente cuelga de los codos. [ 46 ] [ 112 ] [ 113 ] [ 114 ] Independientemente del estatus social, las mujeres en la dinastía Tang tienden a vestirse con ropa de 3 partes: la prenda superior, la falda y el pibo (披帛). [ 46 ] Durante la dinastía Tang, había 4 tipos de cintura para las faldas de las mujeres: cintura natural; cintura baja; cintura alta que llegaba hasta el busto; y cintura alta por encima del busto, que podía crear diferentes tipos de siluetas femeninas y reflejaba las imágenes ideales de las mujeres de este período. [ 115 ] Este conjunto al estilo de la dinastía Tang reaparecería varias veces incluso después de la dinastía Tang, especialmente durante la dinastía Ming , e influiría en el hanbok coreano . [ 72 ]

La vestimenta femenina a principios de la dinastía Tang era bastante similar a la de la dinastía Sui; la prenda superior era una chaqueta corta de manga corta con escote pronunciado; la prenda inferior era una falda ajustada que generalmente se ataba por encima de la cintura, pero a veces hasta las axilas, y se envolvía un pañuelo alrededor de los hombros. [ 6 ] : 23–33 [ 116 ] [ 117 ] El banbi se usaba comúnmente sobre una blusa lisa y se usaba junto con una falda de talle alto, a rayas o de un solo color en línea A en el siglo VII. [ 114 ] Las faldas de color rojo fueron muy populares durante la dinastía Tang. [ 7 ] : 5

Damas de la corte del siglo VIII preparando seda

A mediados de la dinastía Tang, se favorecía a las mujeres de aspecto robusto; por lo tanto, la ropa se volvió más holgada, las mangas más largas y anchas, la prenda superior sin tirantes y se usaba una prenda superior de seda sin forro; usaban "vestidos de pecho" . [ 118 ] Este cambio en la forma corporal ideal del cuerpo femenino se ha atribuido a una consorte amada del emperador Xuanzong de Tang , llamada Yang Guifei , aunque la evidencia arqueológica muestra que este ideal del cuerpo femenino había surgido antes del ascenso de Yang Guifei al poder en la corte imperial. [ 119 ]

Dama con sirvientes, atribuida a Zhou Fang, siglo VIII d.C.

Otra forma de moda popular en la vestimenta femenina durante la dinastía Tang fue el uso de ropa masculina; era de moda que las mujeres se vistieran con ropa masculina en público y en la vida cotidiana, especialmente durante los períodos Kaiyuan y Tianbao (742-756 d. C.); esta moda comenzó entre los miembros de la nobleza y las doncellas de la corte y gradualmente se extendió en la comunidad. [ 120 ] [ 118 ] La vestimenta masculina durante la dinastía Tang generalmente incluía túnicas que se usaban con pantalones, yuanlingpao , cinturón usado en la cintura, futou y botas de cuero oscuro. [ 2 ] [ 35 ] [ 63 ] [ 121 ] La dinastía Tang heredó todas las formas de cinturones que se usaban en las dinastías Wei, Jin, del Norte y del Sur y las adoptó en los trajes oficiales de los funcionarios militares y civiles. [ 78 ] : 384–417 En algunos casos, sin embargo, las túnicas de estilo chino Han continuaron representándose en el arte que mostraba a funcionarios de la corte. [ 56 ] En la dinastía Tang, el yuanlingpao era usado tanto por hombres como por mujeres. [ 2 ]

Los zapatos que usaban los chinos Han eran (履), xi (zapatos con suelas gruesas), botas de mujer y ji (屐; zuecos de madera) con dos puntas que se usaban al caminar por caminos embarrados; en el sur, se desarrolló el xueji (靴屐; un tipo de zueco parecido a una bota). [ 121 ] Algunos zapatos eran comúnmente curvos en la parte delantera y tenían forma de fénix. [ 7 ] : 5

Mujer con fanlingpao , dinastía Tang.
Mujer vistiendo hufu estilo kuapao , dinastía Tang.

La dinastía Tang representa una edad de oro en la historia de China, cuando las artes, las ciencias y la economía florecieron. La vestimenta femenina y los adornos personales, en particular, reflejaron las nuevas visiones de esta era, que vio un comercio e interacción sin precedentes con culturas y filosofías ajenas a las fronteras chinas. Aunque aún conservaba la vestimenta de sus predecesoras, como las dinastías Han y Sui, la moda durante la dinastía Tang también estuvo influenciada por su cultura y arte cosmopolitas. Donde anteriormente las mujeres chinas habían estado restringidas por el antiguo código confuciano a atuendos ajustados y que las ocultaban, la vestimenta femenina en la dinastía Tang se volvió gradualmente más relajada, menos restrictiva e incluso más reveladora. [ 122 ] La dinastía Tang también vio la fácil aceptación, y la sincretización con las prácticas chinas, de elementos de la cultura extranjera por parte de los chinos Han. Las influencias extranjeras predominantes durante la China Tang incluyeron culturas de Gandhara , Turkestán , Persia y Grecia . Las influencias estilísticas de estas culturas se fusionaron en la vestimenta de estilo Tang sin que ninguna cultura en particular tuviera una prominencia especial. [ 72 ] [ 123 ]

An example of foreign influence on Tang women's clothing is the use of garments with a low-cut neckline.[46] Women were also allowed to fashion themselves in hufu.[note 4][124][125][114] Popular menswear such as Persian-style round collared robes with tight sleeves and a central band decorated with flowers on the front was also popular among the Tang dynasty's women;[102] this Persian-style round collared robe is different from the local worn yuanlingpao. Long Persian trousers and knickers were also worn by women as a result of the cultural and economic exchanges which took place.[35] Striped trousers were also worn.[115] The Chinese trousers during this period were narrow compared to the dashao and the dakouku which were worn in the preceding dynasties.[35] In the 7th and 8th centuries, the kuapao, which originated from Central Asia could be worn by men and were also used as main garment for cross-dressing attendants or could be draped across the shoulders like a cloak.[102]:311[126] The headwear of women during the Tang dynasty also demonstrates evidence of foreign clothing inclusion in their attire. In the Taizong era, women wore a burqa-like mili which concealed the entire body when horse back riding; the trend changed to the use of weimao during the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang and Wu Zetian; and after that, during the early reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, women started wearing a veil-less hat called humao; women eventually stopped wearing hats when horse riding, and by the 750's, women dressing in men's garments became popular.[124][121][127] Noble women of the Tang dynasty wore the veil, and after the Yonghui reign the veil with hat was worn.[128][129][130] After the mid-seventh century, the social expectation that women had to hide their faces in public disappeared.[103]

It was also fashionable for noble women to wear Huihuzhuang after the An Lushan Rebellion.[131][114][119][132] Another trend which emerged after the An Lushan Rebellion is the sad and depressed-look while looking exquisite which reflected the instability of the political situation in this period.[133] Of note, just like women in the Tang dynasty period incorporated Central Asian-styles in their clothing, Central Asian women were also wearing some Hanfu-style clothing from the Tang dynasty and/or would combine elements of the Han Chinese-style attire and ornamental aesthetic in their ethnic attire.[134]:74[135] In 840 AD, the Uyghur empire collapsed, the Uyghur refugees fled to Xinjiang and to the Southeast of Tang frontier to seek refuge, and in 843 AD, all the Uighur living in China had to wear Chinese-style clothing.[136]

The influence of hufu eventually faded after the High Tang period, and women's clothing gradually regained a broad, loose fitting, and more traditional Han style.[125][116] The sleeve width of garments for ordinary women was more than 1.3 meters.[125] The daxiushan, for example, was made of an almost transparent, thin silk; it featured beautiful designs and patterns and its sleeves were so broad that it was more than 1.3 meters.[51] Based on the painting, "Court ladies adorning their hair with flowers" (簪花仕女圖; Zanhua shinü tu), a painting attributed to the painter Zhou Fang, women's clothing was depicted as a sleeveless gown which was worn under a robe with wide sleeves, with the use of a shawl as an ornament; some of the women painted are fashioned with skirts while others are seen wearing an overskirt above an underskirt; it is speculated that shawls and cloaks during this period were made from a silk-netted sheer gauze fabric material.[119][114]

Song dynasty

Emperor Zhezong (1077–1100); in accordance with the Song's governing philosophy, its emperors wore the same clothing as their ministers.

The Song dynasty clothing system was established at the beginning of the Northern Song dynasty. Clothes could be classified into two major types: officials garments (further differentiated between court clothing and daily wear), and the garment for ordinary people.[46][137]:1–7 Some features of Tang dynasty clothing were carried into the Song dynasty, such as court dress.[138]

Song dynasty court dress often used red colour, with accessories made of different colours and materials, black leather shoes and hats.[46][138] The officials had specific clothing for different occasions: (1) the sacrificial dress, a vermillion colour garment worn when attending ancestral temple or grand ceremonies, which they had to wear with the proper hats, i.e. jinxianguan, diaochanguan, andxiezhiguan; (2) the court dress, which was worn when attending court meeting held by the Emperor and sometimes during sacrificial rituals; and (3) the official gown, worn daily by officials who held ranks.[137]:1–7

The form of officials' daily dresses had the same design regardless of rank: yuanlingpao with long and loose sleeves; however, the officials were bound to wear different colours according to ranks.[46][68]:181–203[137]:1–7 As the Song dynasty followed the Tang dynasty's clothing system, officials of third ranks and above wore purple gown; fifth ranks officials wore vermillion gown; seventh ranks officials and above wore green gowns; and the ninth rank officials and above wore black gown.[137]:1–7 However, after the Yuanfeng period, changes were imposed on the colour system of the official gowns: officials of the fourth rank and above wore purple gown, the sixth rank and above wore crimson gown; and the ninth rank and above officials wore green gown; this noted the removal of black colour as a colour for the official dress.[137]:1–7 Officials also wore leather belts and kerchiefs as ornaments.[46][137]:1–7 If senior officials were allowed to wear purple or crimson official garments, they had to wear a silver or gold fish-shaped bag as ornament.[46][137]:1–7 The official gown were worn with different styles of futou and guan. For example, jinxianguan was worn by general officials; diaochanguan was worn by senior officials; and xiezhiguan was worn by enforcement officials.[33][137]:1–7 Flowers pinning was a well-liked custom in the Song dynasty; people regardless of their age, gender, and social ranks would pin flowers on themselves; these flowers could be either artificial flowers (i.e. made of silk, rice-paper plant flower, coloured glaze flower, etc.) or natural fresh flowers.[137]:645–648 Since the early Song dynasty, the Emperor would bestow valuable flowers to his officials.[137]:645–648 Court eunuchs would pin flowers on the futou of the Princes and the Grand councillors whereas other officials would also ornate their futou with flowers by themselves.[137]:645–648 This custom was developed and extended up until Southern Song, when regulations on the number of flowers which could be worn based on the official's rank were made.[137]:645–648 These rules on these flower ornaments on futou could not be broken without permission.[137]:645–648 The apparels for court gathering in the Song dynasty was tongtianguanfu; it was worn by the most senior officials who served the emperor directly; it was the most important clothing after the clothing worn by the emperor.[132]

The clothes worn by Song dynasty emperors are collectively called tianzi apparel (天子服饰; the emperor's apparel).[137]:1–7 The apparels worn when attending sacrificial and worshipping ceremonies were daqiumian (大裘冕; a type of mianfu), gunmian (衮冕; a type of mianfu), and lüpao (履袍).[137]:1–7 The emperor's daily wears were shanpao (衫袍) and zhaipao (窄袍). The yuyue fu (御阅服) was the formal military uniform worn by the Song dynasty Emperors and only came into existence in the Southern Song dynasty.[137]:1–7 The crown prince would wear the gunmian (衮冕) when he would accompanied the emperor to sacrificial ceremonies, and he would wear yuanyouguanfu (远游冠服) and zhumingfu (朱明衣) on less formal but important occasions such as nobility conferring and appointment, when paying visits to the founding ancestor's temple and when attending court meetings which are held by the Emperor.[137]:1–7 The Crown prince also wear purple official dress, gold and jade waistband, and wore a folding-up black muslin scarf on his head.[137]:1–7

Although some of clothing in the Song dynasty have similaritiesref name="dx.doi.org" /> In the 7th and 8th centuries, the kuapao, which originated from Central Asia could be worn by men and were also used as main garment for cross-dressing attendants or could be draped across the shoulders like a cloak. with previous dynasties, some unique characteristics separate it from the rest.[68]:181–203[138] While most of them following the Tang dynasty style,[68]:181–203 the revival of Confucianism influenced the women clothing of the Song dynasty; Confucians in the Song dynasty revered antiquity and wanted to revive some old ideas and customs and encouraged women to reject the extravagance of the Tang dynasty fashion.[139] Due to the shift in philosophical thought, the aesthetics of the Song dynasty clothing showed simplicity and became more traditional in style.[51] Palace ladies searched for guidance in the Rites of Zhou on how to dress accordingly to ceremonial events and carefully chose ornaments which were graded for each occasion based on the classic rituals.[139] While women of the Tang dynasty liked clothing which emphasized on body curves and sometimes revealed décolletage, women in the Song dynasty perceived such styles as obscene and vulgar and preferred slender body figure.[139] Donning clothing which looked simple and humble instead of extravagant was interpreted as expressing sober virtue.[139] The Song dynasty clothing system also specified how women of the imperial court had to dress themselves and this included the Song empresses, the imperial concubines, and the titled gentlewomen; their clothing would also change depending on occasions.[137]:1–7,31 Song dynasty empresses wear the huiyi;[51] they often had three to five distinctive jewelry-like marks on their face (two side of the cheek, other two next to the eyebrows and one on the forehead).[140] The everyday clothing of the Empresses and Imperial concubines included: long skirts, loose-sleeves garments, tasselled capes and beizi.[137]:1–7,31 Imperial concubines like the colour yellow and red; the pomegranate colour skirt was also popular in the Song dynasty.[46][7]:5 Collar edges and sleeve edges of all clothes that have been excavated were decorated with laces or embroidered patterns. Such clothes were decorated with patterns of peony, camellia, plum blossom, and lily, etc.[138] Pleated skirts were introduced and became the characteristic skirts of the upper social class.[7]:5

Painting of famous ministers dressed in typical Song dynasty clothing.

According to the Song dynasty's regulations, ordinary people were only allowed to wear white clothes; but at some point, the regulations changed and ordinary people, as well as administrative clerks and intellectuals, were able to wear black clothes.[46]:272,275 However, in reality, the clothing worn by civilians were much more colourful than what was stipulated as many colours were used in the garments and skirts.[46] Ordinary people also dressed differently accordingly to their social status and occupations.[51]

One of the common clothing styles for woman during the Song dynasty was beizi, which were usually regarded as shirt or jacket and could be matched with ru, which was a necessary clothing for daily life of commoners, a qun (裙; skirt) or ku (袴; trousers).[46][137]:32–59 There are two size of beizi: the short one is crown rump length and the long one extended to the knees.[140] According to the sacrificial and ceremonial apparel system drafted by Zhu Xi, women should wear an overcoat, a long skirt, and the beizi.[137]:32–59 Women also wore the liangpian qun (两片裙), a wrap skirt which consist of two pieces of fabric sewn to a separate, single waistband with ties.[58][141]

A painting, called Sericulture, by the painter Liang Kai in Southern Song dynasty depicts rural labourers in the process of making silk.[143]Foot binding also became popular in the Song dynasty at the end of the dynasty.[46][139]

Other casual forms of clothing included: the pao (袍; the gown which could be broad or narrow-sleeved), ao (襖; a necessary coat for commoner in their daily lives), duanhe (短褐; a short, coarse cloth jacket worn by people of low socioeconomic status), lanshan, and zhiduo.[138]

Su shi, also known as Su Dongpo, wearing the Confucian shenyi, Song dynasty.
Diagram of Song dynasty shenyi based on Zhuzi jiali.

In addition, Neo-Confucian philosophies also determined the conduct code of the scholars.[68]:181–203 The Neo-Confucians re-constructed the meaning of the shenyi, restored, and re-invented it as the attire of the scholars.[144] Some Song dynasty scholars, such as Zhu Xi and Shaoyong, made their own version of the scholar gown, shenyi, based on The book of Rites, while scholars such as Jin Lüxiang promoted it among his peers.[137]:15 However, the shenyi used as a scholar gown was not popular in the Song dynasty and was even considered as "strange garment" despite some scholar-officials appreciated it.[144][137]:15

Zaju actresses in theatrical clothing playing men, wearing headscarfs with rings, Xiku and Waku trousers and leggings, Song dynasty.

In the capital of Southern Song, clothing-style from Northern China were popular.[7]:5 The Song dynasty court repeatedly banned people (i.e. common people, literati, and women) from wearing clothing and ornaments worn by Khitan people, such as felt hats, and from the wearing of exotic clothing.[137]:32–59 They also banned clothing with colours which was associated to Khitan clothing; such as aeruginous or yellowish-black.[137]:32–59 They also banned people, except for drama actors, from wearing Jurchen and Khitan diaodun (釣墩; a type of lower garment where the socks and trousers were connected to each other) due to its foreign ethnic nature.[137]:32–59[145] Song dynasty women also wore the Song-dynasty gaitou, when they would ride animals, such as horses and donkeys, to relieve embarrassment and to conceal their bodies.[127] These veils originated from the Tang dynasty women's weimao which covered the head and upper body; they were revived in Song after they fell out of fashion in Tang dynasty and were worn despite its masculine and barbarian origin, probably because Song women were unaware of its origins.[127] Many of Song dynasty clothing was later adopted in the Yuan and Ming dynasties.

Liao, Western Xia, and Jin dynasties

Liao dynasty

The rulers of the Liao dynasty adopted a clothing system which allowed the coexistence of Han Chinese and Khitan clothing.[137]:32–59 The Khitan court adopted both the guofu (國服; Khitan National garments) and hanfu, which the Khitan inherited from the Later Jin dynasty and were actually clothing from the Tang dynasty.[134]:15[146] The guofu of the Liao dynasty was also heavily influenced by the Hanfu system.[137]:57

The Han Chinese men living in the Liao dynasty were not required to wear the shaved Khitan hairstyle which Khitan men wore to distinguish their ethnicity, unlike the Qing dynasty which mandated wearing of the Manchu hairstyle for men.[147] In Han Chinese tombs dating from Liao dynasty, there are tombs murals which depicts purely Chinese customs and Chinese clothing.[148] Tombs in haner families, for example the Zhang and Hann families, often depicts men dressed in Khitan clothing in corridors and antechambers while inner culture shows haner culture.[note 5][149] Some Han Chinese or Haner men adopted and/or combined Hanfu with Khitan clothing and boots, wore Hanfu or wore Khitan clothes. Han women on the other hand did not adopt Khitan dress and continued wearing Hanfu.[149]:48,52–53[150] For example, the tomb of Hann Shixun (a man from distinguished haner families) who died in the early 12th century during the late Liao dynasty depict Khitan-style clothing in the antechamber whereas women in Hanfu-style clothing is seen in the painting found in the inner chamber.[149]:44–45 Another example can be seen in a mural painting found in the tomb of Zhao Wenzao, where children and servants are depicted wearing Khitan hairstyles and Khitan-style clothing, while the woman who is standing behind the table is depicted in Han Chinese clothing.[149]:46–47 Han Chinese women living in the Southern Division and Haner women were culture bearers, who generally preserved Han Chinese culture and continued to wear Hanfu which was worn prior to the conquest.[149] Both Khitan women and Han Chinese women in the Liao wore Han style Tang-Song dress.[134]

Jin dynasty

The Jin dynasty rulers imitated the Song dynasty and decided to establish their own carriages and apparel system.[137]:32–59 In the early period of the Jin dynasty, the Jin dynasty court first attempted to impose Jurchen hairstyle and clothes on the Han Chinese population in 1126 AD and in 1129 AD.[151]:281 The Hanfu-style clothing was prohibited and the people had to wear a short scarf and left-lapelled clothing; if they did not obey, they were put to death.[137]:32–59 The Jurchen queue and shaving hairstyle was not enforced on the Han Chinese in the Jin after an initial attempt to do so which was a rebuke to Jurchen values.[147][152] However, the rules were not observed and the order was taken back under the Emperor Wanyan Liang who was Pro-Chinese allowing the Han Chinese to wear their Han clothing by lifting the ban in 1150 AD.[151]:281 After the occupation of the Northern Song territories by the Jurchens in 1127 AD, the Han Chinese who were living in Northern Song territories became the majority while the Jurchen became an ethnic minority; this led the Jurchens to make political concessions allowing the Han Chinese to practice Han Chinese culture.[153][149] In 1138 AD, the Jin court adopted the Chinese robes for the emperor and the officials.[153]

In 1161-1189 AD, many Jurchens appear to have begun adopting Han Chinese behavior and forgetting their own traditions and languages; therefore, the Emperor Shizong of Jin prohibited the Jurchens from dressing like the Han Chinese in 1191 AD as he wanted to revitalize the old Jurchen culture.[149][151]:281[153] However, despite his efforts, the influence of the Han Chinese living in the Northern Song territories had a significant influence and by the mid-twelve century, the Jurchens were sinicized so much that they were almost indistinguishable from the Han Chinese in terms of dress, literacy and social customs.[149] Based on Han Chinese tombs of the Jin dynasty, it appears that ordinary Jurchen clothing may have been a symbol of lower class status as servants and lower-class women tend to be portrayed as wearing modified Jurchen-style clothing whereas women from the upper class wear Hanfu-style clothing.[149] Yet despite the Han Chinese influence on Jurchens, travellers from the Southern Song dynasty who visited the former territories of the Song dynasty noted that there have been changes in the people's culture and that the Han Chinese's clothing style had also been influenced by the Jurchens in terms of adoption of items; they also noted that the only thing which had not changed much was the women's clothing style.[137]:32–59[149] However, the clothing-style of the Han Chinese women living the Jin dynasty was outdated compared to those living in the Southern Song territories.[149] The yunjian was worn in the Jin dynasty and was adopted in the Yuan dynasty as a signature pattern on men's and women's clothing.[134]:51

Western Xia

Emperor Jingzong, the first emperor of Western Xia, rejected Han Chinese silk clothing over the leather and wool clothing of the nomadic people from the Steppe; he argued that the Tanguts had traditionally worn leather-based and wool clothing and since the Tanguts men were military, they also had no use for silk materials.[134]:15 Yet, silk clothing was still worn in Western Xia during his reign.[134]:15 The Hanfu-style and the Tangut-style clothing were distinguished from each other, but both were used in the Western Xia.[134]:15 The Hanfu-style clothing was worn by officials whereas the Tangut-style clothing was worn by the military.[134]:15 Civil officials wore futou, boots, purple or crimson gown.[137]:32–59 Emperor Jingzong also ordered that every people in Western Xia must be shaved in an attempt to restore old Xianbei customs, and disobedience was death penalty.[137]:32–59 However, in 1061 AD, Emperor Yizong, the son of Emperor Jingzong, decided to replace Tangut clothing with Hanfu in his court.[154] In his wish list to the Song dynasty court, Emperor Yizong asked permission to use Han Chinese rites and clothing to greet Song dynasty envoys and seek permission to buy Chinese official clothing; both of these requests were granted.[154]

Yuan dynasty

Textile with dragon design, 13th century. Dragon and phoenix motifs were strictly reserved for the top members of the Imperial family throughout China's history.

During the Yuan dynasty, Mongol dress was the clothing of elite for both genders.[155] The Mongol attire for both men and women worn in the 13th-14th century was completely different from the Hanfu which had been worn in the Tang dynasty and Song dynasty.[156] The Mongol attire was shared by people of different social ranking due to its practicality which contrasted with the dress code of the Han Chinese; as such, Mongol attire was popular.[156] The Mongols never imposed Mongol customs on the Han Chinese.[18]

Many Han Chinese and other ethnicities readily adopted Mongol clothing in Northern China to show their allegiance to the Mongols; however, in Southern China, Mongol clothing was rarely seen as both men and women continued to dress in Song-style garments.[155][134] In the tomb of a woman from a Southern Song site, dating from the late-Yuan dynasty in Fuzhou, Fujian, the two-pieces system of Southern Song clothing (i.e., ruqun) has been found instead of the Mongol women's one-piece robe.[155] Burial clothing and tomb paintings in the southern territories of the Yuan dynasty also show that women wore the Song-style attire, which looked slimmer when compared to the Mongol court robe. The Song-style clothing is also depicted as consisting of jackets, which were open in the front and had long, narrow and thin sleeves, and sometimes women are depicted as wearing a sleeveless vest-type jackets with front openings.[134] For example, in the Yuan dynasty mural paintings from Dongercun from 1269 AD in Shaanxi[157] and in the mural painting in tomb M2 at Kangzhuangcun in Tunliu from 1276 AD,[158] maids and servants are seen wearing Song-style attire.[134]

The type of clothing worn in the Yuan dynasty may have also served as a political statement; for example, despite not being the clothing of the ruling elite, the Tang-Song style clothing worn in multiple layers continued to be worn by families who showed that they were resisting the rule of the Mongols.[134] A form of skirts worn in the Yuan dynasty is a skirt which consist of two parts sewn to a separate single waistband which may also be pleated.[58]

Ming dynasty

Ban of hufu, return to hanfu, and cultural integration

The Ming dynasty had many Mongol clothes and cultural aspects abolished and enforced Tang dynasty style Han Chinese clothing.[145]

As soon as the Hongwu Emperor conquered the Yuan dynasty, he decried the "barbarian customs" of the Yuan dynasty and how people imitated the Mongols for personal gains; and so, he called for the restoration of Han Chinese traditions, which included the proper forms of dress, hairstyles, and attires.[159][160][161] According to the Veritable Records of Hongwu Emperor (太祖實錄), a detailed official account of daily activities of Hongwu Emperor written by court historians, he restored the entire clothing system to the standard of the Tang dynasty shortly after the founding of Ming dynasty:

洪武元年二月壬子...至是,悉命復衣冠如唐制,士民皆束髮於頂,官則烏紗帽,圓領袍,束帶,黑靴。

[On the Renzi day in the second month of the first year of Hongwu era (February 29, 1368 CE), Hongwu emperor decreed that all fashions of clothing and headwear shall be restored to the standard of Tang, all citizens shall gather their hairs on top of their heads, and officials shall wear the wushamao (black-cloth hats), round-collar robes, belts, and black boots.]

Veritable Records of Hongwu Emperor (太祖實錄)

The attempt was to signified the Han Chinese cultural identity after defeating the Yuan dynasty.[28]:44–46[159][160] The new clothing system that the Hongwu Emperor formulated was based on the dress code of the previous dynasties, which included the dress codes of the Zhou, Han, Tang, and Song dynasties.[68]:181–203 He also promulgated several decrees to ban Mongol and nomadic clothing style.[156] However, fashionable Mongol attire, items and hats were still sometimes worn by early Ming royals, such as Hongwu Emperor himself and Zhengde Emperor.[29][162] Thus, many Ming dynasty clothing styles absorbed elements of both Han Chinese and Mongol clothing.[145]

The Ming dynasty developed a new attire from Yuan dynasty's terlig: tieli; it is a cross-collared, long sleeved robe with dense and narrow pleats all around the lower hem.[163][164] The tieli was mainly worn by the upper class and rarely worn by the lower class.[163] In the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, tieli were recorded as ch'obli (帖裡), bestowed as present by the Ming dynasty from the year 1424; however, the terlig-style attires found in both countries differed from each other in terms of form and historical development.[164] The jisün that had been popular in the Yuan dynasty was also worn by the court bodyguards, the xiaowei (校尉; guards of honour), the brocade guards, and by court servants.[156] The yesa robe, which mixed Han and Mongol elements was worn as an informal attire by emperors, princes, ministers, and officials in early Ming dynasty; it was worn as a formal uniforms during the middle period of the Ming dynasty; it was worn as a casual dress worn by scholar-officials during the mid-to-late period of the Ming dynasty; and eventually it was worn by Ming court eunuchs, servants and commoners in the late Ming.[156]

The boli hat worn by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty influenced the Han Chinese and continued to be used widely in the Ming dynasty in the form of the damao, which was worn by the government clerks and family servants. The use of the damao by the family servants of the Ming officials and the imperial family contributed popularity spread of that hat which eventually become a symbol of low-ranking servants.[156]

Other new Ming dynasty attires influenced by the Yuan dynasty include the buttoned jackets known as bijia (比甲) or zhaojia (罩甲), small hat (小帽; xiaomao) or liuheyitong mao (六合一統帽), and the dahu.[163] Archeological evidence from the tombs of Ming dynasty princes show that the Mongol-style attire continued to exist well until the 15th century.[159] The Ming dynasty also adopted humao, and a waistcoat with buttons at the front from Yuan dynasty.[28]:44–46[165]:31[163]

Establishing new dress regulations

Early Ming dynasty officials of the 1300-1400s, as painted by Xie Huan.

The founder of the Ming dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, saw the fundamentality of making a new dress code to consolidate his rule; he spent almost all his reigning years developing and institutionalizing dressing regulations, which were recorded in various compilation of texts, such as the Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty.[159][160] The dressing regulations were based on the dressing system of the Tang and Song dynasties.[159][163] Moreover, the Ming dynasty dressing regulations were strongly related to the ritual system; the Confucian codes and ideals that were popularized during the Ming dynasty also had a significant effect on those regulations.[166] The dressing regulations determined what attire and ornaments could be worn depending on one's social ranks.[159][160][166] For example, the Ming dynasty's basic dressing principles, announced in 1392, included the following:[160]

Officials' robes should fit their bodies. The length of those worn by civil officials is one inch from the ground. The sleeves should be long enough to reach the elbows when they are folded back from the end of the hands; they should be one foot wide, with cuffs of nine inches wide. The sizes of nobles (gonghou), and imperial sons-in-law's robes are the same as civil officials’. So are the sizes of seniors and primary degree holders’ robe, except for the sleeves, which are three inches from the elbow when folded from the hands. A commoners’ robe is five inches from the ground. So is a military official's; their sleeves should be seven inches over their hands, with cuffs as broad as their fists. Soldiers’ clothes are seven inches from the ground, with sleeves five inches longer than their hands, and seven inches wide. Their cuffs are wide enough only for their fists to stretch out[.]

In the Ming dynasty, the inner garment that people wore were called neidan (内单).[166] The fabric material of the outer garment are determined by one's social status.[159] The emperors tend to wear yellow satin gown with dragon designs, jade belts, and yishanguan (翼善冠; philanthropy crown, with wings folded upwards).[33] The yishanguan were only worn by emperors and other members of the royal family on formal occasions.[33]:18 Officials wore different wore robes of various colours and patterns; they also wore gauze hats.[33] Civil and military officials wore different types of guanfu (官服), depending on occasions and events: chaofu (朝服; court dress), the jifu (祭服; sacrificial ceremony dress), the gongfu (公服; public service dress), the changfu (常服; everyday dress), and the yanfu (燕服; casual or leisure clothing).[159][160] The officials' robes are usually patched with embroidered square pattern of animals on the back and the front; the patches are called the Mandarin square, and were differentiated between officials' ranks. Minor differences can be observed between the Mandarin squares decreed by the Hongwu Emperor and the Jiajing Emperor.[33][159]

Ten Officials Who Passed the Imperial Examination in the Same Year of 1464 (甲申十同年圖), painted in 1503 during one of their reunions. The presence of yapai (牙牌; lit. 'Tusk Card'; the rectangular ornaments, that hanged from each official's left waist, are ivory plaques that engraved with the wearer's department, position, rank and instructions; Yapai were visitor's badge that granted passage into the Forbidden City for officials to have an audience with the emperor) implies that this scene was painted shortly after a court meeting. During the Ming dynasty, both civil and military officials were divided into nine Ranks (品), each Rank was further subdivided into Primary (正) and Secondary (從) so there were technically eighteen Ranks, with First Rank Primary (正一品) being the highest and the Ninth Rank Secondary (從九品) the lowest. Officials of the upper four Ranks (from First Rank Primary to Fourth Rank Secondary) were entitled to wear the red robes; mid-Ranks (Fifth Rank Primary to Seventh Rank Secondary) to wear blue robes and the lower Ranks (Eighth Rank Primary to Ninth Rank Secondary) to wear green robes. In addition, each exact Rank was indicated by a picture of unique animal (either real or legendary) sewn in a Mandarin square on both the front and back of the robe, so fellow officials could identify someone's Rank from afar.

The Ming dynasty empresses appeared to be wearing similar dress as their Song dynasty counterparts.[160] The queens wore crown with decorations of dragons and phoenixes, and wore a red large-sleeves upper garments also decorated with dragon and phoenixes.[33] The dressing of officials' wives and mothers who were bestowed the title of "appointed lady" (mingfu; 命妇) were also strictly regulated.[160] The Emperors could bestow special types of robes to people that he favoured, such as the mangfu, the douniufu (斗牛服; "fighting bull" robe; the "fighting bull" is a two-horned dragon-like creature), and the feiyufu.[74][159][160] The illegal use and production of those special robes were prohibited by imperial decree and could result to severe punishment or death.[159]

The Jiajing Emperor was the last ruler of the Ming dynasty; he made significant changes to the Ming dynasty dressing code to consolidate his imperial authority.[159] The Jiajing Emperor was very focused in reforming the yanfu (燕服; casual or leisure clothing), as he found his own yanfu too vulgar and too common to befit his imperial status.[159] At the end of 1528 AD, yanfu's new statutes, adjusted from the ancient xuanduan, were decreed. The yanbian guanfu (燕弁冠服; "Dress of the Casual Hat"), designed for the emperor, was in colour black bordered with a green trim and featured 143 dragons, with a dragon medallion on the front of the clothing.[159] The zhongjing guanfu (忠靜冠服 or 忠靖冠服; "Dress of Loyalty and Tranquility"), designed for the ranked officials, was dark green in colour; while cloud patterns were granted to the robe for third-rank and above officials, fourth-rank and below officials had to wear plain robes.[159] The baohe guanfu (保和冠服; "Dress of Preserving Harmony"), designed for the royal princes), was in colour green and bordered with a green trim, and had two rank badges that showed dragon designs.[159]

The shenyi suddenly made a comeback among Han Chinese and became the formal scholar official robe when the Ming dynasty was founded in 1368 AD.[144] The scholar officials wore chengziyi (程子衣) as leisure clothing.[166][167] Hats worn by the scholars and literati were: the sifang pingding jin (四方平定巾; flat-top square hat), the dongpo jin (東坡巾; "Dongpo hat"), and the fangjin (方巾).[167][110] The daopao was worn as a casual dress by all levels of society, including the External officials and eunuchs.[167][160] The zhishen was also worn by eunuchs sometimes to show their superiority.[160] Commoner men usually wore plain-coloured clothing while commoner women wore upper garments and skirts of light colours.[33]

Though the Ming dynasty restored Hanfu, the dynasty also brought many changes.[163] For example, the formal robes of the early Ming emperors had close-fitting sleeves instead of the Song dynasty's voluminous sleeves.[155] The collar of the Ming dynasty clothing changed from the symmetrical type of the Song dynasty to the circular type.[163] Moreover, under the influence of the Yuan dynasty's court dress, the xiongbei (胸背; central badges) found on the official cloths became square in shape, different from Song dynasty's round shape.[134]:51 Compared with the clothing of the Tang dynasty, the proportion of the upper outer garment to lower skirt in the Ming dynasty was significantly inverted.[163] Since the upper garment was shorter and the lower garment was longer, the jacket gradually became longer to cover the exposed skirt.[163]

The Ming dynasty implemented the use of gold and silver interlocking buckles to close clothing and collars.[163][168] In the middle of the Ming dynasty, the interlocking buttons were often paired with the upper garment with standing collar; it was commonly used by women partially because they wanted to cover their bodies to show modesty and preserve their chastity and because of the cold climate period.[168] Skirts with pleats became very popular and the skirt colour tended to be light.[163] Another form of skirt which was worn in the Ming dynasty is a skirt with two pieces which was deeply pleated and was sewn to a separate, single waistband.[58] In the late Ming dynasty, Ming dynasty women wore the pifeng daily, the ru (short jacket) with a skirt and a short over skirt (yaoqun), the ao (袄; a long jacket) which is worn with a skirt, and the bijia.[28]:48–51 The shuitianyi was also worn in the late Ming dynasty.[28]:48–51 Han Chinese women also wore dudou as an undergarment.[169]

While clothing regulation were strictly enforced in the early Ming dynasty; it started to weaken in the Mid-Ming dynasty (around the early 16th century) which has been attributed to the failing of ritual practice and the expansion of commercialization which has led to a weakened state control over the clothing system, and thus to an eventual dress code transgression.[160] In the late Ming, the dress code was widely transgressed by sons of officials and eunuchs who clothes which did not denote their real social status.[159][160] Fashion changed quickly relatively to the earlier years during the late Ming which caused distress to the literati.[159][160] The literati were also concerned about the wives of the elites who would parade and show off their clothing and ornaments without having anyone to reproach them.[159][160] Despite the attempts of Confucians scholars to urge the ban of illegal and/or improper dress, the dressing code was not enforced by the imperial court.[160]

When Han Chinese ruled the Vietnamese in the Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam due to the Ming dynasty's conquest during the Ming–Hồ War they imposed the Han Chinese style of men wearing long hair on short haired Vietnamese men. Vietnamese were ordered to stop cutting and instead grow their hair long and switch to Hanfu in only a month by a Ming official. Ming administrators said their mission was to civilized the unorthodox Vietnamese barbarians.[170] The Ming dynasty only wanted the Vietnamese to wear long hair and to stop teeth blackening so they could have white teeth and long hair like Chinese.[171] A royal edict was issued by Vietnam in 1474 forbidding Vietnamese from adopting foreign languages, hairstyles and clothes like that of the Lao, Champa or the "Northerners" which referred to the Ming. The edict was recorded in the 1479 Complete Chronicle of Dai Viet of Ngô Sĩ Liên in the Later Lê dynasty.[172] The Vietnamese had adopted the Chinese political system and culture during the 1,000 years of Chinese rule so they viewed their surrounding neighbours like Khmer Cambodians as barbarians and themselves as a small version of China (the Middle Kingdom).[173] By the Nguyen dynasty the Vietnamese themselves were ordering Cambodian Khmer to adopt Han Chinese culture by ceasing "barbarous" habits like cropping hair and ordering them to grow it long besides making them replace skirts with trousers.[174]

Hanbok was influenced by the Hanfu of the Ming dynasty. The Joseon dynasty monarchy looked to Ming China for cultural inspiration. The upper classes and the court of Joseon wore Ming-style clothing but also made a few modifications to make the clothing look distinctively Korean; this led to the formation of the women's hanbok style.[175][176] The lower class of Joseon imitated the clothing of the upper class.[175]

Qing dynasty

Development of Qing imperial court clothing

In the Liao, Jin, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, Jurchen people mainly wore Zuojun gowns. The robes and clothes of the Manchus before entering the customs are called "yijie" in Manchu. They are clothes worn by men, women and children throughout the year. Each gown is cut from a whole piece of clothing. The basic structure is a round neck, a large flap, a left gusset, four-sided slits, a waistband and horseshoe sleeves.[177]

It was mistakenly thought that the hunting ancestors of the Manchus skin clothes became Qing dynasty clothing, due to the contrast between Ming dynasty clothes' unshaped cloth's straight length contrasting to the odd-shaped pieces of Qing dynasty longpao and chaofu.[178]:103 Scholars from the west initially wrongly thought these clothing were purely Manchu as the early Manchu rulers wrote several edicts stressing on maintaining their traditions and clothing.[178]:103 However, there is evidence from excavated tombs which indicates that China had a long tradition of garments that led to the development of the Qing chaofu, and it was not invented or introduced by Manchus in the Qing dynasty or Mongols in the Yuan dynasty. In some cases, the Qing dynasty went further than the Ming dynasty in imitating ancient China to display legitimacy with resurrecting ancient Chinese rituals to claim the Mandate of Heaven after studying Chinese classics. Qing sacrificial ritual vessels deliberately resemble ancient Chinese ones even more than Ming vessels.[178]:106Tungusic people on the Amur river like Udeghe, Ulchi and Nanai adopted Chinese influences in their religion and clothing with Chinese dragons on ceremonial robes, scroll and spiral bird and monster mask designs, Chinese New Year, using silk and cotton, iron cooking pots, and heated house from China during the Ming dynasty.[179]

Moreover, the Manchus originally did not have their own dragon robes or weave textiles and they had to obtain Ming dragon robes, Chaofu and cloth when they paid tribute to the Ming or traded with the Ming.[169] Therefore, Manchu clothes were modified the Hanfu of Ming China to form their court costume, making it easier to use while hunting.[169] The development of Manchu clothing in the late Ming Dynasty mainly imitated Mongolian clothing, such as the characteristic buttoned jackets, and the arrow sleeves are obviously characteristics of Mongolian clothing.[180] The Ming dragon robes were simply modified, cut, and tailored by Manchus at the sleeves and waist to make them narrow around the arms and waist instead of wide and added a new narrow cuff to the sleeves;[181]:157 they also made slits in the skirt to make it suitable for falconry, horse riding and archery.[181]:158 The new cuff was made out of fur. The robe's jacket waist had a new strip of scrap cloth put on the waist while the waist was made snug by pleating the top of the skirt on the robe.[181]:159 The Manchus added sable fur skirts, cuffs and collars to Ming dragon robes and trimming sable fur all over them before wearing them.[165]:25 However, some denied that the popular Manchu jackets in the Qing Dynasty originated from the Hanfu in the Ming Dynasty.[182][183] Han Chinese court costume (chaofu) was modified by the Manchu by adding a ceremonial big collar (daling) or shawl collar (pijianling); the clothing was also reduced in bulk, the sleeves made narrower, and the side-fastening changed from cross-collared to a curved overlapping right front.[169][184] The clothing was fastened with loops and buttons.[169] The Manchu also decorated their early Qing robes with dragons similarly to the Ming chaofu.[169]

The Spencer Museum of Art has six longpao robes that belonged to Han Chinese nobility of the Qing dynasty which shows the diversity of the late 18th and 19th century non-imperial dragon robes.[178]:115 Ranked officials and Han Chinese nobles had two slits in the skirts while Manchu nobles and the Imperial family had 4 slits in skirts. All first, second and third rank officials as well as Han Chinese and Manchu nobles were entitled to wear 9 dragons by the Qing Illustrated Precedents. Qing sumptuary laws only allowed four clawed dragons for officials, Han Chinese nobles and Manchu nobles while the Qing Imperial family, emperor and princes up to the second degree and their female family members were entitled to wear five clawed dragons. However officials violated these laws all the time and wore 5 clawed dragons and the Spencer Museum's 6 long pao worn by Han Chinese nobles have 5 clawed dragons on them.[178]:117

Lady in a red robe, with a xiapei on top of her robe, and a coronet, Qing dynasty.

Wives of Han Chinese noblemen and high-ranking officials had to wear semi-official formal dresses on ceremonial events; their clothing consisted of a mang ao (a four-clawed dragon loose fitting jacket with wide sleeves), a xiapei, a mang chu (a dragon skirt which was embroidered with dragons and phoenixes on the front and back skirt panels), a jiao dai (a rigid hooped belt which was worn around the jacket) and a phoenix coronet.[169] The women mang ao was red in colour if the wearer was a man's principle wife; it was originally undecorated but started to be decorated with dragon by the 18th century.[169] The xiapei was developed from the xiapei worn in Ming dynasty; the xiapei in Qing was first worn when the wedding day of a woman; after the wedding, she would wear it for special important events which were connected with her husband's status.[169]

Clothing reform by Qianlong

The Qing dynasty court continued to reform and regulate the clothing of its subjects, but discussion on ethnic clothing was a sensitive topic even after the Qing dynasty had consolidated its rule.[145] By 1759 AD, the Qianlong Emperor commissioned the Illustrated Precedents for the Ritual Paraphernalia of the Imperial Court (Huangchao Liqi Tushi) which was published and enforced by 1766; this publication covered several aspects including the dressing and accessories of the emperors, princes, noblemen and their consorts, Manchu officials, their wives and daughters, and the dress codes for Han Chinese men officials who had reached the rank of mandarin and were employed and their wives; as well as Han Chinese men who were waiting for an official appointment.[111]:2–3[169] The aim of this edict was made to preserve the Manchu identity once again, but at the same time, it also attempted to align the image of the emperor with Confucian ideas and codes of behaviours and manners.[185] The dress code designed in the Huangchao Liqi Tushi continued to be used as the standard for the court attire until the end of the Qing dynasty.[111]:2–3 The Manchu continued to use the five colours symbolism in their clothing which was in line with the previous Han Chinese dynasties; however, they chose the colour blue as their dynasty colour and generally avoided the use of red colour in their clothing because red was the dynasty colour of Ming dynasty.[169] On the other hand, Han Chinese continued to view red as a lucky colour because of its connection with rulers of Ming dynasty, and used it extensively in celebratory events and at weddings.[169]

Ban of Chinese clothing and hairstyle

Coexistence of Hanfu and Manchu clothing, Qing dynasty
Hanfu, early Qing dynasty
Hanfu continues to be worn by the Taoist clergy. Photo taken from between 1890 and 1910.

When the Manchus established the Qing dynasty, the authorities issued decrees having Han Chinese men to adopt Manchu hairstyle by shaving their hair on the front of the head and braiding the hair on the back of the head into pigtails. The resistances against the hair shaving policy were suppressed.[186] Han Chinese did not object to wearing the queue braid on the back of the head as they traditionally wore all their hair long, but fiercely objected to shaving the forehead so the Qing government exclusively focused on forcing people to shave the forehead rather than wear the braid. Han rebels in the first half of the Qing who objected to Qing hairstyle wore the braid but defied orders to shave the front of the head. One person was executed for refusing to shave the front but he had willingly braided the back of his hair.[187]

Hanfu worn by men and women, from A Night Banquet at Peach and Plum Garden in Spring painting, Qing dynasty, before 1772

The Qing imposed the shaved head hairstyle on men of all ethnicities under its rule even before 1644 like upon the Nanai people in the 1630s who had to shave their foreheads.[188][189] In 1645, tifayifu edict was issued;[190] however it was strongly opposed by the Han Chinese, in particular those who belonged to the late Ming dynasty scholars class and literati.[191] Qing Manchu prince Dorgon initially canceled the order for all men in Ming territories south of the Great wall (post 1644 additions to the Qing) to shave. It was a Han official from Shandong, Sun Zhixie and Li Ruolin who voluntarily shaved their foreheads and demanded Qing Prince Dorgon impose the queue hairstyle on the entire population which led to the queue order.[192][193] Even after a decade following tifayifu policy implementation, Han Chinese still resisted against the order of shaving the hair and changing into Manchu clothing frequently.[191] Even during emperor Kangxi's reign, a large number of ordinary people continued to wear Ming dynasty hairstyles and clothing; however, the Han Chinese officials and military generals had to wear the queue and Manchu clothing.[191] The men of certain ethnicities who came under Qing rule later like Salar people and Uyghur people already shaved all their heads bald so the shaving order was redundant.[194] However, the shaving policy was not enforced in the Tusi autonomous chiefdoms in Southwestern China where many minorities lived. There was one Han Chinese Tusi, the Chiefdom of Kokang populated by Han Kokang people.

Han Chinese general Zhang Zhiyuan wearing Manchu-style military outfit.[181]:149
Portrait of Huang Zunxian wearing changshan, the Han Chinese derivative of qizhuang which combined features of the daopao.

During the Qianlong reign, Liu Zhenyu was executed for urging the return of presumably Ming dynasty clothing.[195] However, during this period, Manchu style clothing was only required for scholar-official elite, such as the Eight Banners members and Han men serving as government officials, but not the entire male population; therefore, Han Chinese men were allowed to continue to dress in Ming dynasty clothing.[195] But over time, some Han Chinese civilian men voluntarily adopted Manchu clothing, such as the changshan and magua.[195][196] In the early middle of the Qing Dynasty, the rhetoric and resistance against the Manchu clothing system subsided slightly.[145] By the end of the Qing Dynasty, some officials, literati, and civilians began to wear Manchu clothing, but there were still many officials, literati, and civilians who still wore Hanfu.[195][196]

In the Edo period, the Tokugawa Shogunate of Japan passed orders for Japanese men to shave the pate on the front of their head (the chonmage hairstyle) and shave their beards, facial hair and side whiskers.[197]:217 This was similar to the Qing dynasty queue order imposed by Dorgon making men shave the pates on the front of their heads.[197]:214

Ming-style Costume and Headgear. From Gishi Gakkizu (魏氏楽器図) — Illustrated Catalogue of Wei Family Musical Instruments (1780, Japan)

During the Edo period, Japan partially preserved the Hanfu clothing of the Ming dynasty. In China, after the Qing conquest, wearing the official robes of the Ming dynasty and performing its court music were prohibited. However, thanks to Wei Zhiyan (ca. 1617–1689), who fled to Japan, the court music of the Ming dynasty—known in Japan as Mingaku (明楽)—was transmitted and thus escaped extinction. In Japan, performers of Mingaku traditionally wore Ming-style clothing as formal attire during performances.

During the late Qing dynasty, the Vietnamese envoy to Qing were still wearing the official attire in Ming dynasty style. Some of the locals recognized their clothing, yet the envoy received both amusement and ridicule from those who did not.[198]

Tifayifu exemptions

The implementation of tifayifu policy, the early Qing dynasty court also prohibited Han Chinese from wearing some specific Manchu items and prohibited banner-women from dressing as Han Chinese women to maintain ethnic distinction.[199] The early Qing dynasty policies also mainly applied to Han Chinese men.[199][195] Those who were exempted from such policies were women, children, Buddhist and Taoist monks, and Qing dynasty rebels; moreover, men in their living had to wear Manchu-clothing, but they could be buried in Hanfu after their death.[199][195][200] However, this was not fully implemented. Women, men, children, and the elderly still wore Hanfu at home and in daily life, festivals, and ceremonies until the end of the Qing Dynasty.

Rebellion and resistance to Qing
Taiping rebels being depicted as wearing hanfu and keeping long hair.

Han Chinese rebels who went against the Qing dynasty even retained their queue braids on the back but the symbol of their rebellion against the Qing was the growing of hair on the front of the head, causing the Qing government to view shaving the front of the head as the primary sign of loyalty to the Qing rather than wearing the braid on the back which did not violate Han customs and which traditional Han did not object to.[200][201]Koxinga insulted and criticized the Qing hairstyle by referring to the shaven pate looking like a fly.[202]:77 Koxinga and his men objected to shaving when the Qing demanded they shave in exchange for recognizing Koxinga as a feudatory.[202]:86The Qing demanded that Zheng Jing and his men on Taiwan shave to receive recognition as a fiefdom. His men and Ming prince Zhu Shugui fiercely objected to shaving.[202]:187His men and the last Ming dynasty prince, Zhu Shugui (1617 – 1683 AD), fiercely objected to the shaving decree.[202]:187

Dragon robe, Taiping Kingdom

In the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Qing dynasty's clothing and queue braids were opposed and forbidden on cultural and nationalistic grounds, as many in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom were of Hakka descent who opposed the rule of Manchu. In an attempt to restore the identity of the Han Chinese, the Taiping rebels established their own clothing system, which introduced dedicated uniforms and features of Hakka fashion, removing characteristics of qizhuang such as the matixiu or horse-hoof cuffs and hats used by the Qing.[203] The rebels let their hair grow, wearing headscarves or red turbans over them, while others kept their queues hidden under the turbans. Though many of the male fashion still retained many similarities with that of the Qing dynasty.[204][205][206] The kings and princes of the Heavenly Kingdom were the only people allowed to wear yellow dragon robe.[206]

At the same during the Taiping Rebellion, the Red Turban Rebellion broke out in the Guangdong region, whom among their leaders was the locally popular Red Boat Opera Company performer Li Wenmao. Due to opera costumes being exempt from the ban on hanfu, and opera's role in the vernacular culture and identity of the Han Chinese, many of the rebels dressed in opera costumes and organized themselves in roles similar to that of historical opera plays, with Li Wenmao himself supposedly donning the Ming dynasty mangfu. Newly selected civil and military officials also wore respective opera costumes of civil official and military character roles that were analogous to their stations.[207][208] The clothing worn by Taiping Heavenly Kingdom were similarly based on confiscated or repurposed paofu from the opera stages, including the dragon robes worn by the leaders of the rebellion.[209][210]

As a result, Ming dynasty style clothing was even retained in some places in China during the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 AD.[211] In the late Qing dynasty, some members of the White Lotus sect cut down their queues in an act of defiance while most of them only remove a hair strand or unbraided their hair and let it loose.[204] After the Qing dynasty was toppled in the 1911 Xinhai revolution, the Taoist dress and topknot was adopted by the ordinary gentry and "Society for Restoring Ancient Ways" (Fuguhui) on the Sichuan and Hubei border where the White Lotus and Gelaohui operated.[212] It was only later westernized revolutionaries, influenced by western hairstyle who began to view the braid as backward and advocated adopting short haired western hairstyles.[187]

Taoist and buddhist priests/monks
Portrait of a lama or a bonze, drawing by William Alexander, draughtsman of the Macartney Embassy to China in 1793.
Wang Chanyue (?-1680 AD), seventh patriarch of the Longmen branch of the taoist school Quanzhen Dao, Qing dynasty.

Neither Taoist priests nor Buddhist monks were required to wear the queue by the Qing; they continued to wear their traditional hairstyles, completely shaved heads for Buddhist monks, and long hair in the traditional Chinese topknot for Taoist priests.[195][213][214][187]

Taoist priests also continued to wear Taoist traditional dress and did not adopt Qing Manchu dress. Remains of the Ming dynasty subjects also invented various ways to preserve their hairstyle and their Han-style clothing (for example, in remote places).[145] To avoid wearing the queue and shaving the forehead, the Ming loyalist Fu Shan became a Daoist priest after the Qing took over Taiyuan.[215]

Burial practices

After death, their hair could also be combed into a topknot similar to the ones worn by the Han Chinese in Ming; a practice which was observed by the Europeans;[204] men who were wealthy but held no official rank were allowed to be buried in a deep-blue silk shenyi which was edged with bright blue or white band.[169] Men who were in mourning were also exempted;[195] however, since the mourners were not allowed to wear topknot in accordance to the Confucian rites, the men simply untied their queues and left their loose hair dishevelled.[204] Women from wealthy families could also be buried in a variation of shenyi called the bai shou yi (lit. "longevity jacket"), a deep blue or black ao with the character shou for longevity embroidered in gold all over the ao.[169] The bai shou yi was worn with a white pleated skirt which was edged with blue satin; the skirt was embroidered with the many blue shou character.[169]

Chinese opera and drama performers

The ban of Hanfu also did not apply to performers who wore and displayed Hanfu-style costumes when performing dramas.[199]

Women's clothing

For women's clothing, Manchu and Han fashions of clothing coexisted.[195][7]:7 The Han Chinese women carefully maintained their pure Han Chinese ethnicity and did not wear Manchu clothing.[169] Throughout the Qing dynasty, Han women continued to wear clothing from Ming dynasty; however, with time, the Ming dynasty customs started to be forgotten and influence from the Manchu started to influence the women's clothing.[169][216] Yet, Manchu women and Han Chinese women never emulated each other's clothing; and as a result, by the end of the nineteenth century, Manchu and Han Chinese women had maintained distinctive clothing.[195]

At the beginning of the Qing dynasty, Han Chinese women were expected to continue the Han Chinese clothing of the Ming dynasty.[169] Manchu women wore a long, one-piece robe with a curving robe whereas Han Chinese women continued to wear the combination upper and lower garment.[195][7]:7[217][6]:31 As Han Chinese women were not forced to change in to Manchu clothing, most of the clothing elements of the Han Chinese women in the Qing dynasty continued to follow the style of the Ming dynasty's ao coat.[218] Following the Ming dynasty customs, Han Chinese women would wear ruqun and aoqun,[195][6]:31 which was a popular fashion in the Qing dynasty.[219] Trousers were sometimes worn under the skirts if they were commoners or unmarried.[58][6]:31 Han Chinese women, who were unmarried or were peasants, would wear shanku without any overskirt.[6]:31 Wearing skirts were generally considered a symbol of maturity and was reserved for married women.[169]

In the middle of the Qing dynasty, Manchu and Han Chinese women started to influence each other's clothing; however, they still maintain the uniqueness of their respective clothing styles.[7]:7 The late Qing dynasty, Han Chinese women in the gentry and aristocratic classes started to imitate the clothing of the Manchu; similarly, the Manchu women started to imitate the clothing of the Han Chinese women; and thus, they influenced each other.[191][7]:7

In the late Qing dynasty, Han Chinese's ao continued to share some similarities with the ao worn in the Ming dynasty.[218] However, the clothing worn by the Han Chinese women was also influenced by Manchu culture to some degree; for example, in terms of clothing colour, embroidery and binding.[218] The late Qing dynasty ao had large sleeves, a slant opening and was waist-length.[169][218] Elderly Chinese women wore an ao with round standing collar, which had a planket by the right, flat sleeves, sleeves which were wrist-length and had a wide cuff.[218] The collar of the Han Chinese ao may be standing collar or low collar stand, and there were slits on both sides of the ao.[218] The waist-length ao could also have narrow sleeves and a front opening.[218] Women clothing in the late Qing dynasty also had piped edges.[33]

The silk skirts which are indigenous to Han Chinese women are a representative garment of the Qing dynasty clothing.[58] A popular form of skirts during the Qing dynasty was the mamianqun, a skirt made of two separate pieces of fabric which are not sewn together from the waistline to the hemline; this skirt allowed women with bounded feet to walk with greater ease.[58][220] The mamianqun had very subtle changes in both the cut and decorations throughout the Qing dynasty.[58] Other Han Chinese women skirts which were popular in the Qing dynasty were the baijianqun (百襇裙; hundred pleated skirt), the yuehuaqun (月華裙; moonlight skirt) which was popular in the early Qing, the phoenix tail skirt which was popular during the reign of Kangxi and Qianlong,[63]:80–83 and the ‘fish-scale’ skirt.[220] At the end of the Qing dynasty, a skirt decorated with sword-shaped ribbons with bells hanging at the sharp corner appear.[63]:80–83 Han Chinese women also wore dudou, which was developed from the Ming dynasty dudou.[169]

Outside China in 1911, the magazine Vogue recommended shopping for a set of attire called "boudoir set" which consisted of the Qing dynasty aoqun with wide hems and wide sleeves, and shoes.[221] However, by the Xinhai revolution in 1911, the wide hemmed and wide sleeved Qing dynasty aoqun was no more popular among urban Han Chinese women in China; instead they started to make their clothing narrower.[221] Ready-to-wear Western clothing had little popularity among Chinese consumers as due to proportion misfit of Western clothing.[221]

Children

Infants would wear dudou, which was embroidered with luck charms, as their only clothing in hot summer months until they reach the age of two to three years old.[169] Han Chinese children were spared from the tifayifu policy and could be dressed in Hanfu;[199] their clothing was fastened to the right side in the Ming dynasty–style.[169] Their daily clothing was made of silk, and they would wear satin and silk clothing for special occasions; the colours of the clothing were bright and the clothing were typically red and pink as these were auspicious colours.[169]

They also wore a baijiayi in the Qing dynasty to wish a child good fortune and as a protection from evil,[169] as well as different style of hats, such as the "rice bowl hat", the "tiger head hat", and the "dog head hat", which aim to protect against evil spirits and later on to attract good fortune when they have to take important examinations.[169][7]

20th century

In 1912 AD, the Republic of China was established and government ministers were required to western-style clothing. Official attire for both men and women were regulated and published in the government gazettes; the men had to wear western-style clothing on formal days and evening, and in informal time, they could wear either Western suit or changshanmagua. Women had to wear Qing style aoqun Women started to wear more western-style clothing, Foot binding was legally abolished.

During the early years of the republic, cutting off the queue was a pre-requisite for provincial election votes, and in 1914, policemen cut off the queue of any anyone arrested wearing queues.[204]

After the fall of the Qing dynasty, Yuan Shikai revived the Sacrifice at the Temple of Heaven ceremony; he also proclaimed himself as Emperor Hongxian and the beginning of a new dynasty; the robe and hat which specially designed for him to wear on the day of this ceremony was based on the ceremonial dress worn by the Han and Ming dynasty emperors on sacrificial ceremonies.[222] However, Yuan Shikai did not adhere to the Han dynasty and Ming dynasty fashion completely and these gowns showed differences in design, i.e. the use of roundels.[222] A manual, called the Jisi guanfutu (祭祀冠服圖; The Illustrated Manual of Dress for Ritual Sacrifices), was specially prepared and produced in 1914 AD by the Zhengshitang lizhiguan (政事堂禮制館; Bureau of Rites of the Executive Affairs department); this manual provided a detailed description of the attire worn by Yuan Shikai and the participants of the ceremony on this 1914 public, ceremonial event.[222] Yuan Shikai's ceremonial gown was jiaoling youren (i.e. fastened over the right side), made of black satin which was bordered with gold brocade and was decorated with twelve roundels which depicted the full twelve Imperial symbols (shier zhang; 十二章). Officials gowns were also designed for officials who had to participate in the ceremony; the officials gown were made of black satin and the edges were made with blue brocade.Laws regarding the official dress were also decreed:

  1. First-rank officials had to wear nine roundels with nine symbols on their gowns;
  2. Second-rank officials had to wear seven roundels with seven symbols;
  3. Third-rank officials had to wear five roundels with five symbols;
  4. Fourth-rank officials had to wear three roundels with three symbols; and
  5. Fifth-rank officials and below had to wear a robe without any borders and without any roundels.
Seventh rank roundel emblem on ceremonial robes.

Those imperial emblems which were used in the roundels originated from the twelve emblems which were documented in the Shangshu. This ceremonial gown was worn over a purple satin apron skirt which would be edged with either blue or gold brocade; a belt of matching colour was also worn around the waist.[169] They also wore flat hats, and some of them had string of pearls which hung over their faces just like the hats which were worn by the Han Chinese emperors of the earlier dynasties. Yuan Shikai's deliberate way of dressing up to pay respect to Heaven was not only made in accordance to the old imperial traditions, but it can also be considered as a public declaration to the Chinese people and to the world that the old Chinese customs were still relevant in modern society. When Yuan Shikai died in 1916, he was buried in imperial gown which was decorated with nine golden dragons. However, since his reign was short-lived, the attempts at restoring ancient Chinese ceremonial and official gowns failed and gradually disappeared.[222][169]

In 1919, women aoqun evolved; the ao became slimmer and longer until it reached below the narrow; the sleeves became narrower to the wrists, and the side slits were shortened; the collars became very high with some corners turning down sometimes and other collars reaching up to the ears.[169] The edges of the ao became narrow contrasting to the wide bands of embroidery which was popular in the past.[169] The ao was worn with a one-piece ankle length skirt.[169]

In the early 1920s, the ao became more fitted and was shortened reaching only the top of the hip with a rounded hem, the sleeves were also shortened to three quarter of its length. The skirt became plainer, cut with a simple flared style, and wide waistband was replaced by narrow band in which a cord or elastic was threaded.[169] The qipao, also known as cheongsam, was eventually created in the middle of 1920s.[169]

In 1927, changshan and magua was established as the formal, official wear for men, and they were worn for important ceremonies, such as weddings, temple and ancestral halls worship.[169] Women's formal wear was either a black ao and blue skirt with the same style as the earlier outfit or the cheongsam.[169]

In the mid-1930s as men started to adopt more Western clothing. Under the Japanese occupation, more men started to wear even more Western suits and ties, and the men traditional clothing was worn on informal occasions.[169] In 1932, the Nationalist government began to force Miao, Yao, and Kam people to wear hanfu.[223]

During the Cultural Revolution, traditional Chinese clothing, as a broad term, was considered as being part of one of the "four olds" and the Mao suit was popularized for both genders.[169] Skirts also disappeared as they were considered being both impractical for manual work and ideologically inappropriate during this time period.[169] In 1974, Jiang Qing, the fourth wife of Mao Zedong, wanted to make an attire, known as the Jiang Qing dress, as the national dress for the Chinese women.[28]:248–255[224] The Jiang Qing dress, which she personally designed, consisted of pleated skirts instead of trousers, the sleeves were nearly elbow-length, there was a central opening, and the neckline was V-shaped and was delineated by a wide, white band; the skirt was based on the pleated skirts (i.e. the "one hundred pleats" skirt) worn by the court ladies worn in Tang dynasty paintings.[28]:248–255[224] The earliest form of Jiang Qing dress is documented and appear in the 1974 Asian Games photos.[28]:248–255 Jiang Qing tried to popularize the dress in diverse ways through public and foreign avenues; however, her dress failed to win popularity and was disliked.[28]:248–255 Since the late 1970s, skirts and dresses reappeared and western-style clothing became popular in daily lives.[28]:257–265

Since the 20th century, hanfu and hanfu-style clothing has been used frequently as ancient costumes in Chinese and foreign television series, films and other forms of entertainment media, and was widely popularized since the late 1980s dramas.[24][225][25][226] One example of historically inaccurate hanfu-style costume is the costume worn by Disney's Mulan, where the wide sleeves of the hanfu were reduced to narrow sleeves reflecting modern fashion and to reflect the character of Disney's Mulan.[226]

Many elements and costumes styles worn in Chinese opera are derived from the Ming dynasty clothing and may be blended with the clothing style from the Tang to Qing dynasty.[227] The opera costumes worn in Kunqu opera is primarily based on the clothing worn in Ming dynasty.[228] And, most of the style of costumes depicted in Cantonese opera are also derived from the clothing of the Ming dynasty, with a few exception being derived from the Qing dynasty clothing.[229][230] Costumes of Cantonese opera uses the Ming-style clothing for opera which are set in all dynasties, except for the ones set in the Qing dynasty; those costumes follow the Qing-style.[231][232]

Hanfu in modern Taoism (20th century – present)

Modern Taoist monks and Taoism practitioners continue to style their long hair into a touji (頭髻; a topknot hairstyle) and wear traditional clothing.[233][234][235][236] Some modern taoist abbess and priests also wear cross-collared jiaoling youren robes and hats.[237][238]

21st century

Hanfu Movement

The Hanfu Movement is an ongoing social movement which aims at popularizing hanfu and integrating historical Chinese elements into the design of modern clothing, as a way to promote a Chinese identity.

On 22 November 2003, a man named Wang Letian wore a DIY shenyi in public; his hanfu story was published in Lianhe Zaobao newspaper and attracted the public attention. This is commonly perceived as the beginning of the modern Hanfu Movement.[144][239]

Growing popularity and market trend

Entering the 21st century, Hanfu has become a fashion trend and lucrative business sector. In 2018, it was estimated that the Hanfu market consisted of 2 million potential consumers.[2] The estimated revenue sales for 2019 was 1.4 billion yuan (US$199.3 million).[2] According to the iiMedia 2018 survey, women make up 88.2% of the Hanfu enthusiasts and 75.8% of the Hanfu stores on Taobao and Tmall platforms only sell Hanfu for women.[2]

In 2019, it was estimated that there were 1,188 online Hanfu stores on Tmall and Taobao, which shows an increase of 45.77% over the previous year.[2] The Hanfu stores Chong Hui Han Tang ranked third on Tmall in 2019 after the Hanfu store Hanshang Hualian and Shisanyu.[2] In the 2019 edition of the Xitang Hanfu Culture Week, it was estimated that it attracted 40,000 Hanfu enthusiast participants.[2]

A study done by Forward Industry Research Institute (a Chinese research institute) shows that by 2020, the number of Hanfu enthusiasts in China has reached 5.163 million, creating a market size equivalent to 6.36 billion yuan (US$980 million), a proportional increase of over 40% compared to the previous year. Meanwhile, it is projected that by the end of 2021, the total number of Hanfu enthusiasts across China will exceed 7 million, and that the market size of Hanfu will exceed 9 billion yuan (US$1.39 billion).[240]

Modern Hanfu

The 21st century Hanfu is still referred as Hanfu within the Hanfu cultural community for ease of expression.[19] On 8 March 2021, the magazine Vogue published an article on modern Hanfu defining it as a "type of dress from any era when Han Chinese ruled" and reported that the styles based on the Tang, Song, Ming periods were the most popular.[241]

According to some contemporary scholars, modern day Hanfu can be classified into three categories:

  1. Reproductions that are made strictly following the styles depicted on ancient paintings, murals, and/or archaeological finds.
  2. "Contemporary Hanfu" (also known as modern Hanfu, new Hanfu, restored Hanfu[19] and improved Hanfu[242]) which refers to those that are developed based on historical styles of Hanfu, and largely retain the ancient styles (can still be classified into existing categories of historical Hanfu, such as ruqun, beizi etc.), but with modern aesthetics and technologies introduced into their designs.[242]
  3. "Hanyuansu" (漢元素), or "Clothes with Hanfu Elements", refers to modern/everyday clothing with Hanfu style features and/or elements in their design, but cannot be classified into existing categories of ancient Hanfu.[243]

Characteristics and Design

Most modern hanfu are based on sculptures, paintings, art objects, historical records, and historical clothing. Ming dynasty Han Chinese robes given by the Ming Emperors to the Chinese noble Dukes Yansheng descended from Confucius are still preserved in the Confucius Mansion after over five centuries. Robes from the Qing emperors are also preserved there.[244][245][246][247] The Jurchens in the Jin dynasty and Mongols in the Yuan dynasty continued to patronize and support the Confucian Duke Yansheng.[248] Around the year 2007 or 2008, a group of young people from Minghang district, Shanghai, started a project to restore Chinese clothing from ancient dynasties based on rigorous research, spending their days reading ancient documents and looking at paintings to find detailed information about the styles, materials, colours and patterns used in ancient times; this group is called the Ancient Chinese Clothing Restoration Team; Archived 15 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine.[249]

It is also worth noting that an important feature of the modern hanfu (regardless of the three categories it belongs to) is its jiaoling youren characteristic. In fact, this design bear special cultural moral and ethical values. It is said the left collar covering the right represents the perfection of human culture on human nature and the overcoming of bodily forces by the spiritual power of ethical ritual teaching; the expansive cutting and board sleeve represents a moral, concordant relation between nature and human creative power; the use of the girdle to fasten the garment over the body represents the constraints of Han culture to limit human's desire that would incur amoral deed.[250] As a result, jiaoling youren has become an inseparable part of modern hanfu design.

The modern hanfu also changes to a style that can be worn daily, and these styles combined with western clothing or even clothing from other cultures.[251] For example, the recent emergence of Christmas-theme hanfu trend (which occurred especially for Christmas season) on social media and online shops combines hanfu with Christmas elements and Christmas colour hues.[252][253] Another trend is the incorporation of (western-style) lace elements to the hanfu; however, those designs are not considered as authentic hanfu but are considered being clothing with Han elements (or hanyuansu).[2]

Garments

The style of historical Han clothing can be summarized as containing garment elements that are arranged in distinctive and sometimes specific ways. A complete set of garment is assembled from several pieces of clothing into an attire:

There is differences between traditional garment of Han ethnic and other ethnic groups in China, most notably the Manchu-influenced clothes, qipao. A general comparison of the two styles can be seen as the following provides:[254]

Footwear

There were many rules of etiquette which controlled people's daily lives, and this included the use and etiquette of shoe and sock wearing.[255] The rules of Zhou stipulated that shoes had to be removed before entering a house; shoes and socks had to be removed at banquets, and ministers who had to meet with the emperor had to remove both their shoes and socks.[255] Being barefoot was considered a taboo on ceremonial worship occasions.[255]

Headwear and hairstyles

Han dynasty pottery figure showing topknot were partially braided behind the back of the head.

On top of the garments, hats (for men) or hairpieces (for women) may be worn. One can often tell the profession or social rank of someone by what they wear on their heads. The typical types of male headwear are called jin (巾) for soft caps, mao (帽) for stiff hats and guan for formal headdress. Officials and academics have a separate set of hats, typically the putou, the wushamao, the si-fang pingding jin (四方平定巾; or simply, fangjin: 方巾) and the Zhuangzi jin (莊子巾). A typical hairpiece for women is the hairpin called ji (笄) that appeared since Neolithic time, and there are more elaborate hairpieces.

In addition, managing hair was also a crucial part of ancient Han people's daily life. Commonly, males and females would stop cutting their hair once they reached adulthood. This was marked by the Chinese coming of age ceremony Guan Li, usually performed between ages 15 to 20. They allowed their hair to grow long naturally until death, including facial hair. This was due to Confucius' teaching "Shenti fa fu, shou zhu fumu, bu gan huishang, xiaozhi shi ye (身體髮膚,受諸父母,不敢毀傷,孝之始也)" – which can be roughly translated as 'My body, hair and skin are bestowed by my father and mother, I dare not damage any of them, as this is the least I can do to honor and respect my parents'. In fact, cutting one's hair off in ancient China was considered a legal punishment called 'Kun (髡)',[199] designed to humiliate criminals, as well as applying a character as a facial tattoo to notify one's criminality, the punishment is referred to as 'Qing (黥)', since regular people wouldn't have tattoos on their skin attributed to the same philosophy.

Mural of two women with Han hairstyles, Dahuting Tomb

Children were exempt from the above commandment; they could cut their hair short, make different kinds of knots or braids, or simply just let them hang without any care, especially because such a decision was usually made by the parents rather than the children themselves; therefore, parental respect was not violated. However, once they entered adulthood, every male was obliged to tie his long hair into a bun called ji (髻) either on or behind his head and always cover the bun up with different kinds of headdresses (except Buddhist monks, who would always keep their heads completely shaved to show that they're "cut off from the earthly bonds of the mortal world"; and Taoist monks, who would usually just use hair sticks called zan to hold the buns in place without concealing them). Thus the 'disheveled hair', a common but erring depiction of ancient Chinese male figures seen in most modern Chinese period dramas or movies with hair (excluding facial hair) hanging down from both sides and/or in the back are historically inaccurate.[256] Females on the other hand, had more choices in terms of decorating their hair as adults. They could still arrange their hair into as various kinds of hairstyles as they pleased. There were different fashions for women in various dynastic periods.

Such strict "no-cutting" hair tradition was implemented all throughout Han Chinese history since Confucius' time up until the end of Ming dynasty (1644 CE), when the Qing Prince Dorgon forced the male Han people to adopt the hairstyle of Manchu men, which was shave their foreheads bald and gather the rest of the hair into the queue to show that they submitted to Qing authority, the so-called "Queue Order" (薙髮令). Han children and females were spared from this order, also Taoist monks were allowed to keep their hair and Buddhist monks were allowed to keep all their hair shaven. Han defectors to the Qing like Li Chengdong and Liu Liangzuo and their Han troops carried out the queue order to force it on the general population. Han Chinese soldiers in 1645 under Han General Hong Chengchou forced the queue on the people of Jiangnan while Han people were initially paid silver to wear the queue in Fuzhou when it was first implemented.[187]

Accessories

Hanfu also consists of many forms of accessories, such as jewelry, waist ornaments, ribbons, shawls, scarves, and other hand-held items. rdized: the upper ring (珩, héng), middle ring (琚, jū), lower ring (璜, huáng), with jade beads (冲牙, chōngyá) strung between. Each piece corresponded to a cardinal virtue — benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity. The quality of jade indicated social rank: imperial princes wore white jade from Khotan, officials wore green jade, and commoners were restricted to soapstone or glass imitations. Empress dowager Cixi was known to own over 3,000 jade pieces, including a set of twelve pendants each carved from a single flawless block.

Silk Sashes and Waist Ornaments (宫绦)

The waist sash was the defining structural element of Hanfu. Unlike modern belts, the Chinese sash (绦, tāo) was a wide silk band wrapped multiple times around the waist and tied in specific knots. The knot style indicated the wearer's region and social context: butterfly knots for festive occasions, double-loop knots for formal court attire, and simple hanging knots for everyday wear. During the Ming Dynasty, the xiaopei (霞帔) — a embroidered waist ornament worn over the shoulders — became mandatory court attire for wives of officials, the embroidery pattern strictly regulated by rank. Wives of first-rank officials wore gold-threaded phoenixes; ninth-rank officials' wives wore plain silk with no embroidery. The xiaopei was fastened with a silver clasp called the yinkou (银扣) and hung with jade pendants that clicked audibly when the wearer moved.

Pibo Shawls (披帛)

The pibo was a long silk scarf, typically two to three meters in length, draped over the shoulders and arms. It originated during the Han Dynasty as a practical garment for palace women to cover their shoulders, but reached its artistic peak in the Tang Dynasty, where dancers used the pibo as an extension of their movement. Tang dynasty poet Bai Juyi described a dancer "sending the flying ribbon to the clouds" in his poem Song of the Rainbow Skirt and Feathered Coat (霓裳羽衣歌). The pibo was worn across all social classes but distinguished by material: imperial consorts wore Sichuan brocade with gold-wrapped threads, while common women wore hemp or plain silk. In Buddhist cave murals at Dunhuang, celestial apsaras are consistently depicted with flowing pibos — indicating the accessory's association with otherworldly grace. The pibo declined during the Ming Dynasty as women adopted the xiapei and higher-collared garments, but has seen a major revival in the modern Hanfu movement.

Round Silk Fans (团扇)

The round silk fan (团扇, tuánshàn) — also called the palace fan (宫扇) — was the most socially complex Hanfu accessory. It served as a cooling implement, a communication device, and a status symbol simultaneously. In Chinese poetic tradition, the fan carried layered meanings: a woman's dropped fan signaled romantic interest; a deliberately closed fan indicated displeasure; fanning slowly was a mark of refinement. The tuánshàn reached its highest artistic form during the Song Dynasty, when court painters created fans that were genuine works of art — one side painted with birds and flowers, the other inscribed with calligraphy. These fans were mounted on handles of sandalwood, ivory, or bamboo and carried by both men and women. Folding fans (折扇, zhéshàn) were introduced from Japan via Korea during the Northern Song Dynasty and became the preferred accessory of Ming scholars, who used them to display their own calligraphy and painting. The folding fan's ribs were counted as status markers: 16 ribs for scholars, 20 for officials, 24 for imperial princes.

Hairpins and Coronets (发簪与凤冠)

Hair accessories in Hanfu formed a complete language of age, marital status, and social rank. Unmarried girls wore their hair in simple styles with fabric flowers (簪花, zānhuā). The jifaLi (笄礼), the traditional coming-of-age ceremony for girls at age fifteen, involved the first formal insertion of a hairpin — marking her transition to adulthood and eligibility for marriage. After marriage, women wore their hair in a bun secured with multiple pins (发簪, fàzān): the zān was a single-pronged pin, the chai (钗) had two prongs and was often decorated with pendants that swayed with movement, and the buyao (步摇, "step-shake") featured dangling ornaments that trembled with each step. The fengguan (凤冠, phoenix crown) was the most elaborate Hanfu headpiece — a coronet worn by brides and imperial consorts. Empress Zhu Yousi's wedding coronet, recorded in Ming Dynasty archives, featured: six dragon-and-phoenix panels in gold filigree, 3,426 pearls, 1,728 kingfisher feathers (点翠, diǎncùi), and ninety-five rubies. The kingfisher feather technique, now banned due to the species' protected status, was a uniquely Chinese art form that produced an iridescent blue-green color that no dye could replicate.

Embroidered Shoes (绣花鞋)

Hanfu footwear followed strict rules of form and color. Men wore black silk boots with white felt soles for formal occasions and plain cloth shoes at home. Women's shoes were elaborately embroidered — the xiuhuaxie (绣花鞋) featured needlework that matched the season and occasion: lotuses for summer, chrysanthemums for autumn, plum blossoms for winter. The curved-toe style (翘头履, qiàotóulǚ), where the toe curved upward into a small hook, was the most distinctive Hanfu shoe shape — it prevented the long robe hem from being stepped on and created a graceful line from hem to toe. During the Tang Dynasty, court ladies wore platform shoes (高头履, gāotóulǚ) with soles up to fifteen centimeters thick, layered with white, blue, and red felt. The height of the platform indicated status — the Empress's platform shoes were the tallest.

Incense Pouches (香囊)

The xiangnang (香囊) was a small embroidered bag filled with aromatic herbs and spices — typically wormwood, angelica, cinnamon, and musk. Worn at the waist or tucked into the sleeve, it served multiple purposes: warding off evil spirits (herbs were believed to have protective properties), freshening the air, preventing illness, and signaling refined taste. During the Dragon Boat Festival (端午节), children wore especially elaborate incense pouches as protection against disease during the summer months. The xiangnang also functioned as a love token — a woman would embroider a ● pouch with paired symbols (mandarin ducks, lotuses, butterflies) and fill it with her preferred fragrance, giving it to her beloved as an implicit declaration of affection. The practice was recorded as early as the Han Dynasty and continued unbroken into the twentieth century.

See also

Sub-categories of hanfu

Other clothing in the Sinosphere

Notes

  1. See Hufu.
  2. For wooden figures from a Xingyang warring-state period tomb, see external links.
  3. In this context, the shanqun refers to the upper garment covering the skirt, while ruqun refers to the covering of upper garment by the skirt.
  4. Hufu in the Tang dynasty included clothing styles from the Tartars or clothing of the people who lived in the Western Regions during this period.
  5. The term 'haner' refers to Han Chinese of mixed origins or who have adopted some Khitan customs.

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  1. "120". Book of Later Han. 秦以戰國即天子位,滅去禮學,郊祀之服皆以袀玄。漢承秦故。
    • "120". Book of Later Han. 显宗遂就大业,初服旒冕,衣裳文章,赤舄絇屦,以祠天地,养三老五更于三雍,于时致治平矣。
    • "2". Book of Later Han. 二年春正月辛未,宗祀光武皇帝於明堂,帝及公卿列侯始服冠冕、衣裳、玉佩、絇屨以行事
  2. "120". Book of Later Han. 古者有冠無幘,其戴也,加首有頍,所以安物。故詩曰「有頍者弁」,此之謂也。三代之世,法制滋彰,下至戰國,文武並用。秦雄諸侯,乃加其武將首飾為絳袙,以表貴賤,其後稍稍作顏題。漢興,續其顏,卻摞之,施巾連題,卻覆之,今喪幘是其制也。名之曰幘。幘者,賾也,頭首嚴賾也。至孝文乃高顏題,續之為耳,崇其巾為屋,合後施收,上下群臣貴賤皆服之。文者長耳,武者短耳,稱其冠也。尚書幘收,方三寸,名曰納言,示以忠正,顯近職也。迎氣五郊,各如其色,從章服也。
  3. "120". Book of Later Han. 皁衣群吏春服青幘,立夏乃止,助微順氣,尊其方也。武吏常赤幘,成其威也。未冠童子幘無屋者,示未成人也。入學小童幘也句卷屋者,示尚幼少,未遠冒也。喪幘卻摞,反本禮也。升數如冠,與冠偕也。期喪起耳有收,素幘亦如之,禮輕重有制,變除從漸,文也。
  4. "120". Book of Later Han. 武冠,俗谓之大冠,环缨无蕤,以青系为绲,加双鹖尾,竖左右,为鹖冠云
  5. "120". Book of Later Han. 进贤冠,古缁布冠也,文儒者之服也。前高七寸,后高三寸,长八寸。公侯三梁,中二千石以下至博士两梁,自博士以下至小史私学弟子,皆一梁。宗室刘氏亦两梁冠,示加服也。
  6. "120". Book of Later Han. 步摇以黄金为山题,贯白珠为桂枝相缪...

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