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Harthacnut ( en danés : Hardeknud ; [a] "nudo duro"; [2] c. 1018 - 8 de junio de 1042), tradicionalmente Hardicanute , a veces denominado Canuto III , fue rey de Dinamarca entr...

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Harthacnut ( en danés : Hardeknud ; [a] "nudo duro"; [2] c.  1018  - 8 de junio de 1042), tradicionalmente Hardicanute , a veces denominado Canuto III , fue rey de Dinamarca entre 1035 y 1042 y rey ​​de Inglaterra entre 1040 y 1042.

Harthacnut era hijo del rey Canuto el Grande (que gobernó Dinamarca , Noruega e Inglaterra) y Emma de Normandía . Cuando Canuto murió en 1035, Harthacnut luchó por conservar las posesiones de su padre. Magnus I tomó el control de Noruega, pero Harthacnut sucedió como rey de Dinamarca y se convirtió en rey de Inglaterra en 1040 después de la muerte de su medio hermano Harold Harefoot , rey de Inglaterra. El propio Harthacnut murió repentinamente en 1042 y fue sucedido por Magnus en Dinamarca y Eduardo el Confesor en Inglaterra. Harthacnut fue el último danés en gobernar Inglaterra.

Primeros años de vida

Harthacnut nació poco después del matrimonio de sus padres en julio o agosto de 1017. [2] Canuto había dejado de lado a su primera esposa Ælfgifu de Northampton para casarse con Emma, ​​y ​​según el Encomium Emmae Reginae , un libro que ella inspiró muchos años después, Canuto estuvo de acuerdo en que cualquier hijo de su matrimonio debería tener precedencia sobre los hijos de su primer matrimonio. En 1023, Emma y Harthacnut desempeñaron un papel principal en el traslado del cuerpo de la mártir Santa Ælfheah de Londres a Canterbury, una ocasión vista por el biógrafo de Harthacnut, Ian Howard, como un reconocimiento a su posición como heredero de Canuto en Inglaterra. [3]

En la década de 1020, Dinamarca se vio amenazada por Noruega y Suecia, y en 1026 Canuto decidió reforzar sus defensas trayendo a su hijo de ocho años para que fuera el futuro rey bajo un consejo encabezado por su cuñado, el conde Ulf . Ulf se enemistó con Canuto al lograr que las provincias danesas reconocieran a Harthacnut como rey sin hacer referencia a la autoridad general de Canuto y al no tomar medidas enérgicas para enfrentar las invasiones noruegas y suecas, esperando en cambio la ayuda de Canuto. En 1027, Canuto llegó con una flota. Perdonó a Harthacnut su insubordinación en vista de su juventud, pero hizo asesinar a Ulf. Expulsó a los invasores de Dinamarca y estableció su autoridad sobre Noruega, regresando a Inglaterra en 1028 y dejando Dinamarca para que fuera gobernada por el rey Harthacnut. [4]

Canuto, rey de Inglaterra, Dinamarca y Noruega, y sus hijos Haroldo Harefoot y Harthacnut

Canuto había dejado Noruega bajo el gobierno de Håkon Eiriksson , quien se ahogó en un naufragio en 1029 o 1030. Canuto entonces nombró a su hijo Svein para gobernar Noruega con la ayuda de Ælfgifu, la primera esposa de Canuto y madre de Svein. Se hicieron impopulares por los altos impuestos y por favorecer a los consejeros daneses sobre los nobles noruegos, y cuando el rey Magnus I de Noruega , hijo del anterior rey de Noruega, Olaf , invadió el país en 1035, se vieron obligados a huir a la corte de Harthacnut. Harthacnut era un aliado cercano de Svein, pero no sentía que sus recursos fueran lo suficientemente grandes como para lanzar una invasión de Noruega, y los medio hermanos buscaron la ayuda de su padre, pero en cambio recibieron noticias de su muerte en noviembre de 1035. [5]

Reinado

Harold y Dinamarca

En 1035, Harthacnut sucedió a su padre en el trono de Dinamarca como Canuto III. [1] No pudo venir a Inglaterra en vista de la situación en Dinamarca, y se acordó que el hermano de Svein, Harold Harefoot, actuara como regente, con Emma manteniendo Wessex en nombre de Harthacnut. En 1037, Harold fue aceptado generalmente como rey, Harthacnut fue, en palabras de la Crónica anglosajona , "abandonado porque estuvo demasiado tiempo en Dinamarca", [6] mientras que Emma huyó a Brujas , en Flandes . En 1039, Harthacnut navegó con diez barcos para encontrarse con su madre en Brujas , pero retrasó una invasión ya que estaba claro que Harold estaba enfermo y pronto moriría, lo que ocurrió en marzo de 1040. Los enviados pronto cruzaron el canal para ofrecerle el trono a Harthacnut.

Aunque el esquema general de los acontecimientos que siguieron a la muerte de Canuto es claro, los detalles son oscuros y los historiadores dan diferentes interpretaciones. El historiador MK Lawson afirma que no está claro si Harthacnut iba a tener Inglaterra además de Dinamarca, pero probablemente fue un reflejo de un acuerdo formal por el cual las casas de moneda al sur del Támesis producían peniques de plata en su nombre, mientras que las del norte eran casi todas de Haroldo. Podría haberse producido una división del reino si Harthacnut hubiera aparecido de inmediato. Probablemente se quedó en Dinamarca debido a la amenaza de Magnus de Noruega, pero finalmente firmaron un tratado por el cual si uno de ellos moría sin un heredero, su reino pasaría al otro, y esto puede haber liberado a Harthacnut para seguir con su reclamo sobre Inglaterra. [2]

Según Ian Howard, Harthacnut aceptó ayudar a Svein a recuperar Noruega y planeó una invasión en 1036. Svein murió poco antes de que se iniciara la invasión, pero Harthacnut siguió adelante de todos modos. La guerra se evitó gracias al tratado entre Harthacnut y Magnus, al que Harthacnut accedió porque no tenía ningún candidato plausible para gobernar Noruega después de la muerte de Svein y, en cualquier caso, estaba inclinado por temperamento a evitar campañas y guerras. Howard fecha el tratado en 1036, [7] mientras que otros historiadores lo datan en 1039 y creen que liberó a Harthacnut para lanzar una invasión de Inglaterra. [8] [9]

Exiliada en Brujas, Emma conspiró para conseguir el trono inglés para su hijo. Patrocinó el Encomium Emmae Reginae , que la elogiaba y atacaba a Harold, especialmente por organizar el asesinato de Alfred Atheling (el más joven de los dos hijos de Emma con Æthelred) en 1036. La obra describe el horror de Harthacnut al enterarse del asesinato de su medio hermano y, en opinión de Howard, probablemente influyó en persuadir finalmente al cauteloso Harthacnut para que invadiera Inglaterra. Según una edición posterior del Encomium , los ingleses tomaron la iniciativa de comunicarse con Harthacnut en 1039, posiblemente cuando se dieron cuenta de que a Harold no le quedaba mucho tiempo de vida. [10]

Regreso a Inglaterra

Penique de plata de Harthacnut

Harthacnut viajó a Inglaterra con su madre. El desembarco en Sandwich el 17 de junio de 1040, "siete días antes del solsticio de verano ", [11] fue pacífico, aunque tenía una flota de 62 buques de guerra. A pesar de que había sido invitado a tomar el trono, no quería correr riesgos y llegó como un conquistador con una fuerza de invasión. [12] Las tripulaciones tuvieron que ser recompensadas por su servicio, y para pagarles, recaudó un geld de más de 21.000 libras, una enorme suma de dinero que lo hizo impopular, aunque era solo una cuarta parte de la cantidad que su padre había recaudado en circunstancias similares en 1017-1018. [13]

Harthacnut had been horrified by Harold's murder of Alfred, and his mother demanded vengeance. With the approval of Harold's former councillors, his body was disinterred from its place of honour at Westminster and publicly beheaded. It was disposed of in a sewer, but then retrieved and thrown in the Thames, from which London shipmen rescued it and had it buried in a churchyard.[14] Godwin, the powerful earl of Wessex, had been complicit in the crime as he had handed over Alfred to Harold, and Queen Emma charged him in a trial before Harthacnut and members of his council. The king allowed Godwin to escape punishment by bringing witnesses that he had acted on Harold's orders, but Godwin then gave Harthacnut a ship so richly decorated that it amounted to the wergild that Godwin would have had to pay if he had been found guilty.[15] Bishop Lyfing of Worcester was also charged with complicity in the crime and deprived of his see, but in 1041 he made his peace with Harthacnut and was restored to his position.[2]

The English had become used to the king ruling in council, with the advice of his chief men, but Harthacnut had ruled autocratically in Denmark, and he was not willing to change, particularly as he did not fully trust the leading earls. At first he was successful intimidating his subjects, though less so later in his short reign. He doubled the size of the English fleet from sixteen to thirty-two ships, partly so that he had a force capable of dealing with trouble elsewhere in his empire,[16] and to pay for it he severely increased the rate of taxation.[9] The increase coincided with a poor harvest, causing severe hardship. In 1041, two of his tax gatherers were so harsh in dealing with people in and around Worcester that they rioted and killed the tax gatherers. Harthacnut reacted by imposing a then-legal but very unpopular punishment known as "harrying". He ordered his earls to burn the town and kill the population. Few people were killed, as the people of Worcester had fled in advance of their arrival.[2][17] Although the city was burnt and plundered, citizens of Worcester who had taken refuge on an island in the River Severn fought successfully against Harthacnut's troops, and won the right to return to their homes without further punishment.[18][19]

The earl of Northumbria was Siward, but Earl Eadwulf of Bamburgh ruled the northern part in semi-independence, a situation which did not please the autocratic Harthacnut. In 1041, Earl Eadwulf gave offence to the king for an unknown reason but then sought reconciliation. Harthacnut promised him safe conduct but then colluded in his murder by Siward, who became earl of the whole of Northumbria. The crime was widely condemned, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle described it as "a betrayal" and the king as an "oath-breaker".[2][20]

Harthacnut was generous to the church. Very few contemporary documents survive, but a royal charter of his transferred land to Bishop Ælfwine of Winchester, and he made several grants to Ramsey Abbey. The 12th century Ramsey Chronicle speaks well of his generosity and of his character.[2]

Death

Harthacnut had suffered from bouts of illness even before he became King of England. He may have suffered from tuberculosis, and he probably knew that he had not long to live.[21] In 1041, he invited his half-brother Edward the Confessor (his mother Emma's son by Æthelred the Unready) back from exile in Normandy and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that Edward was sworn in as king. Lawson comments: "This may mean that Edward was recognized as heir of Harthacnut, who had neither wife nor children, and who is said by the slightly later Norman historian William of Poitiers to have suffered from frequent illness. The likely truth of this is suggested not only by his sudden death the following year, but also because it is otherwise difficult to see why a man in his early twenties with a normal life expectancy should have acted so." He may well have been influenced by Emma, who hoped to keep her power by ensuring that one of her sons was succeeded by another.[2] The historian John Maddicott comments that Harthacnut must have sanctioned Edward's return and may have promoted it,[22] but Tom Licence disagrees and suggests that Edward was summoned to England by the leading magnates because they had lost confidence in Harthacnut and forced Edward on him. Licence comments that no contemporary source says that Harthacnut was dying.[23]

On 8 June 1042, Harthacnut attended a wedding in Lambeth. The groom was Tovi the Proud, and the bride was Gytha, daughter of Osgod Clapa. Both men had been close to Cnut.[24] According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, "Harthacnut died as he stood at his drink, and he suddenly fell to the earth with an awful convulsion; and those who were close by took hold of him, and he spoke no word afterwards".[25] In Licence's view, the death was not that of a sick man.[26]

Succession

Harthacnut (left) meeting the young King Magnus the Good at the Göta älv river in modern-day Sweden. Illustration by Halfdan Egedius.

The political agreement between Harthacnut and Magnus the Good included the appointment of the latter as heir to Harthacnut. At the time, the agreement would have only affected the throne of Denmark. The Heimskringla reports that when Harthacnut died, Magnus extended his claim to England. He reportedly sent a letter to Edward the Confessor, pressing his claim to the English throne and threatening invasion. His own heir, Harald Hardrada, would also press this claim. Both considered themselves legal heirs to Harthacnut.[27] The Fagrskinna contains a scene where Magnus proclaims: "I will take possession of all the Danish empire or else die in the attempt."[28]

According to the Encomium, Edward the Confessor already served as co-ruler of England since 1041. There is an emphasis on Harthacnut, Edward, and Emma serving as a trinity of rulers, in emulation of the Holy Trinity. Edward, by surviving his co-ruler, would be king by default. The Heimskringla depicts Edward portraying himself as brother and legal heir to both Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut, while pointing out that he had already won the support "of all the people of the country". Unstated in both is that the marriage of Edward to Edith of Wessex would also support his claim by earning him both the political support of her father Godwin and an additional connection to Cnut. She was a niece to the king.[27] The Fagrskinna has Edward point out that he was the son of Æthelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy, the half-brother to Edmund Ironside, the stepson of Cnut, the stepbrother of Harold Harefoot, and the half-brother of Harthacnut. In short, he had a much stronger family claim to the throne than Magnus. All the leaders of England had already acknowledged him as their king, and he was consecrated by an archbishop. England was his own heritage. Whether Magnus defeated him in war or not, he was told: "You can never be called king in England, and you will never be granted any allegiance there before you put an end to my life." This was supposedly enough to cause Magnus to doubt the strength of his own claim.[29]

The marriage agreement between Gunhilda of Denmark (sister of Harthacnut) and Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor was meant to allow descendants of the marriage to claim the throne of Denmark and potentially of England. From Henry's perspective, it was probably orchestrated to allow the Holy Roman Empire to claim control of Denmark and the western areas of the Baltic Sea. She died in 1038 with no known sons.[27] Her only daughter was Beatrice I, Abbess of Quedlinburg, who never married.

Reputation

A painting of Harthacnut by Christen Nielsen Overgaard [da] from around 1880 commissioned by The Museum of National History at Frederiksborg Castle.

Apart from the Ramsey Chronicle, medieval sources are hostile to Harthacnut. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, he "did nothing worthy of a king as long as he ruled".[30] Modern historians are less dismissive. In the view of M. K. Lawson, he had at least two of the requisites of a successful medieval king: he was "both ruthless and feared"; had he not died young, the Norman Conquest might not have happened. Ian Howard praises Harthacnut for keeping peace throughout his empire, benefiting trade and merchants, and ensuring a peaceful succession by inviting Edward to his court as his heir. Had he lived longer, Howard believes, his character might have enabled him to become a successful king like his father.[31]

Henry of Huntingdon (12th century) claimed that Harthacnut ordered for the dining tables of his court to be "laid four times a day with royal sumptuousness" which O'Brien says is likely a popular myth.[32] Henry of Huntingdon viewed this detail in the context of the monarch sharing these meals with the members of his household, making Harthacnut more generous than his own contemporaries, who "through avarice, or as they pretend through disgust, ... set but one meal a day before their dependents".[33] His account produced the image of Harthacnut as a "very generous bon viveur".[32] Ranulf Higden (14th century) viewed the same detail in a negative light. He claimed that Harthacnut insisted on having two dinners and two suppers per day. His example influenced the English people, who supposedly were to Higden's day gluttonous and extravagant. Higden so claimed that Harthacnut had a lasting effect on the English national character.[34] The association of Harthacnut with gluttony was well known enough to appear in the novel Ivanhoe (1819) by Walter Scott. The character Cedric comments on his friend Athelstane, whose main character trait is a love for food and drink: "The soul of Hardicanute hath taken possession of him, and he hath no pleasure save to fill, to swill, and to call for more."[35][36]

The Knýtlinga saga treats the death of Harthacnut as the end of an ancient line of kings, and notes that he was the last Danish king to rule over England. But otherwise, Harthacnut is treated as a mere footnote in the line of monarchs, while there are many observations on Cnut. The Morkinskinna covers Harthacnut's death in some detail, but records next to nothing about his life, suggesting a lack of memorable details on him, presumably due to his short reign.[37]

The Brut Chronicle was an Anglo-Norman work, covering British and English monarchs from Brut (Brutus of Troy) to the death of Henry III in 1272. It was probably written during the reign of Edward I (reigned 1272–1307), though the oldest surviving manuscript dates to 1338. The text often includes notable errors. The original author remains unknown, but there were a number of continuations by different hands, continuing the story to the Battle of Halidon Hill (1333).[38] The material on Harthacnut is largely positive. The author considered both Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut to have been sons of Cnut and Emma of Normandy. He portrays Harold as lacking in chivalry, courtesy or honour, and Harthacnut as "a noble knight and stalwart of body, and he greatly loved knighthood and all virtues". He praises Harthacnut for his generosity with food and drink, writing that his table was open "for all who wished to come to his court to be richly served with royal dishes". He concludes by portraying Harthacnut as a loyal son for accepting his mother, Emma, back to court.[39]

Notes

  1. ^ Sometimes spelled Harðacnut, Harthacanute, Hardicanute, Hardecanute, Hordaknut or Hörthaknútr.

References

  1. ^ a b Monarkiet i Danmark – Kongerækken Archived 18 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine at The Danish Monarchy
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Lawson 2004.
  3. ^ Howard 2008, pp. 15, 27.
  4. ^ Howard 2008, pp. 29–38.
  5. ^ Howard 2008, pp. 42–51.
  6. ^ Swanton 2000, p. 160.
  7. ^ Howard 2008, pp. 58–61.
  8. ^ Bricka 1893, pp. 91–92.
  9. ^ a b Lund 2017.
  10. ^ Howard 2008, pp. 105–107.
  11. ^ Swanton 2000, p. 161; Howard 2008, p. 109.
  12. ^ Howard 2008, p. 109.
  13. ^ Howard 2008, p. 117.
  14. ^ Howard 2008, pp. 111–112.
  15. ^ Howard 2008, pp. 112–117.
  16. ^ Howard 2008, pp. 118–119.
  17. ^ Howard 2008, pp. 119–120.
  18. ^ Fleming, Robin (2011). Britain after Rome : the fall and rise, 400–1070. London: Penguin. pp. 251–252. ISBN 978-0-140-14823-7.
  19. ^ John of Worcester. Chronicon ex chronicis. Archived from the original on 18 January 2022. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
  20. ^ Howard 2008, pp. 120–121.
  21. ^ Howard 2008, pp. 106, 124, 149.
  22. ^ Maddicott 2004, p. 654.
  23. ^ Licence 2020, pp. 75–79.
  24. ^ Darlington & McGurk 1995, pp. 532–535; Lawson 2004.
  25. ^ Swanton 2000, p. 162.
  26. ^ Licence 2020, p. 79.
  27. ^ a b c Howard 2008, pp. 40–44.
  28. ^ Finlay 2004, p. 173.
  29. ^ Finlay 2004, pp. 174–175.
  30. ^ Howard 2008, p. 119.
  31. ^ Howard 2008, p. 136.
  32. ^ a b O'Brien 2006, pp. 202–203.
  33. ^ Kerr 2007, p. 77, Note 25.
  34. ^ Given-Wilson 2004, pp. 133–134.
  35. ^ Scott 1998, p. 177, Ch. 21.
  36. ^ "Study Guide: Athelstane in Ivanhoe". shmoop.com. Archived from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
  37. ^ Fjalldal 2005, pp. 51–53.
  38. ^ Marvin 2006, pp. 40–42, 47–49, 75.
  39. ^ Marvin 2006, pp. 223–225.

Sources

  • Bricka, Carl Frederik (1893). Dansk Biografisk Lexikon. Vol. VII. Holmsted: I. Hansen. Archived from the original on 19 January 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2010.
  • Darlington, Reginald; McGurk, Patrick, eds. (1995). The Chronicle of John of Worcester (in Latin and English). Vol. 2. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822261-3.
  • Finlay, Alison (2004). Fagrskinna: A Catalogue of the Kings of Norway. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-13172-8. Archived from the original on 11 September 2023. Retrieved 16 March 2020. Based primarily on Einarsson's 1984 edition.
  • Fjalldal, Magnús (2005). Anglo-Saxon England in Icelandic Medieval Texts. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-3837-1. Archived from the original on 11 September 2023. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
  • Given-Wilson, Chris (2004). Chronicles: The Writing of History in Medieval England. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-85285-358-7. Archived from the original on 11 September 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  • Howard, Ian (2008). Harthacnut: The Last Danish King of England. The History Press.
  • John, Eric (1996). Reassessing Anglo-Saxon England. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-5053-4. Archived from the original on 11 September 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  • Kerr, Julie (2007). Stephen Morillo Diane Korngiebel (ed.). "Food, Drink, and Lodging:Hospitality in Twelfth-Century England". The Haskins Society Journal: Studies in Medieval History. 18. Boydell Press: 72–92. ISBN 978-1-84383-336-9. Archived from the original on 11 September 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  • Lawson, M. K. (23 September 2004). "Harthacnut (Hardecanute) (c.1018–1042)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/12252. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  • Maddicott, John (June 2004). "Edward the Confessor's Return to England in 1041". Anglo-Saxon England. CXIX (482): 650–666. ISSN 0263-6751.
  • Licence, Tom (2020). Edward the Confessor: Last of the Royal Blood. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-21154-2.
  • Lund, Niels (24 August 2017), "Knud 3. Hardeknud", Den Store Danske, Gyldendal, archived from the original on 11 September 2023, retrieved 16 March 2020
  • Marvin, Julia (2006). Brut. Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-274-4. Archived from the original on 11 September 2023. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
  • O'Brien, Harriet (2006). Queen Emma and the Vikings: The Woman Who Shaped the Events of 1066. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-7475-7968-7. Archived from the original on 11 September 2023. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
  • Scott, Walter (1998). Ivanhoe. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0573-6. Archived from the original on 11 September 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  • Swanton, Michael, ed. (2000). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles (revised paperback ed.). London, UK: Phoenix. ISBN 978-1-84212-003-3.

Further reading

  • DeVries, Kelly, The Norwegian Invasion of England in 1066 (2003), Boydell & Brewer Ltd, ISBN 1843830272
  • Douglas, David Charles, William The Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England (1964), University of California Press.
  • Gillingham, John, The introduction of chivalry into England, Essay included in Law and Government in Medieval England and Normandy: Essays in Honour of Sir James Holt (1994), pages 31–56, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521430763
  • Howard, Ian, Harold II: a Throne-Worthy King, Essay included in King Harold II and the Bayeux Tapestry (2005), pages 35–52. Boydell Press, ISBN 1843831244
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