Muhaxhir

Muhaxhir and Muhaxher (plural: Muhaxhirë and Muhaxherë, meaning "Muslim refugees" in Albanian) are Ottoman Albanian communities that left their homes as refugees or were transferred, from Greece, Serbia and Montenegro to Albania, Kosovo and to a lesser extent North Macedonia during and following various wars.

The term is used for Muslims (including Turks, Bosniaks, Circassians and Romani)^[1][2] and Muslim Albanians whom were expelled by the Serb army from most parts of the Sanjak of Niş and fled to the Kosovo Vilayet during and after the Serbian–Ottoman War (1876–78), that is by 1881.^[3] An estimated 49–130,000, or anywhere between 30 and 70% of local Albanians and Muslims were killed or expelled by the Serbian army. Today, only a fraction of Albanians remain in Southern Serbia outside of Kosovo, most of them in Preševo valley.^{[4][5][6][7][8]}

With the establishment of the Republic of Albania in 1912, a large influx of Albanians, as well as other Muslims, from Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Greece, Egypt, Bulgaria and Serbia continued to arrive in the region, most of which settled in north and central Albania.

Today, between a third and a quarter of Albania's and Kosovo's population have ancestry from these Muhaxhirs.

"Muhaxhir" (and its variant singular and plural spellings) is the Albanian form of the word, and was borrowed from Ottoman Turkish: مهاجر (whence modern Turkish: muhacir), itself originating from Arabic muhajir (مهاجر).^{[9][10][11][12]}

The displacement of Albanians began earlier in northern Albania. The first known deportations date back to 1877. At this time, Albanians living in the northernmost parts of the Novi Pazar, Kuršumlija and also the Niš vilayet were deported. At this time all those who could not escape were killed, massacred by various Serbian-Montenegrin forces. Thus, a profound change has been made to the demographic map of the region.

Albanians were either expelled, fled and/or retreated from the captured areas seeking refuge in Ottoman Kosovo.^[3] During the Balkan Wars, Muslim Albanians were deported from Christian territories, and settled in the Ottoman Empire, as far as the Middle East.

In 1877, Nikšić was annexed by the Montenegrins in accordance with the Treaty of Berlin.^[14][15] American author William James Stillman (1828–1901) who traveled in the region at the time writes in his biography of the Montenegrin forces who, on the orders of the Prince, began to bomb the Studenica fortress in Nikšić with artillery. Around 20 Albanian nizams were inside the fortress who resisted and when the walls breached, they surrendered and asked Stillman if they were going to be decapitated. An Albanian accompanying Stillman translated his words saying they were not going to be killed in which the Albanians celebrated.^[16] Shortly after the treaty, the Montenegrin prince began expelling the Albanians from Nikšić, Žabljak and Kolašin who then fled to Turkey, Kosovo (Prishtina)^[17] and Macedonia.^[18] The Montenegrin forces also robbed the Albanians before the expulsion.^[19] After the fall of Nikšić, Prince Nikola wrote a poem of the victory.^[20]

After the Balkan wars, new territories inhabited by Albanians became part of Montenegro. Montenegro then gained a part of Malesija, respectively Hoti and Gruda, with Tuzi as center, Plav, Gusinje, Rugova, Peć and Gjakova. During World War I, Albanian immigrants from Nikšić who had been expelled to Cetinje sent a letter to Isa Boletini saying that they risked starving if he did not send them money for food.^[21]

Albanians, Bosniaks and Muslims which were expelled from Montenegro were resettled in Northern and central Albania in Cities like Shkodër, Pukë, Lezhë and Tirana.

During the summer of 1944, the head of the local resistance organization, Napoleon Zervas, asked the Cham Albanians to join EDES in its fight against the left-wing ELAS, but their response was negative.^[22] After that and in accordance to orders given specifically to EDES by the Allied forces to push them out of the area, fierce fighting occurred between the two sides.^[22] According to British reports, the Cham collaborationist bands managed to flee to Albania with all of their equipment, together with half million stolen cattle as well as 3,000 horses, leaving only the elderly members of the community behind.^[23] On 18 June 1944, EDES forces with Allied support launched an attack on Paramythia. After short-term conflict against a combined Cham-German garrison, the town was finally under Allied command. Soon after, violent reprisals were carried out against the town's Muslim community,^[24] which was considered responsible for the massacre of September 1943.^[23]

Moreover, two attacks took place in July and August with the participation of EDES Tenth Division and the local Greek peasants, eager to gain revenge for the burning of their own homes.^[22] According to Cham claims, which are not confirmed by British reports,^[23] the most infamous massacre of Albanian Muslims by Greek irregulars occurred on 27 June 1944 in the district of Paramithia, when this forces captured the town, killing approximately 600 Muslim Chams, men women and children, many having been raped and tortured before death.^[24]British officers described it as "a most disgraceful affair involving an orgy of revenge with the local guerrillas looting and wantonly destroying everything". British Foreign Office reported that "The bishop of Paramythia joined in the searching of houses for booty and came out of one house to find his already heavily laden mule had been meanwhile stripped by some andartes".^[22]

Por otro lado, Chris Woodhouse, jefe de la Misión Militar Aliada en Grecia durante la ocupación del Eje, que se encontraba en la zona en aquel momento, aceptó oficialmente toda la responsabilidad de la decisión de expulsar a los Chams, aunque criticó la forma vengativa en que se llevó a cabo; incluyendo en su "Nota sobre los Chams" informe militar del 16 de octubre de 1945 una breve descripción de la situación que condujo a los eventos de Paramythia: "Los Chams son racialmente en parte turcos, en parte albaneses, en parte griegos. En 1941-3 colaboraron con los italianos, lo que dificultó la organización de la resistencia guerrillera en esa área. Nunca supe de ninguno de ellos participando en ninguna resistencia contra el enemigo. Zervas, alentado por la Misión Aliada bajo mi mando, los expulsó de sus hogares en 1944 para facilitar las operaciones contra el enemigo. La mayoría se refugió en Albania, donde tampoco eran populares. Su expulsión de Grecia se llevó a cabo sangrientamente, debido al espíritu de venganza habitual, que fue alimentado por muchas brutalidades cometidas por los Chams en alianza con los italianos. El trabajo de Zervas se completó con una masacre inexcusable de Chams en Philliates en marzo de 1945, llevada a cabo por restos de las fuerzas disueltas de Zervas bajo Zotos. Los Chams merecían lo que les pasó, pero Los métodos de Zervas eran bastante malos, o mejor dicho, sus oficiales subordinados se descontrolaron. El resultado ha sido, en efecto, un desplazamiento de poblaciones, eliminando una minoría indeseada del territorio griego. Quizás lo mejor sería dejar las cosas así." (PRO/FO, 371/48094). ^{[ 24 ]} Durante este tiempo, un pequeño número de romaníes musulmanes de Filiates también huyeron a Albania junto con los chams musulmanes. ^{[ 25 ]} Se establecieron en el pueblo de Shkallë, cerca de Sarandë , donde, debido a la inmigración de los últimos años, algunos se han reasentado en Grecia. ^{[ 25 ]}

Durante el dominio cristiano austrohúngaro en Bosnia y Herzegovina , muchos bosnios musulmanes abandonaron Bosnia y se establecieron en Albania. Los destinos más populares fueron Shijak y Borake, en el condado de Durrës , y Prizren y Peja , en Kosovo. El motivo de la inmigración fue la religión islámica, que los bosnios y otros musulmanes de Bosnia deseaban conservar. Siendo el único país musulmán de Europa, Albania era el único destino posible para los refugiados. Con la creación del Reino de Yugoslavia , se produjo otra oleada migratoria hacia Albania. El gobierno albanés asentó a los bosnios en Tirana y Durrës.

The events of the Circassian genocide, namely the ethnic cleansing, killing, forced migration, and expulsion of the majority of the Circassians from their historical homeland in the Caucasus, resulted in the death of approximately at least 600,000 Caucasian natives^[26] up to 1,500,000^[27] deaths, and the successful migration of the remaining of 40,000 Circassians which immigrated to Kosovo and Albania due to intermittent Russian attacks from 1768 to 1917.^[28]

The Circassians quickly assimilated into the Muslim Albanian culture and have only limited contact with the Circassian diaspora today. The Circassians founded many villages in Kosovo like Hajvalia in Prishtina. They settled in the cities of Prishtina, Ferizaj and Podujevë and were known by the Albanian society as brave and honest people.^[28]

Shortly after the defeat of Turkey by the Balkan allies, a conference of ambassadors of the Great Powers (Britain, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, and Italy) convened in London in December 1912 to settle the outstanding issues raised by the conflict. With support given to the Albanians by Austria-Hungary and Italy, the conference agreed to create an independent state of Albania, which became a reality in 1913. However, the boundaries of the new state were drawn in such a way that large areas with Albanian populations remained outside of Albania, including the area that would go on to become the Socialist Republic of Macedonia.^[29]

During the 20th Century the Albanians and Muslims in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia experienced a period of discrimination. They had neither political rights, let alone religious rights. Characterized by poverty and also by political persecution, many Albanians, from northern Macedonia settled in the new state of Albania. The immigrants' destinations were Tirana, Elbasan and Shkoder.

• Albanophobia
• Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars