El córnico ( Kernewek o Kernowek [ kəɾˈnuːək ] ) [ 7 ] es una lengua celta del subgrupo britónico originaria del pueblo córnico y su tierra natal, Cornualles . Junto con el galés y el bretón , el córnico desciende del britónico común , una lengua que en su día se hablaba ampliamente en Gran Bretaña . Durante gran parte de la Edad Media, el córnico fue la lengua principal de Cornualles, hasta que fue desplazado gradualmente hacia el oeste por la expansión del inglés . El córnico siguió siendo una lengua comunitaria común en algunas partes de Cornualles hasta mediados del siglo XVIII, y existen indicios de que algunos hablantes tradicionales persistieron hasta el siglo XIX. [ 8 ]
El córnico se extinguió como lengua comunitaria viva en Cornualles a finales del siglo XVIII ; el conocimiento del córnico persistió en algunas familias e individuos. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Un resurgimiento comenzó a principios del siglo XX, y en 2010 la UNESCO reclasificó la lengua como en peligro crítico , afirmando que su clasificación anterior de la lengua como extinta ya no era precisa. [ 11 ] La lengua tiene un número creciente de hablantes como segunda lengua , [ 12 ] y un número muy reducido de familias ahora cría a sus hijos para que hablen el córnico revivido como primera lengua . [ 13 ] [ 14 ]
Cornish is currently recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages,[15] and the language is often described as an important part of Cornish identity, culture and heritage.[16][17] Since the revival of the language, some Cornish textbooks and works of literature have been published, and an increasing number of people are studying the language.[12] Recent developments include Cornish music,[18]independent films,[19] and children's books. A small number of people in Cornwall have been brought up to be bilingual native speakers,[20][21] and the language is taught in schools and appears on street nameplates.[22][23][24] The first Cornish-language day care opened in 2010.[25]
Classification
Cornish is a Southwestern Brittonic language,[26] a branch of the Insular Celtic section of the Celtic language family, which is a sub-family of the Indo-European language family.[27] Brittonic also includes Welsh, Breton, Cumbric and possibly Pictish, the last two of which are extinct. Scottish Gaelic, Irish and Manx are part of the separate Goidelic branch of Insular Celtic.
Joseph Loth viewed Cornish and Breton as being two dialects of the same language, claiming that "Middle Cornish is without doubt closer to Breton as a whole than the modern Breton dialect of Quiberon [Kiberen] is to that of Saint-Pol-de-Léon [Kastell-Paol]."[28] Also, Kenneth Jackson argued that it is almost certain that Cornish and Breton would have been mutually intelligible as long as Cornish was a living language, and that Cornish and Breton are especially closely related to each other and less closely related to Welsh.[29]
History

El córnico evolucionó a partir del britónico común hablado en toda Gran Bretaña al sur del estuario del Forth durante la Edad del Hierro británica y el período romano . Como resultado de la expansión anglosajona hacia el oeste , los britanos del suroeste se separaron de los de lo que hoy son Gales y Cumbria , lo que Jackson relaciona con la derrota de los britanos en la batalla de Deorham alrededor del año 577. [ 31 ] Los dialectos occidentales evolucionaron finalmente en el galés moderno y el ahora extinto cúmbrico , mientras que el britónico sudoccidental se desarrolló en el córnico y el bretón, este último como resultado de la emigración a partes del continente, conocidas como Bretaña durante los siglos siguientes. [ 32 ]
Antiguo córnico
El área controlada por los britanos del suroeste se redujo progresivamente debido a la expansión de Wessex durante los siglos siguientes. Durante el período del antiguo córnico ( Kernewek Koth ) [ 33 ] (800-1200), el área de habla córnica coincidía en gran medida con la actual Cornualles , después de que los sajones se apoderaran de Devon en su avance hacia el suroeste, lo que probablemente se vio facilitado por una segunda ola migratoria a Bretaña que resultó en la despoblación parcial de Devon. [ 34 ] El mantenimiento de estrechos vínculos con los hablantes de bretón en Bretaña permitió un cierto grado de inteligibilidad mutua entre el córnico y el bretón. [ 29 ] [ 35 ]

The earliest written record of the Cornish language comes from a 9th-century gloss in a Latinmanuscript of De Consolatione Philosophiae by Boethius, which used the words ud rocashaas. The phrase may mean "it [the mind] hated the gloomy places",[36][37] or alternatively, as Andrew Breeze suggests, "she hated the land".[38] Other sources from this period include the Saints' List, a list of almost fifty Cornish saints,[39] the Bodmin manumissions, which is a list of manumittors and slaves, the latter with mostly Cornish names,[40] and, more substantially, a Latin–Cornish glossary (the Vocabularium Cornicum or Cottonian Vocabulary), a Cornish translation of Ælfric of Eynsham's Latin–Old English Glossary,[41] which is thematically arranged into several groups, such as the Genesis creation narrative, anatomy, church hierarchy, the family, names for various kinds of artisans and their tools, flora, fauna, and household items.[42][43] The manuscript was widely thought to be in Old Welsh until the 18th century when it was identified as Cornish by Edward Lhuyd.[44] Some Brittonic glosses in the 9th-century colloquy De raris fabulis were once identified as Old Cornish, but they are more likely Old Welsh, possibly influenced by a Cornish scribe.[45] No single phonological feature distinguishes Cornish from both Welsh and Breton until the beginning of the assibilation of dental stops in Cornish, which is not found before the second half of the eleventh century,[46] and it is not always possible to distinguish Old Cornish, Old Breton, and Old Welsh orthographically.[47]
Middle Cornish


El idioma córnico continuó floreciendo bien durante el período córnico medio ( Kernewek Kres ) [ 33 ] (1200-1600), alcanzando un pico de aproximadamente 39.000 hablantes en el siglo XIII, después de lo cual el número comenzó a disminuir. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] Este período proporcionó la mayor parte de la literatura córnica tradicional y se utilizó para reconstruir el idioma durante su renacimiento. Lo más importante es la Ordinalia , un ciclo de tres obras de misterio, Origo Mundi , Passio Christi y Resurrexio Domini . En conjunto, proporcionan aproximadamente 8.734 líneas de texto. Las tres obras exhiben una mezcla de influencias inglesas y británicas y, como otra literatura córnica, pueden haber sido escritas en Glasney College cerca de Penryn . [ 50 ] De este período también son los dramas hagiográficos Beunans Meriasek ( La vida de Meriasek ) y Bewnans Ke ( La vida de Ke ), en los que aparece como antagonista el malvado y tiránico rey Tewdar (o Teudar), un rey medieval histórico de Armórica y Cornualles, que, en estas obras, ha sido interpretado como una sátira de cualquiera de los reyes Tudor Enrique VII o Enrique VIII . [ 51 ]
Otros son el Fragmento de la Carta , el texto continuo más antiguo conocido en lengua córnica, aparentemente parte de una obra de teatro sobre un matrimonio medieval, [ 52 ] y Pascon agan Arluth ( La Pasión de Nuestro Señor ), un poema probablemente destinado al culto personal, fueron escritos durante este período, probablemente en la segunda mitad del siglo XIV. [ 53 ] Otro texto importante, las Homilías de Tregear , se reconoció como córnico en 1949, habiendo sido previamente clasificado erróneamente como galés. Es el texto más largo en lengua córnica tradicional, que consta de alrededor de 30 000 palabras de prosa continua. Este texto es una traducción de finales del siglo XVI de doce de las trece homilías del obispo Bonner por un tal John Tregear, tentativamente identificado como vicario de St Allen de Crowan , [ 54 ] y tiene una catena adicional, Sacrament an Alter, agregada posteriormente por su compañero sacerdote, Thomas Stephyn. [ 55 ] Durante el reinado de Enrique VIII, Andrew Boorde ofreció una explicación en su obra de 1542, * Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge* . Afirma: « En Cornualles hay dos dialectos: uno es el inglés travieso y el otro es el dialecto de Cornualles. Y hay muchos hombres y mujeres que no pueden hablar ni una palabra de inglés, sino solo de Cornualles » . [ 56 ]
Cuando el Parlamento aprobó la Ley de Uniformidad de 1549 , que estableció la edición de 1549 del Libro de Oración Común inglés como la única forma legal de culto en Inglaterra, incluyendo Cornualles, la gente en muchas áreas de Cornualles no hablaba ni entendía inglés. La aprobación de esta Ley fue una de las causas de la Rebelión del Libro de Oración (que también pudo haber sido influenciada por la represión gubernamental después de la fallida rebelión de Cornualles de 1497 ), con "los plebeyos de Devonshyre y Cornualles" produciendo un manifiesto exigiendo un retorno a los antiguos servicios religiosos e incluyendo un artículo que concluía, "y así nosotros los hombres de Cornualles (de los cuales algunos de nosotros no entendemos inglés) rechazamos completamente este nuevo inglés". [ 57 ] En respuesta a sus artículos, el portavoz del gobierno (ya sea Philip Nichols o Nicholas Udall ) se preguntó por qué no simplemente le pedían al rey una versión de la liturgia en su propio idioma. [ 58 ] El arzobispo Thomas Cranmer preguntó por qué los cornishmen debían sentirse ofendidos por celebrar el servicio en inglés, cuando antes lo habían celebrado en latín , idioma que incluso menos de ellos podían entender. [ 59 ] Anthony Fletcher señala que esta rebelión estuvo motivada principalmente por preocupaciones religiosas y económicas, más que lingüísticas. [ 60 ] La rebelión provocó una respuesta severa del gobierno, y 5500 personas murieron durante los combates y las consecuencias de la rebelión. Los funcionarios del gobierno ordenaron entonces a las tropas bajo el mando de Sir Anthony Kingston que llevaran a cabo operaciones de pacificación en todo el oeste del país. Posteriormente, Kingston ordenó la ejecución de numerosas personas sospechosas de estar involucradas en la rebelión como parte de las represalias posteriores a la misma. [ 61 ]
The rebellion eventually proved a turning-point for the Cornish language, as the authorities came to associate it with sedition and "backwardness". This proved to be one of the reasons why the Book of Common Prayer was never translated into Cornish (unlike Welsh), as proposals to do so were suppressed in the rebellion's aftermath. The failure to translate the Book of Common Prayer into Cornish led to the language's rapid decline during the 16th and 17th centuries.[62][63]Peter Berresford Ellis cites the years 1550–1650 as a century of immense damage for the language, and its decline can be traced to this period. In 1680 William Scawen wrote an essay describing 16 reasons for the decline of Cornish, among them the lack of a distinctive Cornish alphabet, the loss of contact between Cornwall and Brittany, the cessation of the miracle plays, loss of records in the Civil War, lack of a Cornish Bible and immigration to Cornwall.[64]Mark Stoyle, however, has argued that the 'glotticide' of the Cornish language was mainly a result of the Cornish gentry adopting English to dissociate themselves from the reputation for disloyalty and rebellion associated with the Cornish language since the 1497 uprising.[65]
Late Cornish

By the middle of the 17th century, the language had retreated to Penwith and Kerrier, and transmission of the language to new generations had almost entirely ceased. In his Survey of Cornwall, published in 1602, Richard Carew writes:
[M]ost of the inhabitants can speak no word of Cornish, but very few are ignorant of the English; and yet some so affect their own, as to a stranger they will not speak it; for if meeting them by chance, you inquire the way, or any such matter, your answer shall be, "Meea navidna caw zasawzneck," "I [will] speak no Saxonage."[66]
El período córnico tardío ( Kernewek Diwedhes ) [ 33 ] de 1600 a aproximadamente 1800 tiene un cuerpo literario menos sustancial que el período córnico medio, pero las fuentes son más variadas en naturaleza, incluyendo canciones, poemas sobre la pesca y el curado de sardinas , y varias traducciones de versículos de la Biblia, los Diez Mandamientos, el Padre Nuestro y el Credo. [ 67 ] La Archaeologia Britannica de Edward Lhuyd , que fue registrada principalmente en el campo por hablantes nativos a principios de los años 1700, y su cuaderno de campo inédito se consideran fuentes importantes de vocabulario córnico, parte del cual no se encuentra en ninguna otra fuente. [ 68 ] Archaeologia Britannica también presenta una versión completa de un cuento popular tradicional, Juan de Chyanhor , una historia corta sobre un hombre de St Levan que va muy lejos al este en busca de trabajo, y finalmente regresa a casa después de tres años para descubrir que su esposa le ha dado un hijo durante su ausencia. [ 69 ]
En 1776, William Bodinar, quien se describe a sí mismo como alguien que aprendió córnico de viejos pescadores cuando era niño, escribió una carta a Daines Barrington en córnico, con una traducción al inglés, que probablemente fue la última prosa escrita en la lengua tradicional. En su carta, describe la sociolingüística de la lengua córnica en ese momento, afirmando que no hay más de cuatro o cinco ancianos en su pueblo que aún puedan hablar córnico, concluyendo con la observación de que el córnico ya no es conocido por los jóvenes. [ 70 ] Sin embargo, la última literatura tradicional córnica registrada puede haber sido la Rima de Cranken , [ 71 ] [ 72 ] una versión corrupta de un verso o canción publicada a finales del siglo XIX por John Hobson Matthews , registrada oralmente por John Davey (o Davy) de Boswednack , de fecha incierta pero probablemente compuesta originalmente durante los últimos años de la lengua tradicional. Davey tenía conocimiento tradicional de al menos algo de córnico. [ 73 ] John Kelynack (1796–1885), un pescador de Newlyn, fue buscado por filólogos en el siglo XIX por palabras antiguas de Cornualles y frases técnicas. [ 74 ]
Declive entre 1300 y 1800

It is difficult to state with certainty when Cornish ceased to be spoken, due to the fact that its last speakers were of relatively low social class and that the definition of what constitutes "a living language" is not clear cut. Peter Pool argues that by 1800 nobody was using Cornish as a daily language and no evidence exists of anyone capable of conversing in the language at that date.[75] However, passive speakers, semi-speakers and rememberers, who retain some competence in the language despite not being fluent nor using the language in daily life, generally survive even longer.
The traditional view that Dolly Pentreath (1692–1777) was the last native speaker of Cornish has been challenged,[8] and in the 18th and 19th centuries there was academic interest in the language and in attempting to find the last speaker of Cornish. It has been suggested that, whereas Pentreath was probably the last fluent speaker, the last native speaker may have been John Davey of Zennor, who died in 1891.[76] However, although it is clear Davey possessed some traditional knowledge in addition to having read books on Cornish, accounts differ of his competence in the language. Some contemporaries stated he was able to converse on certain topics in Cornish whereas others affirmed they had never heard him claim to be able to do so.[77]Robert Morton Nance, who reworked and translated Davey's Cranken Rhyme, remarked, "There can be no doubt, after the evidence of this rhyme, of what there was to lose by neglecting John Davey."[78]
The search for the last speaker is hampered by a lack of transcriptions or audio recordings, so that it is impossible to tell from this distance whether the language these people were reported to be speaking was Cornish, or English with a heavy Cornish substratum, nor what their level of fluency was. Nevertheless, this academic interest, along with the beginning of the Celtic Revival in the late 19th century, provided the groundwork for a Cornish language revival movement.
Notwithstanding the uncertainty over who was the last speaker of Cornish, researchers have posited the following numbers for the prevalence of the language between 1050 and 1800.[48][49]
Córnico revivido
En 1904, el erudito en lenguas celtas y activista cultural córnico Henry Jenner publicó A Handbook of the Cornish Language (Manual de la lengua córnica) . La publicación de este libro suele considerarse el punto de partida del movimiento de revitalización. En 1905, Jenner escribió sobre la lengua córnica: «Se puede afirmar con razón que la mayor parte de lo que existía se ha conservado, y que se ha conservado de forma continua, pues nunca ha habido un momento en que no hubiera algunos córnicos que supieran algo de córnico». [ 79 ]
El resurgimiento se centró en reconstruir y estandarizar el idioma, incluyendo la creación de nuevas palabras para conceptos modernos y la elaboración de material didáctico para enseñar córnico a otros. En 1929, Robert Morton Nance publicó su sistema córnico unificado ( Kernewek Unys ) [ 33 ] , basado en la literatura córnica media, ampliando el vocabulario documentado con neologismos y formas basadas en raíces celtas que también se encuentran en el bretón y el galés, publicando un diccionario en 1938. [ 80 ] La obra de Nance se convirtió en la base del córnico revitalizado ( Kernewek Dasserghys ) [ 33 ] durante la mayor parte del siglo XX. Durante la década de 1970, las críticas al sistema de Nance, incluyendo la ortografía inconsistente y la correspondencia impredecible entre la ortografía y la pronunciación, [ 10 ] así como por otros motivos como la base arcaica del sistema unificado y la falta de énfasis en el idioma hablado, [ 81 ] dieron como resultado la creación de varios sistemas rivales. En la década de 1980, Ken George publicó un nuevo sistema, Kernewek Kemmyn ('Cornés común'), basado en una reconstrucción del sistema fonológico del córnico medio, pero con una ortografía aproximadamente morfofonémica . [ 82 ] Posteriormente fue adoptado por la Junta de la Lengua Córnica [ 83 ] y fue la forma escrita utilizada por un 54,5% de todos los hablantes de la lengua córnica según una encuesta de 2008, [ 84 ] pero fue duramente criticado por varias razones por Jon Mills y Nicholas Williams , incluyendo hacer distinciones fonológicas que afirman que no se hacían en la lengua tradicional alrededor de 1500 , no hacer distinciones que creen que sí se hacían en la lengua tradicional en ese momento, y el uso de una ortografía que se desviaba demasiado de los textos tradicionales y del córnico unificado. [ 85 ] [ 86 ] También durante este período, Richard Gendall creó su sistema Cornish moderno (también conocido como Cornish tardío revivido), que utilizó el Cornish tardío como base, [ 87 ] : 46 y Nicholas Williams publicó una versión revisada de Unified; [ 87 ] : 46 sin embargo, ninguno de estos sistemas alcanzó la popularidad de Unified o Kemmyn.
El resurgimiento entró en un período de faccionalismo y disputas públicas, con cada ortografía intentando desplazar a las demás. Para cuando el gobierno del Reino Unido reconoció el córnico en virtud de la Carta Europea de las Lenguas Regionales o Minoritarias en 2002, se reconoció que la existencia de múltiples ortografías era insostenible en lo que respecta al uso del idioma en la educación y la vida pública, ya que ninguna había alcanzado un amplio consenso. Se inició un proceso de unificación que dio como resultado la creación del organismo público Cornish Language Partnership en 2005 y el acuerdo sobre una forma escrita estándar en 2008. [ 88 ] [ 89 ] En 2010 se alcanzó un nuevo hito cuando la UNESCO modificó su clasificación del córnico, declarando que su anterior etiqueta de "extinto" ya no era precisa. [ 11 ]
Oradores
Las estimaciones del número de hablantes de córnico varían según la definición de hablante, y es difícil determinarlas con precisión debido a la naturaleza individualizada de la adquisición del idioma. Sin embargo, se reconoce que el número de hablantes de córnico está creciendo. [ 12 ] [ 90 ] Desde antes de la década de 1980 hasta finales del siglo XX hubo un aumento de seis veces en el número de hablantes hasta alrededor de 300. [ 91 ] Una cifra para el número de personas que conocen algunas palabras básicas, como saber que "Kernow" significa "Cornualles", fue de 300 000; la misma encuesta dio como resultado el número de personas capaces de mantener conversaciones sencillas en 3000. [ 92 ]
Un informe sobre el censo de 2011 publicado en 2013 por la Oficina de Estadísticas Nacionales situó el número de hablantes entre 325 y 625. [ 93 ] En 2017, la ONS publicó datos basados en el censo de 2011 que situaban el número de hablantes en 557 personas en Inglaterra y Gales que declararon el córnico como su idioma principal, 464 de las cuales vivían en Cornualles. [ 6 ] El censo de 2021 registró el número de hablantes de córnico en 563. [ 94 ]
The Cornish Language Strategy project commissioned research to provide quantitative and qualitative evidence for the number of Cornish speakers: due to the success of the revival project it was estimated that 2,000 people were fluent (surveyed in spring 2008), an increase from the estimated 300 people who spoke Cornish fluently suggested in a study by Kenneth MacKinnon in 2000.[95][96][97]
Jenefer Lowe of the Cornish Language Partnership said in an interview with the BBC in 2010 that there were around 300 fluent speakers.[98]Bert Biscoe, a councillor and bard, in a statement to the Western Morning News in 2014 said there were "several hundred fluent speakers".[99]Cornwall Council estimated in 2015 that there were 300–400 fluent speakers who used the language regularly, with 5,000 people having a basic conversational ability in the language.[100]
A study that appeared in 2018 established the number of people in Cornwall with at least minimal skills in Cornish, such as the use of some words and phrases, to be more than 3,000, including around 500 estimated to be fluent.[101] As of February 2026, the BBC reported that between 2,500 and 5,000 have at least a basic understanding of the language.[102]
The Institute of Cornish Studies at the University of Exeter is working with the Cornish Language Partnership to study the Cornish language revival of the 20th century, including the growth in number of speakers.[103]
Culture

The Celtic Congress and Celtic League are groups that advocate cooperation amongst the Celtic Nations in order to protect and promote Celtic languages and cultures, thus working in the interests of the Cornish language.
There have been films such as Hwerow Hweg, some televised, made entirely, or significantly, in Cornish. Some businesses use Cornish names.[104][105]
El córnico ha influido de manera significativa y duradera en los topónimos de Cornualles, así como en los apellidos córnicos , y el conocimiento del idioma ayuda a comprender estos significados ancestrales. Se adoptan nombres córnicos para niños, mascotas, casas y barcos. [ 106 ]
Existe literatura córnica, que incluye poesía oral y canciones, así como cánticos tradicionales córnicos que históricamente se interpretaban en los mercados durante las fiestas religiosas y los festivales y reuniones públicas.
Existen publicaciones periódicas exclusivamente en córnico, como las mensuales An Gannas , An Gowsva y An Garrick . BBC Radio Cornwall tiene un noticiero en córnico y, en ocasiones, ofrece otros programas y reportajes para estudiantes y aficionados. Periódicos locales como el Western Morning News publican artículos en córnico, y otros como The Packet , The West Briton y The Cornishman también suelen incluir reportajes en este idioma. Existe un servicio de radio y televisión en línea en córnico llamado Radyo an Gernewegva , que publica un podcast semanal de una hora, con formato de revista. Incluye música en córnico, así como entrevistas y reportajes. [ 107 ]
El idioma cuenta con patrocinio financiero de diversas fuentes, incluida la Comisión del Milenio . En Cornualles existen varias organizaciones lingüísticas: Agan Tavas (Nuestro Idioma), el subgrupo córnico de la Oficina Europea de Lenguas Menos Utilizadas , Gorsedh Kernow , Kesva an Taves Kernewek (la Junta del Idioma Córnico) y Kowethas an Yeth Kernewek (la Asociación del Idioma Córnico). [ 108 ] [ 109 ]
Existen ceremonias, algunas antiguas, otras modernas, que utilizan el idioma o que se realizan íntegramente en él.

Eventos culturales
Cornualles ha tenido eventos culturales asociados con el idioma, incluido el Festival Internacional de Medios Celtas , celebrado en St Ives en 1997. La Sociedad del Viejo Cornualles ha promovido el uso del idioma en eventos y reuniones. Dos ejemplos de ceremonias que se realizan tanto en inglés como en córnico son el Crying the Neck [ 110 ] y las hogueras anuales de mediados de verano. [ 111 ]
Desde 1969, se han realizado tres representaciones completas de Ordinalia , escrita originalmente en córnico, la más reciente de las cuales tuvo lugar en el plen-an-gwary de St Just en septiembre de 2021. Si bien se adaptó significativamente del original y se utilizaron principalmente actores angloparlantes, las obras emplearon una cantidad considerable de córnico, incluyendo un personaje que hablaba solo en córnico y otro que hablaba tanto inglés como córnico. El evento atrajo a miles de personas durante dos semanas y sirvió también como celebración de la cultura celta . La próxima producción, programada para 2024, podría, en teoría, ser completamente en córnico, sin inglés, si contara con la ayuda de un lingüista profesional. [ 112 ] [ 113 ] [ 114 ] [ 115 ]
Fuera de Cornualles, en Australia se están llevando a cabo esfuerzos para revivir la lengua y la cultura córnicas mediante eventos comunitarios. En Australia Meridional se celebra un festival bienal, Kernewek Lowender, donde se ofrecen tanto exhibiciones culturales como clases de idioma. [ 116 ]
Estudio y enseñanza
El córnico se enseña en algunas escuelas; anteriormente se impartía a nivel de licenciatura en la Universidad de Gales , aunque el único curso existente en el idioma a nivel universitario es como parte de un curso de estudios córnicos en la Universidad de Exeter . [ 117 ] En marzo de 2008 se inició un curso en el idioma como parte del plan de estudios de Estudios Celtas en la Universidad de Viena , Austria. La Universidad de Cambridge ofrece cursos de córnico a través de su Centro de Recursos John Trim, que forma parte del Centro de Idiomas de la universidad. [ 118 ] Además, el Departamento de Anglosajón, Nórdico y Celta (que forma parte de la Facultad de Inglés) también lleva a cabo investigaciones sobre el idioma córnico. [ 119 ]
In 2015 a university-level course aiming at encouraging and supporting practitioners working with young children to introduce the Cornish language into their settings was launched. The Cornish Language Practice Project (Early Years) is a level 4 course approved by Plymouth University and run at Cornwall College. The course is not a Cornish-language course but students will be assessed on their ability to use the Cornish language constructively in their work with young children. The course will cover such topics as Understanding Bilingualism, Creating Resources and Integrating Language and Play, but the focus of the language provision will be on Cornish. A non-accredited specialist Cornish-language course has been developed to run alongside the level 4 course for those who prefer tutor support to learn the language or develop their skills for use with young children.[120]
Cornwall's first Cornish-language crèche, Skol dy'Sadorn Kernewek, was established in 2010 at Cornwall College, Camborne. The nursery teaches children aged between two and five years alongside their parents to ensure the language is also spoken in the home.[96]
A number of dictionaries are available in the various orthographies, including A Learners' Cornish Dictionary in the Standard Written Form by Steve Harris (ed.), An Gerlyver Meur by Ken George,[121]Gerlyver Sawsnek–Kernowek by Nicholas Williams and A Practical Dictionary of Modern Cornish by Richard Gendall. Course books include the three-part Skeul an Yeth series, Clappya Kernowek, Tavas a Ragadazow and Skeul an Tavas, as well as the more recent Bora Brav and Desky Kernowek. Several online dictionaries are now available, including one organised by An Akademi Kernewek in SWF.[122][123]
Classes and conversation groups for adults are available at several locations in Cornwall as well as in London, Cardiff and Bristol.[124] Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic a number of conversation groups entitled Yeth an Werin Warlinen have been held online, advertised through Facebook and other media. A surge in interest, not just from people in Cornwall but from all over the world, has meant that extra classes have been organised.[125][126][127]
Cornish studies
William Scawen produced a manuscript on the declining Cornish language that continually evolved until he died in 1689, aged 89. He was one of the first to realise the language was dying out and wrote detailed manuscripts which he started working on when he was 78. The only version that was ever published was a short first draft but the final version, which he worked on until his death, is a few hundred pages long.[128] At the same time a group of scholars led by John Keigwin (nephew of William Scawen) of Mousehole tried to preserve and further the Cornish language and chose to write in Cornish. One of their number, Nicholas Boson, tells how he had been discouraged from using Cornish to servants by his mother.[129] This group left behind a large number of translations of parts of the Bible, proverbs and songs. They were contacted by the Welsh linguist Edward Lhuyd, who came to Cornwall to study the language.[130]
Early Modern Cornish was the subject of a study published by Lhuyd in 1707,[131] and differs from the medieval language in having a considerably simpler structure and grammar. Such differences included sound changes and more frequent use of auxiliary verbs.[132] The medieval language also possessed two additional tenses for expressing past events and an extended set of possessive suffixes.
John Whitaker, the Manchester-born rector of Ruan Lanihorne, studied the decline of the Cornish language. In his 1804 work the Ancient Cathedral of Cornwall he concluded that: "[T]he English Liturgy, was not desired by the Cornish, but forced upon them by the tyranny of England, at a time when the English language was yet unknown in Cornwall. This act of tyranny was at once gross barbarity to the Cornish people, and a death blow to the Cornish language."[133]
Robert Williams published the first comprehensive Cornish dictionary in 1865, the Lexicon Cornu-Britannicum. As a result of the discovery of additional ancient Cornish manuscripts, 2000 new words were added to the vocabulary by Whitley Stokes in A Cornish Glossary. William C. Borlase published Proverbs and Rhymes in Cornish in 1866 while A Glossary of Cornish Names was produced by John Bannister in the same year. Frederick Jago published his English–Cornish Dictionary in 1882.
In 2002, the Cornish language gained new recognition because of the European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages. Conversely, along with government provision was the governmental basis of "New Public Management", measuring quantifiable results as means of determining effectiveness. This put enormous pressure on finding a single orthography that could be used in unison. The revival of Cornish required extensive rebuilding. The Cornish orthographies that were reconstructed may be considered versions of Cornish because they are not traditional sociolinguistic variations. In the middle-to-late twentieth century, the debate over Cornish orthographies angered more people because several language groups received public funding. This caused other groups to sense favouritism as playing a role in the debate.[134]
A governmental policymaking structure called New Public Management (NPM) has helped the Cornish language by managing public life of the Cornish language and people. In 2007, the Cornish Language Partnership MAGA represents separate divisions of government and their purpose is to further enhance the Cornish Language Developmental Plan. MAGA established an Ad-Hoc Group, which resulted in three orthographies being presented. The relations for the Ad-Hoc Group were to obtain consensus among the three orthographies and then develop a "single written form". The result was creating a new form of Cornish, which had to be natural for both new learners and skilled speakers.[135]
Literature
Recent Modern Cornish literature
In 1981, the Breton library Preder edited Passyon agan arluth (Passion of our lord), a 15th-century Cornish poem.[136] The first complete translation of the Bible into Cornish, translated from English, was published in 2011. Another Bible translation project translating from original languages is underway. The New Testament and Psalms were made available online on YouVersion (Bible.com) and Bibles.org in July 2014 by the Bible Society.
Algunas pequeñas editoriales publican libros en córnico que se encuentran en algunas librerías locales, así como en las sucursales de Waterstones y WH Smith en Cornualles, aunque cada vez hay más publicaciones disponibles en Internet. [ 137 ] [ 138 ] También se pueden encontrar ejemplares impresos en Amazon. La librería Waterstones de Truro organiza anualmente los premios literarios Holyer an Gof , establecidos por Gorsedh Kernow para reconocer publicaciones relacionadas con Cornualles o escritas en lengua córnica. [ 139 ] En los últimos años, se han publicado varias traducciones de literatura córnica, entre ellas Alicia en el País de las Maravillas (2009), [ 140 ] La vuelta al mundo en ochenta días (2009), [ 141 ] La isla del tesoro (2010), [ 142 ] Los niños del ferrocarril (2012), [ 143 ] El sabueso de los Baskerville (2012), [ 144 ] La guerra de los mundos (2012), [ 145 ] El viento en los sauces (2013), [ 146 ] Tres hombres en un bote (2013), [ 147 ] Alicia en el País de las Maravillas y A través del espejo (2014), [ 148 ] y Cuento de Navidad [ 149 ] (que ganó el premio Holyer an Gof 2012 para libros en lengua córnica), así como literatura córnica original como Jowal Lethesow [ 150 ] ( La piedra de Lyonesse ) de Craig Weatherhill . También hay literatura dirigida a niños, como Ple'ma Spot? ( ¿ Dónde está Spot ? ), Best Goon Brèn ( La bestia de Bodmin Moor ), tres títulos de Topsy y Tim , [ 151 ] dos títulos de Tintín y Briallen ha'n Alyon ( Briallen y el extraterrestre ), que ganó el premio Holyer an Gof 2015 a los libros en lengua córnica para niños. [ 152 ] En 2014 An Hobys , la traducción de Nicholas Williams deJ. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit, was published.[153] A comprehensive list has been created of literature published in the Cornish language, both in print and online.[154]
An Gannas is a monthly magazine published entirely in the Cornish language. Members contribute articles on various subjects. The magazine is produced by Graham Sandercock who has been its editor since 1976.[155]
A study in 2025 found that the total number of words written in Cornish literature had expanded from 180,000 in the traditional sources to over 13 million now.[156] However this expansion had also seen a more pluricentric language. The period since the Standard Written Form agreement in 2008 has seen the publication of over half of this literature, but in a greater variety of orthographies. 36% was written in Kernowak Standard, 26% in the quasi-official SWF (M) Mg used by the Council, Gorsedh and Kowethas an Yeth Kernewek, 16% in Kernewek Kemmyn used by Kesva an Taves Kernewek, 15% in Modern Cornish and 7% in Unified Cornish.[156]
Media
In 1983 BBC Radio Cornwall started broadcasting around two minutes of Cornish every week. In 1987, however, they gave over 15 minutes of airtime on Sunday mornings for a programme called Kroeder Kroghen ('Holdall'), presented by John King, running until the early 1990s.[157] It was eventually replaced with a five-minute news bulletin called An Nowodhow ('The News'). The bulletin was presented every Sunday evening for many years by Rod Lyon, then Elizabeth Stewart, and currently a team presents in rotation.[158]Pirate FM ran short bulletins on Saturday lunchtimes from 1998 to 1999. In 2006, Matthew Clarke who had presented the Pirate FM bulletin, launched a web-streamed news bulletin called Nowodhow an Seythen ('Weekly News'), which in 2008 was merged into a new weekly magazine podcast Radyo an Gernewegva (RanG).
Cornish television shows have included a 1982 series by Westward Television with each episode containing a three-minute lesson in Cornish.[159]An Canker-Seth, an eight-episode series produced by Television South West and broadcast between June and July 1984, later on S4C from May to July 1985, and as a schools programme in 1986.[160] Also by Television South West were two bilingual programmes on Cornish Culture called Nosweyth Lowen.[159] In 2016 Kelly's Ice Cream of Bodmin introduced a light hearted television commercial in the Cornish language and this was repeated in 2017.[161]
The first episode from the third season of the US television program Deadwood features a conversation between miners, purportedly in the Cornish language, but really in Irish.[162] One of the miners is then shot by thugs working for businessman George Hearst who justify the murder by saying, "He come at me with his foreign gibberish."
A number of Cornish language films have been made, including Hwerow Hweg, a 2002 drama film written and directed by Hungarian film-maker Antal Kovacs and Trengellick Rising, a short film written and directed by Guy Potter.
Screen Cornwall works with Cornwall Council to commission a short film in the Cornish language each year, with their FilmK competition. Their website states "FylmK is an annual contemporary Cornish language short film competition, producing an imaginative and engaging film, in any genre, from distinctive and exciting filmmakers".[163]
A monthly half-hour online TV show began in 2017 called An Mis (The Month). It contained news items about cultural events and more mainstream news stories all through Cornish. It also ran a cookery segment called "Kegin Esther" ('Esther's Kitchen').[164]
Music
English composer Peter Warlock wrote a Christmas carol in Cornish (setting words by Henry Jenner).[165] The Cornish electronic musician Aphex Twin has used Cornish names for track titles, most notably on his Drukqs album.
Several traditional Cornish folk songs have been collected and can be sung to various tunes. These include "An Awhesyth", "Bro Goth agan Tasow", and "Delkiow Sivy".
In 2018, the singer Gwenno Saunders released an album in Cornish, entitled Le Kov, saying: "I speak Cornish with my son: if you're comfortable expressing yourself in a language, you want to share it."[166]
Place-names and surnames

The Cornish language features in the toponymy of Cornwall, with a significant contrast between English place-names prevalent in eastern Cornwall and Cornish place-names to the west of the Camel-Fowey river valleys, where English place-names are much less common.[167] Hundreds of Cornish family names have an etymology in the Cornish language, the majority of which are derived from Cornish place-names.[168] Long before the agreement of the Standard Written Form of Cornish in the 21st century, Late Cornish orthography in the Early Modern period usually followed Welsh to English transliteration, phonetically rendering C for K, I for Y, U for W, and Z for S. This meant that place names were adopted into English with spellings such as 'Porthcurno' and 'Penzance'; they are written Porth Kernow and Pen Sans in the Standard Written Form of Cornish, agreed upon in 2008. Likewise words such as Enys ('island') can be found spelled as Ince as at Ince Castle. These apparent mistransliterations can, however, reveal an insight into how names and places were actually pronounced, explaining, for example, how anglicised Launceston is still pronounced [ˈlansǝn] with emphasis on the first element,[169] perhaps from Cornish Lann Stefan, though the Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-Names considers this unlikely.[170]
The following tables present some examples of Cornish place names and surnames and their anglicised versions:
Legal status and recognition

In 2002, Cornish was recognized by the UK government under Part II of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[187]UNESCO's Atlas of World Languages classifies Cornish as "critically endangered". UNESCO has said that a previous classification of 'extinct' "does not reflect the current situation for Cornish" and is "no longer accurate".[11]
En noviembre de 2025, el Gobierno del Reino Unido notificó [ 188 ] al Consejo de Europa que el córnico quedaría incluido en la Parte III de la Carta Europea de las Lenguas Regionales o Minoritarias , ampliando el nivel de protección aplicado previamente en virtud de la Parte II. [ 189 ] El estatus de la Parte III sitúa al córnico junto con el galés, el gaélico escocés y el irlandés dentro del marco de la Carta y compromete al Estado a una serie de medidas específicas para promover la lengua en ámbitos como la educación, la administración pública, la cultura y los medios de comunicación. La ampliación se produjo tras una defensa constante por parte del Consejo de Cornualles, organizaciones lingüísticas y grupos comunitarios, y está sujeta a un seguimiento periódico por parte del Consejo de Europa.
Dentro del Reino Unido
La política del Consejo de Cornualles es apoyar el idioma, en consonancia con la Carta Europea. En noviembre de 2009 se aprobó una moción en la que el consejo promovía la inclusión del córnico, cuando fuera apropiado y posible, en las publicaciones y letreros del consejo. [ 190 ] Este plan ha recibido algunas críticas. [ 191 ] En octubre de 2015, el consejo anunció que se alentaría al personal a utilizar "palabras y frases básicas" en córnico al tratar con el público. [ 192 ] En 2021, el Consejo de Cornualles prohibió que se celebrara una ceremonia matrimonial en córnico, ya que la Ley de Matrimonio de 1949 solo permitía ceremonias matrimoniales en inglés o galés. [ 193 ]
En 2014, el pueblo de Cornualles fue reconocido por el Gobierno del Reino Unido como minoría nacional en virtud del Convenio Marco para la Protección de las Minorías Nacionales . [ 194 ] El Convenio Marco para la Protección de las Minorías Nacionales proporciona ciertos derechos y protecciones a una minoría nacional con respecto a su lengua minoritaria. [ 195 ]
En 2016, la financiación del gobierno británico para la lengua córnica cesó y la responsabilidad se transfirió al Consejo de Cornualles. [ 196 ]
Cussel an Tavas Kernuak (el Consejo de la Lengua Córnica) es una asociación fundada en 1987 para enseñar, investigar y promover la lengua córnica en Cornualles. [ 197 ]
Fonología
El sistema fonológico del antiguo córnico, heredado del protobritónico sudoccidental y que originalmente difería poco del antiguo bretón y del antiguo galés, sufrió varios cambios durante sus fases media y tardía, dando como resultado características que no se encuentran en las demás lenguas britónicas. El primer cambio fonético que distinguió al córnico del bretón y del galés, la asibilación de las oclusivas dentales /t/ y /d/ en posición medial y final, había comenzado en la época del Vocabularium Cornicum , alrededor del año 1100 o incluso antes. [ 198 ] Este cambio, y la posterior, o quizás dialectal, palatalización (o rotacización ocasional en algunas palabras) de estos sonidos, da como resultado formas ortográficas como el córnico medio tas 'padre', el córnico tardío tâz (galés tad ), el córnico medio cresy 'creer', el córnico tardío cregy (galés credu ) y el córnico medio gasa 'dejar', el córnico tardío gara (galés gadael ). [ 199 ] Otro cambio fonético característico, la preoclusión , ocurrió durante el siglo XVI, dando como resultado que las nasales /nn/ y /mm/ se realizaran como [ᵈn] y [ᵇm] respectivamente en sílabas acentuadas, y dando formas del córnico tardío como pedn 'cabeza' (galés pen ) y kabm 'torcido' (galés cam ). [ 199 ]
La fonología del córnico revivido se basa en varias fuentes, [ 200 ] incluyendo diversas reconstrucciones del sistema fonético del córnico medio y moderno temprano basadas en un análisis de evidencia interna como la ortografía y la rima utilizadas en los textos históricos, [ 201 ] [ 202 ] [ 203 ] comparación con las otras lenguas britónicas bretón y galés, [ 204 ] [ 205 ] y el trabajo del lingüista Edward Lhuyd , quien visitó Cornualles en 1700 y registró la lengua en una ortografía parcialmente fonética. [ 206 ] [ 207 ]
Ortografía
Ortografía antigua de Cornualles
Hasta mediados del siglo XI, los escribas del antiguo córnico usaban un sistema de ortografía tradicional compartido con el antiguo bretón y el antiguo galés, basado en la pronunciación del latín británico . [ 208 ] [ 209 ] Para la época del Vocabularium Cornicum , generalmente fechado alrededor de 1100, las convenciones ortográficas del inglés antiguo, como el uso de thorn (Þ, þ) y eth (Ð, ð) para las fricativas dentales , y wynn (Ƿ, ƿ) para /w/ , se habían puesto en uso, lo que permite distinguir los documentos escritos en esta época del antiguo galés, que rara vez usa estos caracteres, y del antiguo bretón, que no los usa en absoluto. [ 210 ] Las características del antiguo córnico incluyen el uso de ⟨ch⟩, ⟨c⟩ o ⟨k⟩ iniciales para /k/ , y, en posición interna y final, ⟨p⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨c⟩, ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩ y ⟨g⟩ se utilizan generalmente para los fonemas /b/ , /d/ , /ɡ/ , /β/ , /ð/ y /ɣ/ respectivamente, lo que significa que los resultados de la lenición britónica no suelen ser evidentes en la ortografía en este momento. [ 211 ] [ 208 ]
Ortografía del córnico medio
La ortografía del córnico medio tiene un nivel significativo de variación y muestra influencia de las prácticas ortográficas del inglés medio. [ 212 ] Yogh (Ȝ ȝ) se usa en ciertos textos del córnico medio, donde se usa para representar una variedad de sonidos, incluidas las fricativas dentales /θ/ y /ð/ , un uso que es único del córnico medio y que nunca se encuentra en el inglés medio. [ 213 ] [ 214 ] Los escribas del córnico medio tienden a usar ⟨c⟩ para /k/ antes de vocales posteriores, y ⟨k⟩ para /k/ antes de vocales anteriores, aunque esto no siempre es cierto, y esta regla es menos consistente en ciertos textos. [ 215 ] Los escribas del córnico medio usan casi universalmente ⟨wh⟩ para representar /ʍ/ (o /hw/ ), como en el inglés medio. El córnico medio, especialmente hacia el final de este período, tiende a usar las consonantes ortográficas ⟨g⟩ y ⟨b⟩ en posición final de palabra en monosílabos acentuados, y ⟨k⟩ y ⟨p⟩ en posición final de palabra en sílabas finales átonas, para representar los reflejos de /ɡ/ y /b/ del britónico tardío , respectivamente. [ 216 ]
Ortografía córnica tardía
Written sources from this period are often spelled following English spelling conventions since many of the writers of the time had not been exposed to Middle Cornish texts or the Cornish orthography within them. Around 1700, Edward Lhuyd visited Cornwall, introducing his own partly phonetic orthography that he used in his Archaeologia Britannica, which was adopted by some local writers, leading to the use of some Lhuydian features such as the use of circumflexes to denote long vowels, ⟨k⟩ before front vowels, word-final ⟨i⟩, and the use of ⟨dh⟩ to represent the voiced dental fricative /ð/.[217][214]
Revived Cornish orthography
After the publication of Jenner's Handbook of the Cornish Language, the earliest revivalists used Jenner's orthography, which was influenced by Lhuyd's system. This system was abandoned following the development by Nance of a "unified spelling", later known as Unified Cornish, a system based on a standardization of the orthography of the early Middle Cornish texts.[218] Nance's system was used by almost all Revived Cornish speakers and writers until the 1970s.[219] Criticism of Nance's system, particularly the relationship of spelling to sounds and the phonological basis of Unified Cornish, resulted in rival orthographies appearing by the early 1980s,[220] including Gendal's Modern Cornish, based on Late Cornish native writers and Lhuyd, and Ken George's Kernewek Kemmyn, a mainly morphophonemic orthography based on George's reconstruction of Middle Cornish c.1500, which features a number of orthographic, and phonological, distinctions not found in Unified Cornish.[201][214] Kernewek Kemmyn is characterised by the use of universal ⟨k⟩ for /k/ (instead of ⟨c⟩ before back vowels as in Unified); ⟨hw⟩ for /hw/, instead of ⟨wh⟩ as in Unified; and ⟨y⟩, ⟨oe⟩, and ⟨eu⟩ to represent the phonemes /ɪ/, /o/, and /œ/ respectively, which are not found in Unified Cornish. Criticism of all of these systems, especially Kernewek Kemmyn, by Nicolas Williams,[221] resulted in the creation of Unified Cornish Revised, a modified version of Nance's orthography, featuring: an additional phoneme not distinguished by Nance, "ö in German schön", represented in the UCR orthography by ⟨ue⟩; replacement of ⟨y⟩ with ⟨e⟩ in many words; internal ⟨h⟩ rather than ⟨gh⟩; and use of final ⟨b⟩, ⟨g⟩, and ⟨dh⟩ in stressed monosyllables.[222] A Standard Written Form, intended as a compromise orthography for official and educational purposes, was introduced in 2008, although a number of previous orthographic systems remain in use and, in response to the publication of the SWF, another new orthography, Kernowek Standard, was created, mainly by Nicholas Williams and Michael Everson, which is proposed as an amended version of the Standard Written Form.[223]
Grammar
The grammar of Cornish shares with other Celtic languages a number of features which, while not unique, are unusual in an Indo-European context. The grammatical features most unfamiliar to English speakers of the language are the initial consonant mutations, the verb–subject–object word order, inflected prepositions, fronting of emphasised syntactic elements and the use of two different forms for 'to be'.
Morphology
Mutations
Cornish has initial consonant mutation: The first sound of a Cornish word may change according to grammatical context. As in Breton, there are four types of mutation in Cornish (compared with three in Welsh, two in Irish and Manx and one in Scottish Gaelic). These changes apply to only certain letters (sounds) in particular grammatical contexts, some of which are given below:[224]
- Lenition or "soft" mutation:
- Feminine singular nouns are lenited after an 'the':
- kath 'cat' > an gath 'the cat'
- Feminine singular nouns are lenited after an 'the':
- Spirantization or "aspirate" mutation:
- Nouns are spirantized after ow 'my':
- tas 'father' > ow thas 'my father'
- Nouns are spirantized after ow 'my':
- Provection or "hard" mutation:
- Verbs are provected after the verbal particle ow (approximately English "-ing"):
- gweles 'see' > ow kweles 'seeing'
- Verbs are provected after the verbal particle ow (approximately English "-ing"):
- Lenition followed by provection (usually), or "mixed" mutation:
- Type 1 mixed mutation:
- Occurs after the affirmative particle y:
- gwelav > y hwelav 'I see'
- Occurs after the affirmative particle y:
- Type 2 mixed mutation:
- Occurs after 2nd person singular infixed pronoun 'th:
- dorn 'hand' > y'th torn 'in thy hand'
- Occurs after 2nd person singular infixed pronoun 'th:
- Type 1 mixed mutation:
Articles
Cornish has no indefinite article. Porth can either mean 'harbour'[225] or 'a harbour'. In certain contexts, unn can be used, with the meaning 'a certain, a particular', e.g. unn porth 'a certain harbour'. There is, however, a definite article an 'the', which is used for all nouns regardless of their gender or number, e.g. an porth 'the harbour'.[226]
Nouns
Cornish nouns belong to one of two grammatical genders, masculine and feminine, but are not inflected for case. Nouns may be singular or plural. Plurals can be formed in various ways, depending on the noun:[227]
- Vowel change:
- toll 'hole' > tell 'holes'
- Addition of a specific plural suffix:
- el 'angel' > eledh 'angels'
- tas 'father' > tasow 'fathers'
- gwikor 'peddler' > gwikoryon 'peddlers'
- Suppletion:
- den 'man' > tus 'men, people'
Some nouns are collective or mass nouns. Singulatives can be formed from collective nouns by the addition of the suffix ⫽-enn⫽ (SWF -en):
- gwels 'grass' > gwelsen 'a blade of grass'
- helyk 'willow-trees' > helygen 'a willow tree'
Verbs
Verbs are conjugated for person, number, tense and mood. For example, the verbal noungweles 'see' has derived forms such as 1st person singular present indicative gwelav 'I see', 3rd person plural imperfect indicative gwelens 'they saw', and 2nd person singular imperative gwel 'see!'[228] Grammatical categories can be indicated either by inflection of the main verb, or by the use of auxiliary verbs such as bos 'be' or gul 'do'.[229]
Prepositions
Cornish uses inflected (or conjugated) prepositions: Prepositions are inflected for person and number. For example, gans (with, by) has derived forms such as genev 'with me', ganso 'with him', and genowgh 'with you (plural)'.[230]
Syntax
Word order in Cornish is somewhat fluid and varies depending on several factors such as the intended element to be emphasised and whether a statement is negative or affirmative. In a study on Cornish word order in the play Bewnans Meriasek (c.1500), Ken George has argued that the most common word order in main clauses in Middle Cornish was, in affirmative statements, SVO, with the verb in the third person singular:[231]
My
1SG
a
PTCL
wel
see-PRES.3SG
an
DEF
gath
cat
My a wel an gath
1SG PTCL see-PRES.3SG DEF cat
'I see the cat.'[232]
When affirmative statements are in the less common VSO order, they usually begin with an adverb or other element, followed by an affirmative particle, with the verb inflected for person and tense:
Ev
3SG.M
a
PTCL
grys
believe-PRES.3SG
y
PTCL
hwelav
see-PRES.1SG
an
DEF
gath
cat
Ev a grys y hwelav an gath
3SG.M PTCL believe-PRES.3SG PTCL see-PRES.1SG DEF cat
'He believes that I see the cat.'[232]
In negative statements, the order is usually VSO, with an initial negative particle and the verb conjugated for person and tense:
Ny
NEG
welav
see-PRES.1SG
an
DEF
gath
cat
Ny welav an gath
NEG see-PRES.1SG DEF cat
'I do not see the cat.'[232]
A similar structure is used for questions:
Elements can be fronted for emphasis:
an
DEF
gath
cat
my
1SG
a
PTCL
wel
see-PRES.3SG
an gath my a wel
DEF cat 1SG PTCL see-PRES.3SG
'I see the cat.'[234]
Sentences can also be constructed periphrastically using auxiliary verbs such as bos 'be, exist':
Yma
be-PRES-AFF.3SG
ow
PTCL
kelwel
call-VN
ely
Ely
Yma ow kelwel ely
be-PRES-AFF.3SG PTCL call-VN Ely
'(He) is calling Ely.'[235]
As Cornish lacks verbs such as 'to have', possession can also be indicated in this way:
'ma
be-PRES-AFF.3SG
'gen
1PL
ehaz
health
nyi
1PL
dhen
to+us
'ma 'gen ehaz nyi dhen
be-PRES-AFF.3SG 1PL health 1PL to+us
'We have our health.'[236]
Enquiring about possession is similar, using a different interrogative form of bos:
Hostes,
Hostess
ues
be-PRES-INTERR-INDEF.3SG
boues
food
dewhy?
to+you
Hostes, ues boues dewhy?
Hostess be-PRES-INTERR-INDEF.3SG food to+you
'Hostess, have you [any] food?'[237]
Nouns usually precede the adjective, unlike in English:[238]
Some adjectives usually precede the noun, however:
Vocabulary
Cornish is a Celtic language, and the majority of its vocabulary, when usage frequency is taken into account, at every documented stage of its history is inherited from Proto-Celtic,[241] either directly from the ancestral Proto-Indo-European language or through vocabulary borrowed from unknown substrate language(s) at some point in the development of the Celtic proto-language from PIE.[242] Examples of the PIE > PCelt. development are various terms related to kinship and people, including mam 'mother', modereb 'aunt, mother's sister', huir 'sister', mab 'son', gur 'man', den 'person, human', and tus 'people', and words for parts of the body, including lof 'hand' and dans 'tooth'.[243] Inherited adjectives with an Indo-European etymology include newyth 'new', ledan 'broad, wide', rud 'red', hen 'old', iouenc 'young', and byw 'alive, living'.[244]
Several Celtic or Brittonic words cannot be reconstructed to Proto-Indo-European, and are suggested to have been borrowed from unknown substrate language(s) at an early stage, such as Proto-Celtic or Proto-Brittonic. Proposed examples in Cornish include coruf 'beer' and broch 'badger'.[245]
Other words in Cornish inherited direct from Proto-Celtic include a number of toponyms, for example bre 'hill', din 'fort', and bro 'land',[246] and a variety of animal names such as logoden 'mouse', mols 'wether', mogh 'pigs', and tarow 'bull'.[247]
During the Roman occupation of Britain a large number (around 800) of Latin loan words entered the vocabulary of Common Brittonic, which subsequently developed in a similar way to the inherited lexicon.[246] These include brech 'arm' (from British Latinbracc(h)ium), ruid 'net' (from retia), and cos 'cheese' (from caseus).[248]
A substantial number of loan words from English and to a lesser extent French entered the Cornish language throughout its history. Whereas only 5% of the vocabulary of the Old Cornish Vocabularium Cornicum is thought to be borrowed from English, and only 10% of the lexicon of the early modern Cornish writer William Rowe, around 42% of the vocabulary of the whole Cornish corpus is estimated to be English loan words, without taking frequency into account. (However, when frequency is taken into account, this figure for the entire corpus drops to 8%.)[241] The many English loanwords, some of which were sufficiently well assimilated to acquire native Cornish verbal or plural suffixes or be affected by the mutation system, include redya 'to read', onderstondya 'to understand', ford 'way', hos 'boot' and creft 'art'.[249][241]
Many Cornish words, such as mining and fishing terms, are specific to the culture of Cornwall. Examples include atal 'mine waste' and beetia 'to mend fishing nets'. Foogan and hogan are different types of pastries. Troyl is a 'traditional Cornish dance get-together' and Furry is a specific kind of ceremonial dance that takes place in Cornwall.[250] Certain Cornish words may have several translation equivalents in English, so for instance lyver may be translated into English as either 'book' or 'volume' and dorn can mean either 'hand' or 'fist'. Like other Celtic languages, Cornish lacks a number of verbs commonly found in other languages, including modals and psych-verbs;[44] examples are 'have', 'like', 'hate', 'prefer', 'must/have to' and 'make/compel to'. These functions are instead fulfilled by periphrastic constructions involving a verb and various prepositional phrases.
Sample texts
From the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
From Bro Goth agan Tasow, the Cornish anthem:
From the wrestler's oath:
See also
- Anglo-Cornish, the Cornish dialect of the English language
- Bible translations into Cornish
- Breton language
- List of Celtic-language media
- The Cornish Language Council (Cussel an Tavas Kernuak)
- European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
- Language revival
- Irish language revival
- Manx, another Celtic language subject to revival efforts
- Languages in the United Kingdom
- Cornish literature
- List of topics related to Cornwall
References
- ↑Spriggs, Matthew (2003). Payton, Philip (ed.). "Where Cornish was Spoken and When: A Provisional Synthesis". Cornish Studies. Second Series. 11. Institute of Cornish Studies, University of Exeter Press: 228–269. Archived from the original on 26 April 2023 – via ResearchGate.
- ↑Ó Riagáin, Dónall (13 January 2015). "Cracks in the foundation of a language empire – the resurgence of autochthonous lesser used languages in the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland". In Stolz, Christel (ed.). Language Empires in Comparative Perspective. Berlin / München / Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 77–88. doi:10.1515/9783110408362.77. ISBN 9783110408362. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
- ↑MacAulay, Donald (1992). The Celtic languages. Cambridge University Press. p. 346. ISBN 0521231272. OCLC 24541026.
- ↑Ball & Müller 2009, p. 491.
- ↑"Main language (detailed) - Office for National Statistics". ONS.gov.uk. Office for National Statistics. 29 November 2022. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
- 12"Number of Welsh, Gaelic, Irish and Cornish speakers from the 2011 Census". ONS.gov.uk. Office for National Statistics. 9 June 2017. Retrieved 2 June 2018.
- ↑"Gerlyver Kernewek". CornishDictionary.org.uk (in Cornish). Retrieved 17 October 2019.
- 12Berresford Ellis, Peter (1990). The Story of the Cornish Language. Tor Mark Press. pp. 19–25. ISBN 0850253713.
Of John Davey of Zenmor who died in 1891, it was claimed that he was the last surviving native speaker of the language. His stone memorial reads 'John Davey 1812-1891 of Boswednack in this parish ... who was the last to possess any traditional considerable knowledge of the Cornish Language.'
- ↑George, Ken; Broderick, George (2009). "Revived Cornish". In Ball, Martin J.; Muller, Nicole (eds.). The Celtic languages. Routledge language family series (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. p. 753. ISBN 978-0-203-88248-1.
In the nineteenth century, a few people (notably John Davey, d. 1891) had a traditional knowledge of pieces of Cornish, such as the Lord's Prayer and the numerals, but so far as we know, they could not converse. From the mid-century onwards, others began to compose new material in Cornish (Saunders 1999).
- 12Mackinnon, Ken. "Cornish at Its Millennium: An Independent Study of the Language". Cornish Studies. 10.
- 123"Cornish language no longer extinct, says UN". BBC News Online. 7 December 2010. Archived from the original on 21 September 2025. Retrieved 11 November 2012.
- 123O'Neill, Diarmuid (2005). Rebuilding the Celtic Languages: Reversing Language Shift in the Celtic Countries. Y Lolfa. p. 240. ISBN 0862437237.
- ↑Linguistic minorities in countries belonging to the European community: summary report. Commission of the European Communities. 1986. p. 195.
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- ↑Cornish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
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{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2026 (link) - 12Jackson 1953, p. 12.
- ↑George, Ken (2010). "Cornish". In Ball, Martin J.; Müller, Nicole (eds.). The Celtic languages. Routledge language family series (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. p. 490. ISBN 978-0-415-42279-6.
- ↑Jackson 1953, p. 18.
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- 12345George 2009, p. 343.
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- ↑Pool 1975a: "[In 1746] Captain Samuel Barrington, in the course of naval duties, took a sailor from Mount's Bay who spoke Cornish well enough to make himself understood to Bretons"
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- ↑Olson, B. Lynette (1996). "Note: The tenth-century List of Cornish parochial saints' names in Codex Vaticanus Reg. Lat. 191". Parergon. 13 (2): 179–181. doi:10.1353/pgn.1996.0016. ISSN 1832-8334. S2CID 144542278.
- ↑Stokes, Whitley. "The manumissions in the Bodmin Gospels". Revue Celtique. 1: 332–345.
- ↑Blom, Alderik H. (2012). "Multilingualism and the Vocabularium Cornicum". Multilingualism in Medieval Britain (C. 1066-1520). Medieval Texts and Cultures of Northern Europe. Vol. 15. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. pp. 59–71. doi:10.1484/m.tcne-eb.1.100793. ISBN 9782503542508. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
- ↑Mills, Jon (2013). "The Vocabularium Cornicum: a Cornish vocabulary?". Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie. 60 (1): 141–150. doi:10.1515/zcph.2013.009. ISSN 1865-889X. S2CID 161927698.
- ↑Padel, Oliver (2014). "The nature and date of the Old Cornish Vocabulary". Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie. 61 (1): 191. doi:10.1515/zcph.2014.009. ISSN 1865-889X. S2CID 164677429.
- 12Padel 2014.
- ↑Falileyev, Alexander (2006), "De raris fabulis", in Koch, John C. (ed.), Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, pp. 575–577.
- ↑Jackson 1953, p. 21.
- ↑Chaudhri, Talat (2007). Studies in the consonantal system of Cornish. University of Wales, Aberystwyth. pp. 2–3. OCLC 828579430.
- 12George, Ken (1986). "How many people spoke Cornish traditionally?". Cornish Studies. 14. Institute of Cornish Studies: 67–70.
- 12Stalmaszczyk, Piotr (1997). "Cornish Language and Literature: A brief introduction". Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Litteraria Anglica. 3 (1999): 117–127. Archived from the original on 11 March 2025.
- ↑Padel, O.J. (3 August 2017), "Ordinalia", in Rouse, Robert; Echard, Sian; Fulton, Helen; Rector, Geoff (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Medieval Literature in Britain, Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 1–2, doi:10.1002/9781118396957.wbemlb247, ISBN 9781118396957, retrieved 16 September 2021
- ↑Mills, Jon (2012). "Depiction of Tyranny in the Cornish Miracle Plays: Tenor, Code Switching and Sociolinguistic Variables". Ilteangach, ilseiftiúil: Féilscríbhinn in ómós do Nicholas Williams – A festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Williams. pp. 139–157. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.1558.0882.
- ↑Toorians, Lauran (1991). The Middle Cornish: Charter endorsement: the making of a marriage in medieval Cornwall. Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck. OCLC 614930826.
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{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2026 (link) - ↑Classen, Albrecht (29 November 2010). Handbook of Medieval Studies Terms - Methods - Trends. De Gruyter Lexikon. De Gruyter. pp. 371–372. ISBN 9783110215588. OCLC 775645348.
- ↑Jenner, Henry (1904). A Handbook of the Cornish Language Chiefly in Its Latest Stages with Some Account of Its History and Literature. London: David Nutt.
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- ↑Ó hAnnracháin, Tadgh; Armstrong, Robert Matthew (30 July 2014). Christianities in the Early Modern Celtic World. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 76. ISBN 9781137306340. OCLC 1020678113.
- ↑Ridley, Jasper (2013). Thomas Cranmer. London: Bello. ISBN 9781447241287. OCLC 970603152.
- ↑Fletcher, Anthony; MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2008). Tudor rebellions (5th ed.). Harlow, Essex: Pearson Longman. p. 65. ISBN 9781405874328. OCLC 213080705.
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- ↑Ellis, Peter Berresford (1 January 1974). The Cornish Language and Its Literature. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 9780710079282– via Google Books.
- ↑Stoyle, Mark (2002). West Britons: Cornish identities and the early modern British state. University of Exeter Press. p. 45. ISBN 0859896870. OCLC 48154341.
- ↑Carew, Richard (1811). Carew's Survey of Cornwall: to which are added, notes illustrative of its history and antiquities. T. Bensley for J. Faulder. p. 152. Retrieved 13 February 2013– via Google Books.
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- ↑Lhuyd, Edward (1707). Archaeologia Britannica. Vol. 1: Glossography. pp. 251–253.
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- ↑Lipoński, Wojciech (2016). Landmarks in British History and Culture: A Monograph of Selected Issues. "Seria Filologia Angielska" No. 47 (2nd ed.). Poznań: Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM / Adam Mickiewicz University. p. 54. ISBN 9788323231103. OCLC 986071821.
- ↑Payton, Philip (1 May 2011). "Introduction". Cornish Studies. 19 (1). Institute of Cornish Studies: 1–8. doi:10.1386/corn.19.1.1_2 (inactive 23 April 2026). ISSN 1352-271X.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2026 (link) - ↑"Death of Mr John Kelynack, of Newlyn". The Cornishman. No. 356. 14 May 1885. p. 5.
- ↑Pool 1975b, p. 5.
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- ↑Lowenna, Sharon (1 May 2011). "Charles Rogers' 'Vocabulary of the Cornish Language', the Rylands Vocabulary, and gatherers of pre-'Revival' fragments". Cornish Studies. 19 (1). Institute of Cornish Studies: 105–122. doi:10.1386/corn.19.1.105_1 (inactive 23 April 2026). ISSN 1352-271X.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2026 (link) - ↑Jenner, Henry (1905). "Cornwall a Celtic Nation". The Celtic Review. 1 (3): 234–246. doi:10.2307/30069809. JSTOR 30069809.
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- 12Grenoble, Lenore A. (2009). Saving Languages: An Introduction to Language Revitalization. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521816212. OCLC 1225224133.
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{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2026 (link) - ↑"Boson family (per. c. 1675–1730), preservers of the Cornish language". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/74428. ISBN 9780198614128. Retrieved 20 September 2021.(Subscription, Wikipedia Library access or UK public library membership required.)
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- ↑Pye (2019). Cornish Place-names in the Landscape. University of Exeter. p. 393.
- ↑Hanks, Patrick; Coates, Richard A.; McClure, Peter (2016). The Oxford dictionary of family names in Britain and Ireland (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. xxxi. ISBN 9780192527479. OCLC 964412220.
- ↑Pointon, G. E. (1990). BBC pronouncing dictionary of British names (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 140. ISBN 0192827456. OCLC 20669792.
- ↑Ekwall, Eilert (1960). The concise Oxford dictionary of English place-names (4th ed.). Oxford: Claredon Press. p. 289. ISBN 0198691033. OCLC 400936.
{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) - 12George 2009, p. 647.
- ↑George 2009, p. 44.
- ↑George 2009, p. 624.
- ↑George 2009, p. 514.
- ↑George 2009, p. 866.
- ↑George 2009, p. 717.
- ↑George 2009, p. 573.
- ↑George 2009, p. 102.
- ↑George 2009, p. 432.
- ↑George 2009, p. 408.
- ↑"Ellery Family History". Ancestry.com. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
- ↑"Last Name: Ellery". SurnameDB. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
- ↑Hanks, Patrick; Hodges, Flavia (2002). The Oxford Names Companion. Oxford University Press. p. 125. ISBN 0198605617.
- ↑"Trevithick Family History". Ancestry.com. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
- ↑Bock, Albert; Bruch, Benjamin; Kennedy, Neil; Prohaska, Daniel; Rule, Laurence (14 August 2010). "An English - Cornish Glossary in the Standard Written Form"(PDF). Kernewegva.com. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
- ↑"Cornish Placenames". Retrieved 28 June 2026.
- ↑Ball & Müller 2009, p. 769.
- ↑Council of Europe (15 December 2025). "News about the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages: Protection of Cornish under the Charter extended". Council of Europe. Retrieved 21 January 2026.
- ↑"Cornish gains equal language status with Welsh". Nation.Cymru. 29 November 2025. Retrieved 10 July 2026.
- ↑Birch, Sophie (March 2010). "Cornwall cultural strategy evidence report"(PDF). Cornwall Council. p. 24. Archived from the original(PDF) on 19 April 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
- ↑"Dyslexic councillor says Cornish language road signs could prove dangerous for drivers". Plymouth Herald. 21 July 2014. Archived from the original on 29 July 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
- ↑Elgot, Jessica (7 October 2015). "Cornwall council plans to encourage staff to speak Cornish". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 11 October 2025.
- ↑"Couple cannot have a Cornish language wedding". BBC News. 26 February 2021. Archived from the original on 13 May 2025.
- ↑Milmo, Cahal (23 April 2014). "Cornish to be recognised as a national minority along with Scots, Welsh and Irish". The Independent. Archived from the original on 10 October 2025. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
- ↑Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. 1 February 1995. Archived from the original on 3 July 2025.
- ↑"Cornish language funding stopped by government". BBC News. 21 April 2016. Archived from the original on 11 October 2025.
- ↑"Cussül an Tavas Kernôwek The Cornish Language Council "Avonsya ha scodhya Kernôwek Bew rag oll an bobel." Promoting and supporting Modern Cornish for one and all". The Cornish language council. Retrieved 22 April 2026.
- ↑Jackson 1953, p. 699.
- 12Chaudhri 2007.
- ↑Mills, Jon (1999). Reconstructive Phonology and Contrastive Lexicology: Problems with the Gerlyver Kernewek Kemmyn. University of Exeter Press. OCLC 1078987283.
- 12George, Ken (1986). The pronunciation and spelling of revived Cornish. Kesva an Taves Kernewek. OCLC 868707844.
- ↑Schrijver 1995.
- ↑Wmffre, Iwan (1998). Late Cornish. Lincom Europa. ISBN 9783895861222. OCLC 249114049.
- ↑Ball, Martin J. (1990). Celtic Linguistics/ Ieithyddiaeth Geltaidd: Readings in the Brythonic Languages. Festschrift for T. Arwyn Watkins. John Benjamins Pub. Co. p. 242. ISBN 9789027278302. OCLC 759101335.
- ↑Ellis, Peter Berresford (1974). The Cornish language and its literature. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 194. ISBN 0710079281. OCLC 1256181.
- ↑Lhuyd, Edward; Evans, Dewi W.; Roberts, Brynley F. (2009). Archaeologia Britannica: Texts & Translations. Aberystwyth: Celtic Studies Publications – Cymru Cyf. ISBN 9781891271144. OCLC 339162016.
- ↑Chaudhri 2007, p. 68.
- 12Ball & Müller 2009, p. 495.
- ↑Jackson 1953, p. 67.
- ↑Jackson 1953, pp. 67–68.
- ↑Jackson 1953, p. 68.
- ↑Bock, Albert (2010). "Nucleus Length and Vocalic Alternation in Cornish Diphthongs". Die Sprache. 48 (1–2): 34–43. doi:10.13173/SPR.48.1-2.034.
- ↑Ball & Müller 2009, p. 496.
- 123Mills, Jon (1999). Reconstructive Phonology and Contrastive Lexicology: Problems with the Gerlyver Kernewek Kemmyn. University of Exeter Press. OCLC 1078438372.
- ↑Williams 2016.
- ↑Williams, Nicholas (2016). The Cornish consonantal system: Implications for the revival. Evertype. ISBN 9781782011859. OCLC 1017761062.
- ↑Ball & Müller 2009, pp. 496–497.
- ↑Davies-Deacon, Merryn (28 August 2017). "Names, Varieties and Ideologies in Revived Cornish". Studia Celtica Posnaniensia. 2 (1): 85. doi:10.1515/scp-2017-0005. ISSN 2451-4160. S2CID 171451822.
- ↑Williams, Nicholas (1997). Clappya Kernowek: an introduction to Unified Cornish Revised. Agan Tavas, the Society for the Promotion of the Cornish Language. p. 5. ISBN 1901409015. OCLC 38886149.
- ↑Davies-Deacon, Merryn (28 August 2017). "Names, Varieties and Ideologies in Revived Cornish". Studia Celtica Posnaniensia. 2 (1): 81–95. doi:10.1515/scp-2017-0005. ISSN 2451-4160. S2CID 171451822.
- ↑Williams, Nicholas (2006). Cornish today: an examination of the revived language (3rd ed.). Westport, Co. Mayo: Evertype. ISBN 9781904808077. OCLC 80332199.
- ↑Williams 1997, p. 12–13.
- ↑Williams, Nicholas (2012). Desky kernowek: a complete guide to Cornish. Evertype. p. xx-xxi. ISBN 9781904808992. OCLC 793690262.
- ↑Ball & Müller 2009, pp. 510–513.
- ↑George 2009, p. 533, porth.
- ↑Williams 1997, pp. 17–18.
- ↑Toorians, Lauran (2011). Towards a grammar of Middle Cornish. OCLC 1075291123.
- ↑Bock, Albert; Bruch, Benjamin (3 June 2008). An Outline of the Standard Written Form of Cornish (1st ed.). Cornish Language Partnership. pp. 76–77. ISBN 9781903798560. OCLC 436976273.
- ↑Williams 1997, p. 166.
- ↑Ball & Müller 2009, p. 516.
- ↑George, Ken J. (1991). "Notes on word order in Beunans Meriasek". Studies in Brythonic Word Order. "Current Issues in Linguistic Theory" series. Vol. 83. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 205–250. doi:10.1075/cilt.83.06geo. ISBN 9789027235800.
- 123Ball & Müller 2009, p. 529.
- ↑MacAulay 1992, p. 348.
- ↑Ball & Müller 2009, p. 239.
- ↑MacAulay 1992, p. 351.
- ↑Williams 1997, p. 147.
- ↑Williams 1997, p. 153.
- ↑Norris, Edwin (1859). The Ancient Cornish Drama. Oxford University Press. p. 22.
- ↑Norris 1859, p. 22.
- ↑Williams, N. J. A. (1 May 2013). "Adjectival and Adverbial Prefixes in Cornish". Cornish Studies. 21 (1). Institute for Cornish Studies: 33–75. doi:10.1386/corn.21.1.33_1 (inactive 23 April 2026). ISSN 1352-271X.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2026 (link) - 123Ball & Müller 2009, p. 532.
- ↑Matasović, Ranko (2009). Etymological dictionary of proto-Celtic. Leiden: Brill Publishing. p. 2. ISBN 9789004173361. OCLC 262430534.
- ↑Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias; Wenthe, Mark, eds. (2016). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics: an International Handbook. Berlin / Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. p. 1251. ISBN 9783110261288. OCLC 1004563249.
- ↑Klein et al. 2016, p. 1252.
- ↑Klein et al. 2016, p. 1254.
- 12Klein et al. 2016, p. 1255.
- ↑Klein et al. 2016, p. 1256.
- ↑Jefferson, Judith (2013). Multilingualism in medieval Britain (c. 1066–1520): Sources and analysis. Turnhout: Brepols. p. 62. ISBN 9782503542508. OCLC 827952091.
- ↑Jefferson 2013, p. 62.
- ↑Mills, Jon (2013). "The Vocabularium Cornicum: A Cornish vocabulary?". Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie. 60 (1): 141–150. doi:10.1515/zcph.2013.009. S2CID 161927698.
Bibliography
- Ball, Martin J.; Müller, Nicole, eds. (2009). The Celtic Languages (2nd ed.). Hoboken: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780203882481. OCLC 438705548.
- George, Ken, ed. (2009). An Gerlyver Meur: Cornish-English; English-Cornish Dictionary. Kesva an Taves Kernewek. ISBN 9781902917849.
- Jackson, Kenneth Hurlstone (1953). Language and History in Early Britain: A Chronological Survey of the Brittonic Languages, 1st to 12th Century a.D. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 085224116X. OCLC 217631525.
{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) - Pool, Peter A. S. (1975). William Bodinar's letter, 1776. Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall. OCLC 927038181.
- Pool, Peter A. S. (1975). The Death of Cornish(PDF). Truro: County Museum. Archived from the original(PDF) on 9 August 2024. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
Further reading
- Bruch, Benjamin; Bock, Albert (2008) An Outline of the Standard Written Form of Cornish. Cornish Language Partnership
- Hodge, Pol (2001) Cornish Names. Truro: Dyllansow Fentenwynn ISBN 1902917235
- Jago, F. W. P., A Cornish Dictionary (1887) English Cornish dictionary
- Jenner, Henry, A Handbook of the Cornish language: Chiefly in its latest stages with some account of its history and literature (1904)
- Ellis, Peter B. (1971) The Story of the Cornish Language. 32 p. Truro: Tor Mark Press
- Ellis, Peter B. (1974) The Cornish Language and its Literature. ix, 230 p. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul
- Everson, Michael (2007) A Proposed Standard Written Form of Cornish. Cornish Language Partnership Process
- Ferdinand, Siarl (2013). Brief History of the Cornish language, its Revival and its Current Situation. E-Keltoi, Vol. 2, 2 Dec pp. 199–227
- Norris, Edwin, Sketch of Cornish grammar (1859)
- Sandercock, Graham (1996) A Very Brief History of the Cornish Language. Hayle: Kesva an Tavas KernewekISBN 0907064612
- Stokes, Whitley, Gwreans an bys = The Creation of the World: A Cornish Mystery (1863)
- Weatherhill, Craig (1995) Cornish Place Names & Language. Wilmslow: Sigma Press (reissued in 1998, 2000 ISBN 1850584621; second revised edition 2007 ISBN 978-1-85058-837-5)
- Weatherhill, Craig (2009) Concise Dictionary of Cornish Place-names; edited by Michael Everson. Westport, Co. Mayo: Evertype ISBN 9781904808220
- Williams, G. P, The preverbal particle Re in Cornish (1908)
External links
- A Handbook of the Cornish Language, by Henry Jenner A Project Gutenberg eBook
- Cornish Language Partnership website
- Endangered Languages Project: Cornish
- A Cornish Internet radio station in nascent state featuring weekly podcasts in Cornish
- Spellyans – Standard Written Form Cornish discussion list
- UdnFormScrefys' site for the proposed compromise orthography, Kernowek Standard
- List of localised software in Cornish
- Blas Kernewek – A Taste of Cornish – basic Cornish lessons hosted by BBC Cornwall
- Cornish Language Fellowship
- Lyver Pysadow Kemyn (1980) Portions of the Book of Common Prayer in Cornish
- Cornish today by Kenneth MacKinnon – from the BBC
- Bibel Kernewek Cornish Bible Translation Project
- An Index to the Historical Place Names of Cornwall
- A review of the Cornish revival
- Cornish language Sayings and Phrases
Dictionaries
- Gerlyver kernewek (Cornish dictionary)
- An English-Cornish Glossary in the Standard Written Form – Cornish Language Partnership
- Lexicon Cornu-Britannicum: a Dictionary of the Ancient Celtic Language of Cornwall by Robert Williams, Llandovery, 1865.
- Cornish language
- Critically endangered languages
- Languages attested since the 9th century
- Languages extinct in the 18th century
- Southwestern Brittonic languages
- Cornish language revival
- Languages of England
- Languages of the United Kingdom
- Cornish nationalism
- Endangered Celtic languages
- Verb–subject–object languages
- Language revival