
Los primeros eslavos eran hablantes de dialectos indoeuropeos [1] que vivieron durante el Período de Migración y la Alta Edad Media (aproximadamente desde el siglo V al X d.C.) en Europa Central , Oriental y Sudoriental y establecieron las bases para las naciones eslavas a través de los estados eslavos de la Alta y Alta Edad Media . [2] La patria original de los eslavos todavía es un tema de debate debido a la falta de registros históricos; sin embargo, los académicos generalmente la ubican en Europa del Este , [3] siendo Polesia la ubicación más comúnmente aceptada. [4] [5]
En general, se acepta que los antiguos escritores romanos se referían a los antepasados de los eslavos como vénetos . [6] El término protoeslavo eslavo comparte raíces con los términos eslavos para habla , palabra y quizás fue utilizado por los primeros pueblos eslavos para referirse a otras personas que hablaban lenguas similares a las suyas . El primer uso escrito del nombre "eslavos" data del siglo VI, cuando las tribus eslavas habitaban una gran parte de Europa central y oriental . Para entonces, los pueblos nómadas de habla iraní que vivían en la estepa póntica europea (los escitas , sármatas , alanos , etc.) habían sido absorbidos por la población de habla eslava de la región . [7] [8] [9] [10] Durante los dos siglos siguientes, los eslavos se expandieron hacia el oeste (hasta el río Elba y los Alpes ) y hacia el sur (hasta los Balcanes , absorbiendo a los pueblos ilirios y tracios en el proceso), [11] y también se desplazaron hacia el este (en dirección al río Volga ). Entre los siglos VI y VII, grandes partes de Europa pasaron a estar controladas u ocupadas por eslavos, un proceso menos comprendido y documentado que el de la etnogénesis germánica en Occidente. Sin embargo, los efectos de la eslavización fueron mucho más profundos. [12]
A partir del siglo VII, los eslavos fueron cristianizados gradualmente (tanto por la Iglesia católica ortodoxa griega como por la Iglesia católica romana anterior al cisma). En el siglo XII, formaban las poblaciones centrales de varios estados cristianos medievales: eslavos orientales en la Rus de Kiev , eslavos del sur en el Imperio búlgaro , el Principado de Serbia , el Ducado de Croacia y el Banato de Bosnia , y eslavos occidentales en el Principado de Nitra , la Gran Moravia , el Ducado de Bohemia y el Reino de Polonia . El principado eslavo más antiguo conocido en la historia fue Carantania , establecido en el siglo VII por los eslavos alpinos orientales, los antepasados de los actuales eslovenos . El asentamiento eslavo de los Alpes orientales comprendía la actual Eslovenia , Friul oriental y grandes partes de la actual Austria .
Orígenes

Los escritores romanos de los siglos I y II d. C. conocían a los primeros eslavos con el nombre de vénetos . [14] Autores como Plinio el Viejo , Tácito y Ptolomeo describieron a los vénetos como habitantes de las tierras al este del río Vístula y a lo largo de la bahía de Gdansk . Más tarde, tras dividirse en tres grupos durante el período de migración , los escritores bizantinos conocieron a los primeros eslavos como vénetos, antes y esclavenos . El historiador del siglo VI Jordanes se refirió a los eslavos ( esclavenos ) en su obra Getica (551) , señalando que «aunque derivan de una nación, ahora se les conoce con tres nombres, los vénetos, antes y esclavenos» ( ab una stirpe exorti, tria nomina ediderunt, id est Veneti, Antes, Sclavenos ). [15]
Procopio escribió que "los Sclaveni y los Ante en realidad tenían un solo nombre en el pasado remoto; pues ambos eran llamados Sporoi en tiempos antiguos". [16] Posiblemente la mención más antigua de los eslavos en los escritos históricos Slověne está atestiguada en la Geografía de Ptolomeo (siglo II) como Σταυανοί (Stavanoi) y Σουοβηνοί (Souobenoi/Sovobenoi, Suobeni, Suoweni), probablemente refiriéndose a las primeras tribus eslavas en una estrecha alianza con los nómadas alanos , que pueden haber migrado al este del río Volga . [17] [18] En el siglo VIII durante la Alta Edad Media , los primeros eslavos que vivían en las fronteras del Imperio carolingio eran denominados Wendos ( Vender ), siendo el término una corrupción del nombre anterior de la era romana. [19] [20]
Los primeros hallazgos arqueológicos relacionados con los primeros eslavos están asociados con las culturas Zarubintsy , Chernyakhov y Przeworsk de alrededor del siglo III a. C. al siglo V d. C. Sin embargo, en muchas áreas, los arqueólogos enfrentan dificultades para distinguir entre hallazgos eslavos y no eslavos, como en el caso de Chernyakhov y Przeworsk, ya que las culturas también se atribuyeron a pueblos iraníes o germánicos y no estaban conectadas exclusivamente con un solo grupo tribal o lingüístico antiguo . [21] Más tarde, a partir del siglo VI, las culturas materiales eslavas incluyeron las culturas de Praga-Korchak , Penkovka , Ipotești–Cândești y el grupo de Sukow-Dziedzice . Con evidencia que va desde asentamientos fortificados ( gords ), ollas de cerámica, armas, joyas y moradas abiertas.
Patria protoeslava


La patria protoeslava es el área de asentamiento eslavo en Europa central y oriental durante el primer milenio d. C., con su ubicación precisa debatida por arqueólogos, etnógrafos e historiadores. [22] La mayoría de los académicos consideran a Polesia como la patria de los eslavos. [4] [23] Las teorías que intentan ubicar el origen eslavo en el Cercano Oriente han sido descartadas. [22] Ninguna de las patrias propuestas llega al río Volga en el este, sobre los Alpes Dináricos en el suroeste o los Montes Balcanes en el sur, o más allá de Bohemia en el oeste. [24] [25] Una de las primeras menciones de la patria original de los eslavos se encuentra en el Geógrafo bávaro alrededor del 900, que asocia la patria de los eslavos con los Zeriuani , que algunos equiparan a las tierras de Cherven . [26]
Según los registros históricos, la patria eslava habría estado en algún lugar de Europa central y oriental. El complejo de culturas Praga -Penkova -Kolochin de los siglos VI y VII d. C. se acepta generalmente que refleja la expansión de los hablantes de eslavo en ese momento. [27] Los candidatos principales son culturas dentro de los territorios de las modernas Bielorrusia , Polonia y Ucrania . Según el historiador polaco Gerard Labuda , la etnogénesis de los pueblos eslavos es la cultura Trzciniec [28] de aproximadamente 1700 a 1200 a. C. La hipótesis de la cultura de Milograd postula que los pre-protoeslavos (o baltoeslavos) se originaron en la cultura del siglo VII a. C.-siglo I d. C. ubicada geográficamente en el noroeste de Ucrania y el sur de Bielorrusia. Según la teoría de la cultura de Chernoles , los preprotoeslavos se originaron en la cultura de 1025-700 a. C. ubicada en el noroeste de Ucrania y la cultura de Zarubintsy del siglo III a. C. al siglo I d. C. Según la hipótesis de la cultura de Lusacia , estuvieron presentes en el noreste de Europa central en la cultura de 1300-500 a. C. y la cultura de Przeworsk del siglo II a. C. al siglo IV d . C. [29] La hipótesis de la cuenca del Danubio , postulada por Oleg Trubachyov [30] y apoyada por Florin Curta y la Crónica de Néstor , teoriza que los eslavos se originaron en Europa central y sudoriental. [31]
Lingüística

El protoeslavo comenzó a evolucionar a partir del protoindoeuropeo , [33] la lengua reconstruida de la que se originaron varias lenguas habladas en Eurasia . [34] [35] Las lenguas eslavas comparten varias características con las lenguas bálticas (incluido el uso del caso genitivo para los objetos de oraciones negativas , la pérdida del protoindoeuropeo kʷ y otras velares labializadas ), lo que puede indicar una fase protobaltoeslava común en el desarrollo de esas dos ramas lingüísticas del indoeuropeo. [34] [35] Frederik Kortlandt ubica el territorio de la lengua común cerca de la patria protoindoeuropea : "Los indoeuropeos que permanecieron después de las migraciones se convirtieron en hablantes de baltoeslavo ". [36] Según la hipótesis predominante de Kurgan , la patria original de los protoindoeuropeos puede haber estado en la estepa póntico-caspia de Europa del Este. [37]
El protoeslavo se convirtió en una lengua independiente durante la primera mitad del segundo milenio a. C. [33] El vocabulario protoeslavo, que fue heredado por sus lenguas hijas, describía el entorno físico y social, los sentimientos y las necesidades de sus hablantes. [38] [39] El protoeslavo tenía palabras para conexiones familiares, incluyendo svekry ("madre del marido") y zъly ("cuñada"). [40] El vocabulario eslavo común heredado carece de terminología detallada para las características físicas de la superficie que son ajenas a las montañas o la estepa: el mar, las características costeras, la flora o fauna litoral o los peces de agua salada. [41]
Se han conservado hidrónimos protoeslavos entre la fuente del Vístula y la cuenca media del Dniéper . [42] Sus regiones del norte lindan con territorio en el que abundan los nombres de ríos de origen báltico ( Daugava , Neman y otros). [43] [44] Al sur y al este, limita con el área de los nombres de los ríos iraníes (incluidos el Dniéster, el Dniéper y el Don). [45] También se demuestra una conexión entre las lenguas protoeslavas y las iraníes por la capa más antigua de préstamos en las primeras; [38] las palabras protoeslavas para dios (*bogъ) , demonio (*divъ) , casa (*xata) , hacha (*toporъ) y perro (*sobaka) son de origen escita . [46] Los dialectos iraníes de los escitas y los sármatas influyeron en el vocabulario eslavo durante el milenio de contacto entre ellos y el protoeslavo temprano. [47]
Se puede suponer una conexión entre el protoeslavo y las lenguas germánicas a partir del número de préstamos germánicos, como *kupiti ("comprar"), [48] *xǫdogъ ("hábil"), [49] *šelmъ ("casco") [50] y *xlěvъ ("granero"). [51] Las palabras eslavas comunes para haya , alerce y tejo también fueron prestadas del germánico, lo que llevó al botánico polaco Józef Rostafiński a ubicar la patria eslava en las marismas de Pripet de Polesia , que carecen de esas plantas. [52]
No se pueden detectar dialectos eslavos comunes antes del siglo IV d. C., ya que todas las lenguas hijas surgieron de variantes posteriores. [53] El acento tonal de las palabras (un cambio del siglo IX d. C.) está presente en todas las lenguas eslavas, y el protoeslavo refleja la lengua que probablemente se hablaba a fines del primer milenio d. C. [53]
Historiografía


Jordanes , Procopio y otros autores romanos tardíos proporcionan las probables referencias más tempranas a los eslavos del sur en la segunda mitad del siglo VI d. C. [54] Jordanes completó su Historia gótica , un compendio de la obra más extensa de Casiodoro , en Constantinopla en 550 o 551. [55] [56] También utilizó fuentes adicionales: libros, mapas o tradición oral. [57]
Jordanes escribió que los vénetos, esclavenos y antes eran etnónimos que se referían al mismo grupo. [58] Su afirmación fue aceptada más de un milenio después por Wawrzyniec Surowiecki, Pavel Jozef Šafárik y otros historiadores, [59] quienes buscaron el Urheimat eslavo en las tierras que los vénetos (un pueblo nombrado en la Germania de Tácito ) [60] vivieron durante las últimas décadas del siglo I d.C. [61] Plinio el Viejo escribió que el territorio que se extendía desde el Vístula hasta Aeningia (probablemente Feningia o Finlandia), estaba habitado por los sármatas, los wendos, los esciros y los hirri . [62]
Procopio completó sus tres obras sobre el reinado del emperador Justiniano I ( Edificios , Historia de las guerras e Historia secreta ) durante la década de 550. [63] [64] Cada libro contiene información detallada sobre las incursiones de los esclavenos y los antes en el Imperio romano de Oriente , [65] y la Historia de las guerras tiene una descripción completa de sus creencias, costumbres y viviendas. [66] [67] Aunque no fue testigo ocular, Procopio tuvo contactos entre los mercenarios esclavenos que luchaban del lado romano en Italia . [66]
Procopio, en consonancia con el relato de Jordanes, escribió que los esclavenos y los antes hablaban las mismas lenguas, pero que su origen común no se remontaba a los vénetos, sino a un pueblo al que llamó «sporoi». [68] Sporoi («semillas» en griego; compárese con «esporas») es equivalente al latín semnones y germani («gérmenes» o «plántulas»), y el lingüista alemán Jacob Grimm creía que suevos significaba «eslavos». [69] Jordanes y Procopio llamaban a los suevos «suavi». El final de la lista de tribus eslavas del geógrafo bávaro contiene una nota: «Los suevos no nacen, se siembran ( seminati )». [70] Se desconoce el idioma que hablaban los suevos de Tácito. En su descripción de la emigración (c. 512) de los hérulos a Escandinavia, Procopio sitúa a los eslavos en Europa central. [ cita requerida ]
Una descripción similar de los esclavenes y los antes se encuentra en el Strategikon de Mauricio , un manual militar escrito entre 592 y 602 y atribuido al emperador Mauricio . [71] Su autor, un oficial experimentado, participó en las campañas romanas orientales contra los esclavenes en el bajo Danubio a finales del siglo. [72] Un miembro del personal militar también fue la fuente de la narrativa de Teofilacto Simocatta de las mismas campañas. [73]
Aunque Martín de Braga fue el primer autor occidental que se refirió a un pueblo conocido como "Sclavus" antes de 580, Jonas de Bobbio incluyó el registro extenso más antiguo de los eslavos cercanos en su Vida de San Columbano (escrita entre 639 y 643). [74] Jonas se refirió a los eslavos como "Veneti" y señaló que también eran conocidos como "Sclavi". [75]
Los autores occidentales, entre ellos Fredegar y Bonifacio , conservaron el término "Venethi". [76] Los francos (en la Vida de San Martín , la Crónica de Fredegar y Gregorio de Tours ), los lombardos ( Pablo el Diácono ) y los anglosajones ( Widsith ) se referían a los eslavos de la región de Elba-Saale y Pomerania como "Wenden" o "Winden" (véase Wends ). Los francos y los bávaros de Estiria y Carintia llamaban a sus vecinos eslavos "Windische". [ cita requerida ]
El autor desconocido de la Crónica de Fredegar utilizó la palabra "Venedi" (y variantes) para referirse a un grupo de eslavos que fueron subyugados por los ávaros . [75] En la crónica, "Venedi" formó un estado que surgió de una revuelta [75] liderada por el comerciante franco Samo contra los ávaros alrededor de 623. [77] Un cambio en la terminología, el reemplazo de los nombres tribales eslavos por los colectivos "Sclavenes" y "Antes", ocurrió a fines del siglo; [78] Los primeros nombres tribales fueron registrados en el segundo libro de los Milagros de San Demetrio , alrededor de 690. [79] El desconocido "Geógrafo Bávaro" enumeró las tribus eslavas en el Imperio franco alrededor de 840, [65] y una descripción detallada de las tribus del siglo X en la península de los Balcanes fue compilada bajo los auspicios del emperador Constantino VII Porfirogénito en Constantinopla alrededor de 950. [80]
Arqueología

En la literatura arqueológica se ha intentado asignar un carácter eslavo temprano a varias culturas en varios períodos de tiempo y regiones. [81] Se relacionan principalmente con la cultura de Kiev que floreció desde el siglo II al V en la " cuenca media y superior del Dniéper , sitios afines a ella del tipo Zaozer'e en las cuencas superiores del Dniéper y del Daugava superior, y finalmente los grupos de sitios del tipo Cherepyn–Teremtsy en la cuenca superior del Dniéster y del tipo Ostrov en la cuenca de Pripyat". [82] Se reconoce como el predecesor de los horizontes culturales de Praga-Korchak , Praga-Penkovka y Kolochin de los siglos VI y VII que abarcan las culturas eslavas desde el Dniéster hasta el Elba. [82] [83] La "cultura de Praga" en sentido estricto, [83] se refiere al material eslavo occidental agrupado en Bohemia, Moravia y Eslovaquia occidental, distinto de los grupos de Mogilla (sur de Polonia) y Korchak (centro-oeste de Ucrania y sur de Bielorrusia) más al este. Los grupos de Praga y Mogilla se consideran el reflejo arqueológico de los eslavos occidentales del siglo VI . [84]
Anteriormente, la cultura de Cherniakov, del siglo II al V, abarcaba la Ucrania moderna, Moldavia y Valaquia . Los hallazgos de Cherniakov incluyen vasijas de cerámica negra pulida, adornos de metal fino y herramientas de hierro. [85] Los académicos soviéticos, como Boris Rybakov , lo vieron como el reflejo arqueológico de los protoeslavos. [86] Ahora se considera que la zona de Cherniakov representa la interacción cultural de varios pueblos, uno de los cuales tenía sus raíces en las tradiciones escita-sármatas , que fueron modificadas por elementos germánicos que fueron introducidos por los godos. [85] [87] La vivienda semisubterránea con un hogar en la esquina más tarde se convirtió en típica de los primeros sitios eslavos, [88] con Volodymir Baran llamándola una "insignia étnica" eslava. [88] En las estribaciones de los Cárpatos de Podolia , en los márgenes noroccidentales de la zona de Cherniakov, los eslavos se convirtieron gradualmente en un pueblo culturalmente unificado; El entorno multiétnico de la zona de Cherniajov planteaba una "necesidad de autoidentificación para manifestar su diferenciación respecto de otros grupos". [89]
La cultura de Przeworsk , al noroeste de la zona de Chernyakov, se extendió desde el Dniéster hasta el valle de Tisza y al norte hasta el Vístula y el Óder . [90] Era una amalgama de culturas locales, la mayoría con raíces en tradiciones anteriores modificadas por influencias de la cultura (celta) de La Tène , la cultura (germánica) de Jastorf más allá del Óder y la cultura Bell-Grave de la llanura polaca. Los vénetos pueden haber jugado un papel; otros grupos incluyeron a los vándalos , borgoñones y sármatas . [90] Al este de la zona de Przeworsk estaba la cultura de Zarubinets , que a veces se considera parte del complejo de Przeworsk. [91] Los primeros hidrónimos eslavos se encuentran en el área ocupada por la cultura de Zarubinets, [91] e Irena Rusinova propuso que los ejemplos más prototípicos de cerámica de tipo praguense se originaron allí más tarde. [88] La cultura de los Zarubinets se identifica como protoeslava, [92] o una comunidad étnicamente mixta que se eslavizó. [83]
Con el paso de los años, la confianza con la que se pueden establecer conexiones arqueológicas con grupos históricos conocidos disminuye. [93] La cultura de Chernoles ha sido vista como una etapa en la evolución de los eslavos, [91] y Marija Gimbutas la identificó como la patria protoeslava. [94] Según muchos prehistoriadores, las etiquetas étnicas son inapropiadas para los pueblos europeos de la Edad del Hierro . [95]
La cultura de las ánforas globulares se extendió desde el Dniéper medio hasta el Elba durante finales del IV milenio y principios del III milenio a. C. Se ha sugerido que es el lugar de un continuo germano-balto-eslavo (la hipótesis del sustrato germánico ), pero la identificación de sus portadores como indoeuropeos es incierta. El área de la cultura contiene una serie de túmulos , que son típicos de los indoeuropeos. [ cita requerida ]
La cultura Chernoles del siglo VIII al III a. C., a veces asociada con los " granjeros escitas " de Heródoto , "a veces se la describe como un estado en el desarrollo de las lenguas eslavas o al menos como alguna forma de indoeuropeo tardío ancestral a la evolución del tronco eslavo". [96] La cultura Milograd (700 a. C.-100 d. C.), centrada aproximadamente en la actual Bielorrusia y al norte de la cultura Chernoles, también se ha propuesto como ancestral de los eslavos o los bálticos , y la cultura Zarubintsy (siglo II a. C. al siglo II d. C.) y la cultura Oksywie son otros candidatos. [ cita requerida ]
Etnogénesis
Punto de vista histórico-cultural
Según el punto de vista dominante y cultural-histórico que enfatiza el modelo primordial de etnogénesis, la patria eslava en los bosques y humedales les permitió preservar su identidad étnica, su lengua, excepto por los constituyentes fonéticos y algunos léxicos, y sus costumbres patrilineales y agrícolas. [97] Los orígenes de los primeros eslavos se remontan a las culturas Zarubintsy y Chernyakov, y al área entre los ríos Vístula y Dnieper; centrada en los pantanos de Pripet de Polesia. [98] Además, las culturas Zarubintsy y Chernyakov pueden explicar una división posterior de los primeros eslavos en grupos separados durante el período de migración. [99] Después de un milenio, cuando el Imperio huno colapsó y los ávaros llegaron poco después, los eslavos emergieron y se extendieron rápidamente por Europa central y sudoriental, trayendo consigo sus costumbres y su lengua. [83]
Según Marija Gimbutas, "ni los búlgaros ni los ávaros colonizaron la península balcánica; después de asaltar Tracia , Iliria y Grecia, regresaron a su territorio al norte del Danubio. Fueron los eslavos quienes colonizaron... familias enteras o incluso tribus enteras se infiltraron en las tierras. Como pueblo agrícola, buscaban constantemente una salida para el excedente de población. Reprimidos durante más de un milenio por el gobierno extranjero de los escitas, sármatas y godos, habían quedado restringidos a un pequeño territorio; ahora las barreras habían caído y se dispersaron". [100]
Paul Barford sugirió que los grupos eslavos podrían haber existido en una amplia zona de Europa central y oriental (en las zonas culturales de Chernyakov y Zarubintsy-Przeworsk) antes de las migraciones eslavas documentadas de los siglos VI al IX. Sirviendo como auxiliares en los ejércitos sármata, godo y huno, un pequeño número de hablantes eslavos podrían haber llegado a los Balcanes antes del siglo VI. [101]
Además de su crecimiento demográfico, la despoblación de Europa central y oriental debido, en parte, a la emigración germánica, la falta de defensas imperiales romanas en las fronteras que fueron diezmadas después de siglos de conflictos y especialmente la plaga de Justiniano , y la Pequeña Edad de Hielo Tardía (536-660 d. C.) alentaron la expansión y el asentamiento eslavo al oeste y al sur de los montes Cárpatos . [83] [102] [103] El modelo migracionista sigue siendo la explicación más aceptable y lógica de la expansión de los eslavos y la cultura eslava (incluido el idioma). [104] [105] [106] [107] [108] [82]
Punto de vista procesual
Según el punto de vista procesual que enfatiza el modelo cultural-social de la etnogénesis, no hay "necesidad de explicar el cambio cultural exclusivamente en términos de migración y reemplazo de población". [109] Sostiene que la expansión eslava fue principalmente "una expansión lingüística". [110] Las lenguas eslavas se extendieron por las regiones de Europa por diferentes razones. Jouko Lindstedt escribió que "no hay una única explicación para la expansión eslava en el este de Europa como la hubo en el oeste para la expansión del latín y el protorromance". [111] Europa central fue esclavizada por la migración eslava. Habiendo sido abandonada en gran parte por las poblaciones germánicas en el siglo VI, la región del Báltico y el río Elba fueron repoblados por poblaciones eslavas. [112] Las lenguas eslavas orientales se extendieron por toda Europa oriental por medio de la migración y el cambio de idioma . El eslavo oriental se había convertido en una lengua de prestigio a través de su adopción de la alfabetización, desplazando a las lenguas finougrias y bálticas, al tiempo que absorbía elementos de las primeras. [113] Las lenguas eslavas del sur se extendieron por los Balcanes, reemplazando a las lenguas de las poblaciones locales romanizadas y helenizadas como resultado de cambios lingüísticos complejos, que involucraron redes tribales creadas a través de la expansión de tribus eslavas recientemente militarizadas. [114] [115] [116] Horace Lunt atribuye la expansión del eslavo al "éxito y movilidad de los 'guardias fronterizos especiales' eslavos del kanato ávaro", [117] quienes lo usaron como lengua franca en el kanato ávaro . Según Lunt, solo como lengua franca podría el eslavo suplantar a otras lenguas y dialectos mientras permanecía relativamente uniforme. Aunque podría explicar la formación de grupos eslavos regionales en los Balcanes, los Alpes orientales y la cuenca del Morava-Danubio, la teoría de Lunt no explica la expansión del eslavo a la región del Báltico y el territorio de los eslavos orientales , que son áreas sin vínculos históricos con los ávaros de Panonia. [118]
Un concepto relacionado con el dominio de la élite es la noción de colapso del sistema , en el que un vacío de poder creado por la caída de los imperios huno y romano permitió a un grupo minoritario imponer sus costumbres y su idioma. [119] Una hipótesis más extrema es defendida por Florin Curta, quien considera que los eslavos como una "categoría etnopolítica" fueron inventados por una fuente externa -los bizantinos- a través de la instrumentación política y la interacción en las fronteras romanas donde floreció una cultura de élite bárbara. [120] [121]
Sin embargo, Michel Kazanski concluye que, aunque "tanto el movimiento de las poblaciones del modelo cultural eslavo como la difusión de este modelo entre las poblaciones no eslavas [ocurrieron] (...) una difusión pura del modelo eslavo difícilmente sería posible, en cualquier caso en el que se supone un largo período de tiempo en el que las poblaciones de diferentes tradiciones culturales vivieron cerca unas de otras. Además, los arqueólogos que investigan las antigüedades eslavas no aceptan las ideas elaboradas por los "difusionistas", porque la mayoría de los defensores del modelo de difusión conocen mal los materiales arqueológicos específicos, por lo que sus trabajos dejan espacio para una serie de interpretaciones arbitrarias". [82]
Genética


El último intento de identificar el origen de los eslavos y de la lengua eslava incluye el estudio de los linajes genéticos paternos y maternos, así como del ADN autosómico, de todas las poblaciones eslavas modernas existentes. La varianza y frecuencia de los haplogrupos R1a e I2 de los subclados R-M558, R-M458 e I-CTS10228 de ADN- Y se correlacionan con la migración medieval temprana eslava y la propagación de la lengua eslava desde Europa del Este, muy probablemente desde el territorio de la actual Ucrania (dentro del área de la cuenca media del Dniéper) y el sudeste de Polonia. [122] [123] [124] [125 ] [ 126] [127] Un estudio de 2010 observó que "una parte significativa de la propagación de la cultura eslava debería ser el resultado de movimientos de población reales. Si la cultura eslava se difundiera solo por intercambio cultural (o en gran parte), entonces no habría posibilidad de ninguna mezcla significativa entre pueblos de origen eslavo y germánico". [128]
Según el estudio de la enfermedad inflamatoria intestinal autosómica de 2013 "sobre la ascendencia genealógica reciente durante los últimos 3000 años a escala continental", existe un número muy elevado de ancestros comunes entre los eslavos del sur y los polacos. Se concluye que esto se debe a la expansión de los hunos y los eslavos, que fue una "población relativamente pequeña que se expandió sobre una gran área geográfica", en particular "la expansión de las poblaciones eslavas en regiones de baja densidad de población a partir del siglo VI" y que es "muy coincidente con la distribución moderna de las lenguas eslavas". [129] Según Kushniarevich et al. 2015, el análisis de la enfermedad inflamatoria intestinal de Hellenthal et al. 2014, [130] también encontró "eventos de mezcla multidireccional entre los europeos del este (tanto eslavos como no eslavos), que datan de alrededor de 1000-1600 años antes del presente", lo que coincide con "el marco temporal propuesto para la expansión eslava". [131] La influencia eslava "se remonta a 500-900 d. C. o un poco más tarde, con más del 40-50 % entre búlgaros , rumanos y húngaros ". [129] El análisis de la IBD de 2015 encontró que los eslavos del sur tienen una menor proximidad a los griegos que con los eslavos orientales y occidentales y que hay "patrones uniformes de intercambio de IBD entre los eslavos del este y el oeste (poblaciones 'intereslavas' [húngaros, rumanos y gagauz] ) y los eslavos del sur, es decir, en un área de supuestos movimientos históricos de personas, incluidos los eslavos". El ligero pico de segmentos compartidos de IBD entre los eslavos del sur y del este y el oeste sugiere una "ascendencia compartida en tiempo eslavo". [131] Según un reciente análisis de mezcla de los Balcanes occidentales, los eslavos del sur muestran una uniformidad genética, [132] [133] con el componente genético ancestral baltoeslavo modelado entre los eslavos del sur contemporáneos siendo de entre el 55% y el 70%, [131] específicamente del 50-60% en el caso de los serbios modernos según datos arqueogenéticos. [134] [135]
Un estudio arqueogenético de 2022 publicado en Science comparó muestras de población antiguas, medievales y modernas y confirmó que las migraciones eslavas medievales "afectaron profundamente a la región", lo que resultó en la reducción de la ascendencia neolítica de Anatolia en el sudeste de Europa. Las poblaciones balcánicas preeslavas tienen la mayor parte del componente neolítico de Anatolia de ascendencia, mientras que los eslavos actuales fuera de los Balcanes tienen la menor cantidad, "con la gente actual del sudeste de Europa intermedia entre los dos extremos" (siendo los croatas y los húngaros los más eslavos). [136] Un estudio arqueogenético IBD de 2023 encontró que los eslavos forman un grupo genético específico y reconocible que "se formó por la mezcla de un grupo relacionado con el Báltico con personas germánicas orientales y sármatas o escitas". [137] Otro estudio del mismo año encontró un cambio genético relacionado con la migración de los eslavos y la lengua eslava en el noroeste de Rusia medieval . [138] Un estudio arqueogenético de finales de 2023 publicado en Cell , basado en 146 muestras, confirmó que la difusión de la lengua y la identidad eslavas en el sudeste de Europa se debió a grandes movimientos de personas, tanto hombres como mujeres, con ascendencia específica de Europa del Este, que portaban los haplogrupos de ADN-Y I2a-L621 y R1a-Z282, y que "más de la mitad de la ascendencia de la mayoría de los pueblos de los Balcanes actuales proviene de las migraciones eslavas, con alrededor de un tercio de ascendencia eslava incluso en países como Grecia, donde hoy en día no se hablan lenguas eslavas". [139] [140]
Apariencia
En la Chronica Slavorum , Helmold escribe sobre los wendos: «Estos hombres tienen ojos azules, caras rojizas y pelo largo». [141] Ibrahim ibn Yaqub mencionó que los eslavos tenían barba. [142] Procopio escribió que los eslavos «son todos altos y especialmente fuertes, su piel no es muy blanca y su pelo no es ni rubio ni negro, sino que todos tienen el pelo rojizo». [143] Jordanes escribió: «...todos ellos son altos y muy fuertes... su piel y pelo no son ni muy oscuros ni claros, sino que tienen la cara rojiza». [144] Ibrahim Ibn Ya'qub escribió: «Usan túnicas amplias, aunque los extremos de sus mangas son estrechos». [142] Procopio escribió que los hombres también usan una especie de pantalones calzados subidos hasta la cintura. [145]
Teofilacto Simocatta escribió sobre los eslavos que "el emperador escuchaba con gran curiosidad las historias sobre esta tribu, dio la bienvenida a estos recién llegados de la tierra de los bárbaros y, tras quedar asombrado por su altura y su poderosa estatura, envió a estos hombres a Heraclea". Hisham ibn al-Kalbi describió a los eslavos como "...una nación numerosa, de cabello rubio y tez rubicunda", y Al-Baladuri hizo referencia a los eslavos, escribiendo "Si el príncipe así lo hubiera querido, fuera de sus puertas habría sudaneses negros o eslavos rubicundos". [146]
Sociedad
La sociedad eslava primitiva era una sociedad tribal descentralizada típica de la Europa de la Edad del Hierro y estaba organizada en cacicazgos locales. Se produjo una lenta consolidación entre los siglos VII y IX, cuando el área cultural eslava, previamente uniforme , evolucionó hacia zonas discretas. Los grupos eslavos recibieron la influencia de culturas vecinas como Bizancio, los jázaros , los vikingos y los carolingios , y a su vez influyeron en sus vecinos. [147]
Estas naciones, los Sclaveni y los Antes , no están gobernadas por un solo hombre, sino que viven desde antiguo bajo una democracia y, en consecuencia, todo lo que afecta a su bienestar, sea para bien o para mal, se confía al pueblo.
— Procopio [148]
Las diferencias de estatus se desarrollaron gradualmente en los cacicazgos, lo que llevó al desarrollo de organizaciones sociopolíticas centralizadas. Las primeras organizaciones centralizadas pueden haber sido asociaciones guerreras pantribales temporales, la mayor evidencia se encuentra en el área del Danubio, donde los grupos bárbaros se organizaron alrededor de jefes militares para atacar el territorio bizantino y defenderse contra los ávaros de Panonia . [149] La estratificación social se desarrolló gradualmente en forma de cacicazgos hereditarios fortificados, que se vieron por primera vez en las áreas de los eslavos occidentales . El jefe era apoyado por un séquito de guerreros, que le debían su posición. A medida que los cacicazgos se volvieron poderosos y se expandieron, se crearon centros de poder subsidiario gobernados por jefes menores, y la línea entre cacicazgos poderosos y estados medievales centralizados se desdibujó. A mediados del siglo IX, la élite eslava se había vuelto sofisticada; vestían ropa lujosa, montaban a caballo, cazaban con halcones y viajaban con séquitos de soldados. [150] Estos jefes a menudo estaban en guerra entre sí. [151] al-Masudi , un historiador, geógrafo y viajero musulmán del siglo X , escribe lo siguiente sobre la organización tribal de los eslavos:
"Entre los diferentes pueblos que componen esta raza pagana, hay uno que en la antigüedad tenía el poder soberano. Su rey se llamaba Mājik y ellos mismos eran conocidos como Walītābā . En el pasado, todos los Saqaliba reconocían su superioridad, porque era de entre ellos de quien elegían al gobernante supremo, y todos los demás jefes se consideraban sus vasallos". "Comencé mencionando al rey cuya soberanía ha sido reconocida por todos los demás gobernantes desde la antigüedad, es decir, Mājik, rey de los Walītābā, que son los Saqaliba originales, de sangre pura, los más honrados, y tienen precedencia sobre todas las demás ramas de la raza". [152]
Ibrahim ibn Yaqub , un viajero judío sefardí hispanoárabe del siglo X , escribe lo siguiente sobre los mismos acontecimientos:
"Son de muchas clases diferentes. En una época estuvieron unidos bajo un rey llamado Makha, que pertenecía a un grupo de ellos llamado Walītābā. Este grupo tenía un alto estatus entre ellos, pero luego sus lenguas divergieron, la unidad se rompió y el pueblo se dividió en facciones, cada una de ellas gobernada por su propio rey". [152]
Organización tribal y territorial
No hay ninguna indicación de jefes eslavos en ninguna de las incursiones eslavas antes del año 560 d. C., cuando los escritos de Pseudo-Cesáreo mencionan a sus jefes pero describen a los eslavos como personas que viven según sus propias leyes y sin el gobierno de nadie. [153]
Se dice que los esclavenos y los antes vivieron en democracia durante mucho tiempo. [154] El historiador del siglo VI Procopio , que estaba en contacto con mercenarios eslavos, [155] informó: «Estas naciones, los esclavenos y los antes, no están gobernadas por un solo hombre, sino que desde la antigüedad han vivido en democracia y, en consecuencia, todo lo que involucra su bienestar, ya sea para bien o para mal, se confía al pueblo». [156] El Strategikon de Mauricio , del siglo VI , es considerado un testigo ocular de los eslavos y recomendó a los generales romanos que utilizaran todos los medios posibles para evitar que los esclavenos se unieran «bajo un solo gobernante» y agregó que «los esclavenos y los antes eran independientes, se negaban absolutamente a ser esclavizados o gobernados, y menos aún en su propia tierra». [157]
Settlements were not uniformly distributed but were in clusters separated by areas of lower settlement density.[158] The clusters resulted from the expansion of single settlements, and the "settlement cells" were linked by familial or clan relationships. Settlement cells were the basis of the simplest form of territorial organization, known as a župa in South Slavic and opole in Polish. According to the Primary Chronicle, "The men of the Polanie lived each with his own clan in his own place". Several župas, encompassing individual clan territories, formed the known tribes: "The complex processes initiated by the Slav expansion and subsequent demographic and ethnic consolidation culminated in the formation of tribal groups, which later coalesced to create state which form the framework of the ethnic make-up of modern eastern Europe".[159]
The root of many tribal names denotes the territory in which they inhabited, such as the Milczanie (who lived in areas with měl – loess), Moravians (along the Morava), Diokletians (near the former Roman city of Doclea) and Severiani (northerners). Other names have more general meanings, such as the Polanes (pola; field) and Drevlyans (drevo; tree). Others appear to have a non-Slavic (possibly Iranian) root, such as the Antes and Croats. Some geographically distant tribes appear to share names. The Dregoviti appear north of the Pripyat River and in the Vardar valley, the Croats in Galicia and northern Dalmatia and the Obodrites near Lübeck and further south in Pannonia. The root Slav was retained in the modern names of the Slovenes, Slovaks and Slavonians. There is little evidence of migratory links between tribes sharing the same name. The common names may reflect names given the tribes by historians or a common tongue as a distinction between Slavs (slovo; word, letter) and others, Nemci (mutes) being a Slavic name for "Germans".[citation needed]
Culture
Settlements


Early Slavic settlements were no bigger than 0.5 to 2 hectares (1.2 to 4.9 acres). Settlements were often temporary, perhaps reflected their itinerant form of agriculture,[160] and were often along rivers. They were characterised by sunken buildings, known as Grubenhäuser in German or poluzemlianki in Russian. Built over a rectangular pit, they varied from 4 to 20 m2 (43 to 215 sq ft) in area and could accommodate a typical nuclear family. Each house had a stone or clay oven in a corner (a defining feature of Eastern European dwellings), and a settlement had a population of fifty to seventy.[161] Settlements had a central, open area in which communal activities and ceremonies were conducted, and they were divided into production and settlement zones.[162]
The Slavs also built underground shelters roofed with wood to keep out the cold during winter.[163]
Log cabin saunas were also used as recorded by Ibrahim Ibn Ya'qub: "They have no baths but they use log cabins in which gaps are stuffed with something that appears on their trees and looks like seaweed – they call it mech (original mh = moss)... In one corner they put up a stone stove and above it they open up a hole to let the smoke from the stove escape. When the stove is good and hot, they close up the opening and close the door of the hut. Inside are vessels with water and they pour out of them water onto the hot stove and steam comes from it. Each of them has in his hand a tuft of grass with which they make air circulate and draw it to themselves. Then their pores open up and the unneeded substances from their bodies come out..."[142]
Fortified strongholds (gords) appeared in significant numbers during the 9th century, especially the Western Slavic territories, and were often found in the centre of a group of settlements.
The Slavs preferred to live in hard to reach places to avoid attack, as recorded in Maurice's Strategikon: "They live among nearly impenetrable forests, rivers, lakes, and marshes, and have made the exits from their settlements branch [out in] many directions because of the dangers they might face."[151]
Food and agriculture

The Slavs practiced hunting, farming, herding and beekeeping. They often settled in valley bottoms with rich soil, along rivers to provide water for livestock.[164] The early Slavs also had knowledge of crop rotation and developed a new sort of plow known as the moldboard plow, this plough was very efficient in breaking up the clay full soil of northern Europe, and it helped drastically increase the Slavic population.[165] Other tools, common throughout the rest of Europe were also used, such as iron hoes, sickles, wooden spades and others. Some were made from wood. Selective breeding was also done.
When crops were ripe they were cut with sickles and threshing was then done with a wooden flail. The grain was then milled by stone querns, which were very valuable and difficult to come by. Cereal crops, wheat, millet and barley were common as they could thrive in even poor soil. Vegetables such as onions, carrots, radishes, turnip, parsnip, cucumber, pumpkins, cabbage, pea and beans were all grown in gardens. Herbs were mostly garlic and parsnip, hops were also grown for making beer. Fruit trees were cultivated in orchards, including cherry, apple, pear, plums and peaches. Walnuts were also loved.
Animal were tended, not only for meat, leather or milk but also to fertilize the soil. Several breeds of cattle were bred and kept in large herds, as draught animals and for meat, female cattle provided milk. Pigs were prized for their meat. Goats and sheep were more rare but still bred. Horses were very rarely eaten, mostly used as draught or riding animals. Fowl were also kept, especially ducks and geese.
Animals in the forest were hunted, prey included boar, deer, hare, elk and occasionally bear. Beavers and marten were trapped for their fur.[164]
"They sow during two seasons of the year, in summer and in spring, and harvest two crops. Their principal crop is millet... They refrain from eating chicken, asserting that it exacerbates erysipelas, but they eat beef and goose, both of which agree with them...Their drinks and wine are made out of honey."[142] -Ibrahim Ibn Ya'qub
"They have a sort of wooden box, provided with holes, in which bees live and make their honey; in their language they are called the ulishaj. They collect around ten jars of honey from each box. They herd pigs as if they were sheep...They drink mead"[163] -Ibn Rusta
Medicine
The ancient Slavs knew human anatomy well, which is evident from the existence of numerous old names for body parts. Due to the lack of sources, we do not know for sure what they suffered from, but it is assumed that they were plague, malaria and dysentery. [citation needed]The medicines they used were mostly of animal and plant origin. Less commonly, minerals, sulfur and salt were used for medicinal purposes. [citation needed] The Slavs cleansed themselves in log cabin saunas[142] and bathed in rivers.[166] The early medieval Muslim traveller Ibrahim ibn Yaqub wrote: "The cold even when it is intense, is healthful to them, but the heat destroys them. They are unable to travel to the country of the Lombards because of the heat."[142]
Craftsmanship


Wood, leather, metal and ceramic work were all skillfully practiced by the Early Slavs. Pottery was made by craftsmen, or women, possibly in domestic workshops. Clay was mixed with coarse material, such as sand, crushed rock, to improve the qualities. Clay was worked by hand and roughly smoothed after completion, clay vessels also made with assistance of pottery wheels. After they were dried they were baked at a low temperature in bone-fire kilns. Pottery was produced not only by craftsmen, but also ordinary people as it did not require extensive practice, other crafts however were produced by professional craftsmen.
Metalworking was very important, as it was required to make tools and weapons. Iron was needed by every tribe, and it was produced by smiths using local ore, which was primarily bog ore. Once the ore had been turned into usable iron and slag removed, it was made into bars. Smiths made many types of products such as knives, tools, decorative items as well as weapons, which were not always made by separate weapon smiths. Broken tools were reforged, as iron was a valuable resource.
Houses, as well as their inside fittings and everyday items were made from wood. Carved bowls, vessels and beautifully made dippers were common in most homes. Leather and textiles, made of both linen and wool were made into carpets, blankets, overcoats and other clothing. Spindlewhorls were used to make thread in the home. Glass beads were crafted, and were often used as trade goods.[167][page needed]
Clothing
Most of the knowledge we have on Early Slavic clothing comes from iconographic sources and cemeteries. Although clothing differed according to region, season of year and social status, a general picture can be reconstructed.
Men wore long sleeved tunics made of linen or wool, extending to about the knee; under these, breeches were worn. Wool cloaks were sometimes worn over the tunic, fastened at the right shoulder leaving the right arm free. Cloaks were occasionally also made of leather and lined with fur or other material. Hats and mittens were worn for the winter, some trimmed with fur. Leather boots and shoes were also worn by both men and women, as well as a belt carrying a knife and whetstone for sharpening.
Some women wore long patterned dresses made from linen, sometimes with an apron tied over the dress. Dresses or tunics were sometimes made from one piece. Unmarried women wore their hair braided or loose, but covered it after they were wedded. Ornaments and jewelry such as beads and earrings and twisted wire bracelets were also worn, especially by wealthier women.[167][page needed]
Musical instruments
The Slavs had many musical instruments as recorded in historical chronicles:
"They have different kinds of lutes, pan pipes and flutes a cubit long. Their lutes have eight strings. They drink mead. They play their instruments during the incineration of their dead and claim that their rejoicing attests the mercy of the Lord to the dead."[163] -Ibn Rusta
"They have different kinds of wind and string instruments. They have a wind instrument more than two cubits long, and an eight-stringed instrument whose sounding board is flat, not convex."[142] -Ibrahim Ibn Ya'qub
Theophylact Simocatta mentioned of Slavs bearing lyres: "Lyres were their baggage"[168]
Burial practices

The Slavs burned their dead. Although the Slavic funeral pyre was seen as a means of freeing the soul from the body rapidly, visibly and publicly,[169][failed verification] archaeological evidence suggests that the South Slavs quickly adopted the burial practices of their post-Roman Balkan neighbours.[citation needed]
"They burn their dead...The day after the funeral of a man, after he has been burned, they collect the ashes and put them in an urn, which is buried on a hill. After a year, they place twenty hives, more or less, on the hill. The family gathers and eats and drinks there and then everyone goes home."[163] -Ibn Rusta
Marriage
Capturing wives and exogamy were traditions among the tribes and continued until the early medieval era. However, on some occasions in Bohemia and Ukraine, it was women who chose the spouse.[170] Fornication had a sentence in Pagan Slavs that was described as capital punishment by travelers, Ibn-Fadlan: "Men and women go to the river and bathe together naked... but they do not fornicate and if anyone would be guilty of it, no matter who is he and she... he and she would be pinked by pole-axe... then they hang out each part both of them on a tree", Gardizi: "If someone makes fornication, he or she would be killed, without accepting any apologies".[166]
The Byzantine Emperor Maurice wrote: "Their women are more sensitive than any others in the world. When, for example, their husband dies, many look upon it as their own death and freely smother themselves, not wanting to continue their lives as widows."[151]
Law

Rus law was based on Early Slavic customary law, which was partially recorded in the Rus-Byzantine treaties. However the Early Slavs did not have written laws, but relied on customs that dictated what was acceptable and not. The East Slavs did not have written law until the rule of Yaroslav the Wise.[171][172] One such customary law was the law of hospitality, which was very important to the tribal Slavs. If a tribe mistreated any guest, they would be attacked by a neighbouring tribe for their dishonour.[173]
Ibn Rusta wrote of Slavic law in c 903–918: "The ruler levies fixed taxes every year. Every man must supply one of his daughter's gowns. If he has a son, his clothing must be offered. If he has no children, he gives one of his wife's robes. In this country thieves are strangled or exiled to Jira [Yura by the Urals?], the region most remote from this principality."[174]
Warfare

Our understanding of Early Slavic warfare is based on both the writings of ancient authors and archeological discoveries.[175]
Early barbarian warrior bands, typically numbering 200 or less, were intended for fast penetration into enemy territory and an equally-quick withdrawal.[164] The Slavs favoured ambush and guerrilla tactics, preferring to fight in dense woodland or marsh.[176] However, victories in the open, sieges and hand-to-hand fighting were also achieved.[175] They often attacked their enemy's flank, and were cunning in devising stratagems.[151] The Slavs also used siege engines, such as siege towers and ladders as described by Procopius and St. Demetrius.
Ibn Rusta wrote: "They have very few horses...Their weapons are javelins, shields and lances...They obey a chief whom they call the Župan and carry out his orders...Their supreme lord, however, is called 'chief of chiefs'...this king has many effective and finely woven coats of mail...The Župan is his lieutenant."[163]
Weapons were usually spears, javelins and bows and arrows. Swords and body armour were rare and reserved for chiefs and their inner circle of warriors. Shields were round in shape[164] with a central boss grip in the middle.[177] Axes and slings were also in use.[164]
Although the Slavs fought mostly on foot, they were also proficient cavalry fighters as historical sources mentioned. Procopius wrote that Slav and "Hun" horsemen were Byzantine mercenaries, serving as horsearchers.[178] In their dealings with the Sarmatians and Huns, the Slavs may have become skilled horsemen, an explanation for their expansion.[179]
Menander Protector mentions a Slavic chief Dobret (circa 577–579) who slew an Avar envoy of Khagan Bayan I for asking the Slavs to accept the suzerainty of the Avars; Dobret declined and is reported as saying: "Others do not conquer our land, we conquer theirs – so it shall always be for us as long as there are wars and weapons".[180]
Writing

The existence of writing among the Early Slavs is a disputed topic. The Slavs passed down their stories and legends orally like most other tribal peoples in Europe. But in addition to this, a runic script was used.[citation needed]
The 9th-century Bulgarian writer [181]Chernorizets Hrabar, in his work "An Account of Letters", briefly mentions that, before becoming Christian, Slavs used a system of strokes and incisions or tallies and sketches: "Before, the Slavs did not have their own books, but counted and divined by means of strokes and incisions, being pagan. Having become Christian, they had to make do with the use of Roman and Greek letters without order [unsystematically], but how can one write [Slavic] well with Greek letters...[note 1] and thus it was for many years."[182]
Symbols

The Slavs and Balts had many symbols representing concepts, beliefs and Gods. They had many types of swastikas and similar symbols, such as the Kolovrat.(meaning spinning wheel) The kolovrat symbolized the sun, and the ever going cycle of life, death and birth. It was often carved on markers near the graves of fallen Slavs to represent eternal life.[184]
Gromovitit Znaci, were symbols associated with Perun, the Slavic thunder and sky god. Early Slavic homes often had the symbols carved into a beam to protect them from lightning. The circular shape of the Gromoviti symbolize ball lightning. Such symbols were also found on Slavic pottery from the 4th century.[183] Another symbol associated with Perun is the Perunika, which resmebles a six-petalled rose. Today, it is the name for a flower in some Slavic languages.
The hands of God were another ancient symbol, associated with the god Svarog.[185]
Ancient symbols such as these are still sometimes shown on clothing and the like, especially Russia.[186] Many samples are described on the instance of a women's folk costume at the Meshchera Lowlands.[186] Modern Rodonovers have developed some new symbols, that were not used by the Early Slavs, but many were.
Religion
Little is known about Slavic religion before the Christianization of Bulgaria and of Kievan Rus. After Christianization, Slavic authorities destroyed many records of the old religion. Some evidence remains in apocryphal and devotional texts,[187] the etymology of Slavic religious terms[188] and the Primary Chronicle.[189]
Ancestor worship was an important part of the pre-Christian Slavic religion.[190]
Early Slavic religion was relatively uniform:[191] animistic, anthropomorphic[192] and inspired by nature.[193] The Slavs developed cults around natural objects, such as springs, trees or stones, out of respect for the spirit (or demon) within.[194] Slavic pre-Christian religion was originally polytheistic, with no organised pantheon.[195] Although the earliest Slavs seemed to have a weak concept of God, the concept evolved[196] into a form of monotheism in which a "supreme god [ruled] in heaven over the others".[197] There is no evidence of a belief in fate[198] or predestination.[199]
Slavic paganism was syncretistic[200] and combined and shared with other religions.[201] Linguistic evidence indicates that part of Slavic paganism developed when the Balts and Slavs shared a common language[191] since pre-Christian Slavic beliefs contained elements also found in Baltic religions. After the Slavic and the Baltic languages diverged, the early Slavs interacted with Iranian peoples and incorporated elements of Iranian spirituality. Early Iranian and Slavic supreme gods were considered givers of wealth, unlike the supreme thunder gods of other European religions. Both Slavs and Iranians had demons, with names from similar linguistic roots (Iranian Daêva and Slavic Divŭ) and a concept of dualism: good and evil.[197][202]
Pre-Christian Slavic spirits and demons could be entities in their own right or spirits of the dead and were associated with home or nature. Forest spirits, entities in their own right, were venerated as the counterparts of home spirits, which were usually related to ancestors.[203] Demons and spirits were good or evil, which suggests that the Slavs had a dualistic cosmology and are known to have revered them with sacrifices and gifts.[204] Spirits included Leshy the spirit of the forest, Domovoy spirit of the home, Rusalka the female spirit of waters, Rarog the Slavic variant of phoenix, and other creature such as vilas, vampires and Baba Yaga or Roga.
Although evidence of pre-Christian Slavic worship is scarce (suggesting that it was aniconic), religious sites and idols are most plentiful in Ukraine and Poland. Slavic temples and indoor places of worship are rare since outdoor places of worship are more common, especially in Kievan Rus'. The outdoor cultic sites were often on hills and included ringed ditches.[205] Indoor shrines existed: "Early Russian sources... refer to pagan shrines or altars known as kapishcha" and were small, enclosed structures with an altar inside. One was found in Kiev, surrounded by the bones of sacrificed animals.[206] Pagan temples were documented as destroyed during Christianization.[207]
Records of pre-Christian Slavic priests, like the pagan temples, appeared later.[207] Although no early evidence of Slavic pre-Christian priests has been found, the prevalence of sorcerers and magicians after Christianization suggests that the pre-Christian Slavs had religious leaders.[208] Slavic pagan priests were believed to commune with the gods, to predict the future[199] and to prepare for religious rituals. The pagan priests, or magicians (known as volkhvy by the Rus' people),[189] resisted Christianity[209] after Christianization. The Primary Chronicle describes a campaign against Christianity in 1071 during a famine. The volkhvy were well-received nearly 100 years after Christianization, which suggested that pagan priests had an esteemed position in 1071 and in pre-Christian times.[210]
Later history
Christianization


Christianization began in the 7th century and was not completed until the second half of the 12 century. Later, as the Byzantine Empire reclaimed some of the areas of the Balkans occupied by Slavs, slight parts population of Slavs were Hellenised, including conversion to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, for example under the reign of Nicephorus I (802–811). However, the most significant missionary work was in the mid-ninth century. The Christianization of Bulgaria was made official in 864, during the reign of Knyaz Boris I during shifting political alliances both with the Byzantine Empire and the kingdom of the East Franks and the communication with the Pope.
Because of the Bulgarian Empire's strategic position, the Greek East and the Latin West wanted their people to adhere to their liturgies and to ally with them politically. After overtures from each side, Boris aligned with Constantinople and secured an autocephalous Bulgarian national church in 870, the first for the Slavs. In 918/919, the Bulgarian Patriarchate became the fifth autocephalous Eastern Orthodox patriarchate, after the patriarchates of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. That status was officially recognised by the Patriarchate of Constantinople in 927.[211] The Bulgarian Empire developed into the cultural and literary centre of Slavic Europe. The development of the Cyrillic script at the Preslav Literary School, which was declared official in Bulgaria in 893, was also declared the official liturgy in Old Church Slavonic, also called Old Bulgarian.[212][213][214]

Although there is some evidence of early Christianization of the East Slavs, Kievan Rus' either remained largely pagan or relapsed into paganism before the baptism of Vladimir the Great in the 980s. The Christianization of Poland began with the Catholic baptism of Duke Mieszko I in 966. Slavic paganism persisted into the 12th century in Pomerania, which began to be Christianized after the creation of the Duchy of Pomerania as part of the Holy Roman Empire in 1121. The process was mostly completed by the Wendish Crusade in 1147. The final stronghold of Slavic paganism was the Rani, with a temple to their god Svetovid on Cape Arkona, which was taken in a campaign by Valdemar I of Denmark in 1168.[citation needed]
Medieval states
After Christianisation, the Slavs established a number of kingdoms, or feudal principalities, which persisted throughout the High Middle Ages. The First Bulgarian Empire was founded in 681 as an alliance between the ruling Bulgars and the numerous Slavs in Lower Moesia. Not long after the Slavic incursion, Scythia Minor was once again invaded, this time by the Bulgars, under Khan Asparukh.[215] Their horde was a remnant of Old Great Bulgaria, an extinct tribal confederacy that was north of the Black Sea in what is now Ukraine. Asparukh attacked Byzantine territories in Eastern Moesia and conquered its Slavic tribes in 680.[216] A peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire was signed in 681 and marked the foundation of the First Bulgarian Empire. The minority Bulgars formed a close-knit ruling caste.[217]
The South Slavs established also the Duchy of Croatia in the early 7-8th century (Kingdom of Croatia since 925) and short-lived Duchy of Lower Pannonia. Roughly in the same time Principality of Serbia (later Grand Principality and Kingdom of Serbia), while Banate of Bosnia emerged from the 10th century by merging localities called župas, which were remnants of Early Christianity ecclesiastical divisions.[218][219] Duklja, Zachlumia, Pagania, Travunia and Kanalites similarly started emerging in the south.[217][220] The West Slavs were distributed in Samo's Empire, which was the first Slavic state to form in the west, followed by the Great Moravia and, after its decline, the Kingdom of Poland, the Obotritic confederation (now eastern Germany) the Principality of Nitra (modern Slovakia) a vassal of the Kingdom of Hungary, and the Duchy of Bohemia (now the Czech Republic).
After the 1054 death of Yaroslav the Wise and the breakup of Kievan Rus', the East Slavs fragmented into a number of principalities from which Muscovy would emerge after 1300 as the most powerful one. The western principalities of the former Kievan Rus' were absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[citation needed]
See also
- Lech, Čech, and Rus
- Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus'
- Slavic paganism
- Sclaveni
- Antes people
- Kievan Rus'
- The Origins of the Slavic Nations by Serhii Plokhy
- The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region by Florin Curta
Footnotes
- ^ In this place are listed eleven examples of Slavic words, such as живѣтъ /živět/ "life", which can hardly be written using the unadapted Roman or Greek letters (i.e. without diacritics changing their sound-values).
References
Citations
- ^
Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias, eds. (11 June 2018). "81: The phonology of Slavic". Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. Volumes 41-43 van Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft / Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science [HSK]. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 1415. ISBN 978-3-11-054036-9. Retrieved 29 June 2024.
[Common Slavic (CSl)] [...] is better approached as a permeable dialect continuum [...]. CSl has usually been envisioned as a distinct language from the beginning of the CSl changes; its speakers have usually been essentialized as 'Proto-Slavs.' The discussions have been muddled by nationalism and essentialist notions of ethnic identity. Scholars have dated the emergence of CSl language, and thus the ethnogenesis of the Slavs, as early as ca. 1000 BCE and as late as ca. 400 CE.
- ^ Barford 2001, p. vii, Preface.
- ^ "Slav | people". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
- ^ a b c Kobyliński 2005, pp. 525–526.
- ^ Zdziebłowski, Szymon (10 August 2018). "Archaeologists found traces of the cradle of the Slavs in Belarusian Polesie". Science in Poland. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
- ^ Langer, William L. (1948). Encyclopedia of World History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Co. p. 239.
- ^ Brzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002). The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450. Osprey Publishing. p. 39.
[...] Indeed, it is now accepted that the Sarmatians merged in with pre-Slavic populations.
- ^ Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 523.
[...] In their Ukrainian and Polish homeland the Slavs were intermixed and at times overlain by Germanic speakers (the Goths) and by Iranian speakers (Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans) in a shifting array of tribal and national configurations.
- ^ Atkinson, Dorothy; Dallin, Alexander; Warshofsky Lapidus, Gail, eds. (1977). Women in Russia. Stanford University Press. p. 3.
[...] Ancient accounts link the Amazons with the Scythians and the Sarmatians, who successively dominated the Pontic steppe for a millennium extending back to the seventh century B.C. The descendants of these peoples were absorbed by the Slavs who came to be known as Russians.
- ^ Slovene Studies. Vol. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36.
[...] For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs.
- ^ Stanaszek, Łukasz Maurycy (2001). Fenotyp dawnych Słowian (VI-X w.) (PDF). Retrieved 11 April 2021.
- ^ Geary 2003, p. 144: [B]etween the sixth and seventh centuries, large parts of Europe came to be controlled by Slavs, a process less understood and documented than that of the Germanic ethnogenesis in the west. Yet the effects of Slavicization were far more profound
- ^ Langer, William L. (1948). Encyclopedia of World History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Co. p. 239.
- ^ Langer, William L. (1948). Encyclopedia of World History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Co. p. 239.
- ^ Frank A. Kmietowicz (1976). Ancient Slavs. Worzalla Publishing Company.
Jordanes left no doubt that the Antes were of Slavic origin, when he wrote: 'ab unastirpe exorti, tria nomina ediderunt, id est Veneti, Antes, Sclaveni' (although they derive from one nation, now they are known under three names, the Veneti, Antes and Sclaveni). The Veneti were the West Slavs, the Antes the East Slavs and the Sclaveni, the South or Balkan Slavs.
- ^ "Procopius, History of the Wars, VII. 14. 22–30".
- ^ Gołąb, Zbigniew (1992), The Origins of the Slavs: A Linguist's View, Columbus: Slavica, pp. 291–293, ISBN 9780893572310
- ^ Bojtár, Endre (1999), Foreword to the Past: A Cultural History of the Baltic People, Central European University Press, p. 107, ISBN 9789639116429
- ^ Campbell, Lyle (2004). Historical Linguistics. MIT Press. p. 418. ISBN 978-0-262-53267-9.
- ^ Bojtár, Endre (1999). Foreword to the Past. Central European University Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-9639116429.
- ^ Brather, Sebastian (2004). "The Archaeology of the Northwestern Slavs (Seventh To Ninth Centuries)". East Central Europe. 31 (1): 78–81. doi:10.1163/187633004x00116.
- ^ a b Barford 2001, p. 37.
- ^ Zdziebłowski, Szymon (10 August 2018). "Archaeologists found traces of the cradle of the Slavs in Belarusian Polesie". Science in Poland. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
- ^ Kobyliński 2005, p. 526.
- ^ Barford 2001, p. 332.
- ^ Curta, Florin (2019). Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages (500–1300) (2 Vols). Boston: BRILL. p. 44. ISBN 978-90-04-39519-0. OCLC 1111434007.
- ^ Peter Heather (17 December 2010). Empires and Barbarians: Migration, Development and the Birth of Europe. Pan Macmillan. pp. 389–396. ISBN 978-0-330-54021-6.
- ^ Wstęp. W: Gerard Labuda: Słowiańszczyna starożytna i wczesnośredniowieczna. Poznań: WPTPN, 2003, s. 16. ISBN 8370633811
- ^ Ziółkowski, Adam (2022). "Pollen, brooches, solidi and Restgermanen, or today's Poland in the Migration Period – Review of: A. Bursche, J. Hines, A. Zapolska (eds), The Migration Period between the Oder and the Vistula, East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450–1450, Leiden – Boston 2020". Millennium. 19 (1): 173–196. doi:10.1515/mill-2022-0007. S2CID 253225324. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
One of its main results – the accordance between the palynological evidence of the change of environment (extensive reforestation and drastic reduction of anthropogenic indicators) and the archaeological reconstruction of the change of settlement (disappearance of the Przeworsk, Wielbark and other cultures of the Roman Period by the mid-fifth century) – conclusively confirms the often questioned verdict of a sudden severe depopulation of the lands between the Vistula and the Oder, similar to that revealed in the rest of Central/Eastern Europe (disappearance of the Elbe and Chernyakhiv-Sântana de Mureş cultures). An entirely new perspective opened by the project is the survival of enclaves with contacts all round the compass (the Eastern Empire, the Merovingian West, the Danubian lands, Scandinavia, the Western Balts). None of them yielded Slavonic material, even the longest-lived one recently discovered at Gąski-Wierzbiczany in Kujawy, evidently one of the main centres of the European Barbaricum and in the third and fourth century the Roman army's recruiting station, which continued till the early seventh century; this evidence (or lack of it) is the death-blow to the theory of a supposed continuity of settlement – and so of ethnicity, necessarily Slavonic – from the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages.
- ^ Trubačev, O. N. 1985. Linguistics and Ethnogenesis of the Slavs: The Ancient Slavs as Evidenced by Etymology and Onomastics. Journal of Indo-European Studies (JIES), 13: 203–256.
- ^ Florin Curta, "The Making of the Slavs between ethnogenesis, invention, and migration", Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana, 2 (4), 2008, pp. 155–172
- ^ Mallory & Adams 1997.
- ^ a b Sussex & Cubberley 2011, p. 19.
- ^ a b Schenker 2008, pp. 61–62.
- ^ a b Sussex & Cubberley 2011, p. 22.
- ^ F. Kortlandt, The spread of the Indo-Europeans, p. 4.
- ^ Fortson (2004), p. 16.
- ^ a b Sussex & Cubberley 2011, p. 109.
- ^ Schenker 2008, p. 109.
- ^ Schenker 2008, p. 113.
- ^ cf. Novotná & Blažek:2007 with references.[full citation needed] "Classical glottochronology" conducted by Czech Slavist M. Čejka in 1974 dates the Balto-Slavic split to 910±340 BC, Sergei Starostin in 1994 dates it to the 1210s BC and "recalibrated glottochronology" conducted by Novotná & Blažek dates it to 1400–1340 BC. That agrees well with Trziniec-Komarov culture, localised from Silesia to Central Ukraine, which is dated to 1500–1200 BC.
- ^ Mallory 1994, p. 80.
- ^ Mallory 1994, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Barford 2001, p. 14.
- ^ Mallory 1994, p. 78.
- ^ Sussex & Cubberley 2011, pp. 111–112.
- ^ The Journal of Indo-European Studies: Volume 21, Number 1-2. Journal of Indo-European Studies. 1993. p. 180. ISBN 9780941694407 – via books.google.nl.
- ^ Pronk 2013, p. 112-113.
- ^ Pronk 2013, p. 155-156.
- ^ Pronk 2013, p. 95.
- ^ Pronk 2013, p. 107-108.
- ^ Curta 2001, pp. 7–8.
- ^ a b Kortlandt 1990, p. 133.
- ^ Curta 2001, pp. 71–73.
- ^ Barford 2001, p. 6.
- ^ Curta 2001, pp. 39–40.
- ^ Curta 2001, pp. 40–43.
- ^ Curta 2001, p. 41.
- ^ Barford 2001, pp. 35–35.
- ^ Curta 2001, p. 7.
- ^ Kobyliński 2005, p. 527.
- ^ "Nec minor opinione Eningia. Quidam haec habitari ad Vistulam a Sarmatis, Venedis, Sciris, Hirris, tradunt". Plinius, IV. 27.
- ^ Barford 2001, pp. 6–7.
- ^ Curta 2001, pp. 36–37.
- ^ a b Barford 2001, p. 7.
- ^ a b Curta 2001, p. 37.
- ^ Kobyliński 2005, p. 524.
- ^ Barford 2001, p. 36.
- ^ Grimm, Jacob (1853). Geschichte der deutschen Sprache. S. Hirzel. p. 226.
jacob grimm suevi slawen.
- ^ Metzner, Ernst Erich (31 December 2011). "Textgestützte Nachträge zu Namen und Abkunft der 'Böhmer' und 'Mährer' und der zweierlei 'Baiern' des frühen Mittelalters – Die sprachliche, politische und religiöse Grenzerfahrung und Brückenfunktion alteuropäischer Gesellschaften nördlich und südlich der Donau". In Fiala-Fürst, Ingeborg; Czmero, Jaromír (eds.). Amici amico III: Festschrift für Ludvík E. Václavek. Beiträge zur deutschmährischen Literatur (in German). Vol. 17. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci. pp. 321, 347. ISBN 9788024427041.
- ^ Curta 2001, pp. 51–52.
- ^ Curta 2001, p. 51.
- ^ Curta 2001, p. 56.
- ^ Curta 2001, pp. 46, 60.
- ^ a b c Curta 2001, p. 60.
- ^ Barford 2001, p. 29.
- ^ Barford 2001, p. 79.
- ^ Curta 2001, p. 118.
- ^ Curta 2001, pp. 73, 118.
- ^ Barford 2001, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Kobyliński 2005, p. 528.
- ^ a b c d Michel Kazanski, "Archaeology of the Slavic Migrations", in: Encyclopedia of Slavic Languages and Linguistics Online, Editor-in-Chief Marc L. Greenberg, BRILL, 2020, quote: "There are two specific aspects of the archaeology of Slavic migrations: the movement of the populations of the Slavic cultural model and the diffusion of this model amid non-Slavic populations. Certainly, both phenomena occurred; however, a pure diffusion of the Slavic model would hardly be possible, in any case in which a long period of time when the populations of different cultural traditions lived close to one another is assumed. Moreover, archaeologists researching Slavic antiquities do not accept the ideas produced by the "diffusionists," because most of the champions of the diffusion model know the specific archaeological materials poorly, so their works leave room for a number of arbitrary interpretations (for details, see Pleterski 2015: 232)."
- ^ a b c d e Bell-Fialkoff, Andrew (2000). "The Slavs". In Bell-Fialkoff, Andrew (ed.). The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe. Sedentary Civilization vs. 'Barbarian' and Nomad. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 138–140, 148–149. ISBN 0-312-21207-0.
- ^ Barford 2001, chapters 2–4.
- ^ a b Todd 1995, p. 27.
- ^ Barford 2001, p. 40.
- ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 104.
- ^ a b c Curta 2001, p. 284.
- ^ Kobyliński 2005, p. 529.
- ^ a b Todd 1995, p. 26.
- ^ a b c Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 637.
- ^ New Cambridge Medieval History, pg. 529
- ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 524.
- ^ Gimbutas 1971, p. 42.
- ^ Green 1996, p. 3: Many pre-historians argue it is spurious to identify Iron Age Europeans as Celts (or other such labels).
- ^ Adams, Douglas Q. (January 1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. pp. 104–. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.
- ^ Magocsi 1996, p. 36.
- ^ Bell-Fialkoff, Andrew (2016). The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe. London: Macmillan Press Ltd. p. 137.
- ^ Bell-Fialkoff, Andrew (2016). The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe. London: Macmillan Press Ltd. p. 140.
- ^ Gimbutas 1971, p. 98.
- ^ Barford 2001, p. 43: An indirect piece of evidence might be the Slavic word strava, which was used to describe Attila's funerary feast". Priscus noted that communities with a language and customs distinct from Gothic, Hun or Latin existed in the Hun confederacy. They drank medos and could sail in boats crafted from hollowed-out trees (monoxyla).
- ^ Lester K. Little, ed. (2007). Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15, 24, 116, 118, 125, 286–287. ISBN 978-0-521-84639-4.
- ^ Büntgen, Ulf; Myglan, Vladimir S.; Ljungqvist, Fredrik Charpentier; McCormick, Michael; Di Cosmo, Nicola; Sigl, Michael; Jungclaus, Johann; Wagner, Sebastian; Krusic, Paul J.; Esper, Jan; Kaplan, Jed O.; de Vaan, Michiel A. C.; Luterbacher, Jürg; Wacker, Lukas; Tegel, Willy; Kirdyanov, Alexander V. (2016). "Cooling and societal change during the Late Antique Little Ice Age from 536 to around 660 AD". Nature Geoscience. 9 (3): 231–236. Bibcode:2016NatGe...9..231B. doi:10.1038/ngeo2652.
- ^ Felix Biermann, "Kommentar zum Aufsatz von Florin Curta: Utváření Slovanů (se zvláštním zřetelem k Čechám a Moravě) – The Making of the Slavs (with a special emphasis on Bohemia and Moravia)", Archeologické rozhledy, 61 (2), 2009, pp. 337–349
- ^ Petr V. Shuvalov, "The invention of the problem (on Florin Curta's book)", Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana, 2 (4), 2008, pp. 13–20
- ^ Andrej Pleterski, "The Ethnogenesis of the Slavs, the Methods and the Process", Starohrvatska prosvjeta, 3 (40), 2013, pp. 8–10, 22–25
- ^ Lindstedt, Jouko (19–22 October 2017), "How the early Slavs existed: A short essay on ontology and methodology", Language contact and the Early Slavs (PDF), Prague: Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, retrieved 10 August 2022,
Despite Florin Curta (2015) declaring the prehistoric Slavs as a "fairy tale", they certainly existed at least in a linguistic sense: the Slavic language family is unexplainable without an earlier protolanguage, this Proto-Slavic must have had speakers, and "Slav" is the name that mediaeval sources mainly propose as the designation of those ... but there is also no reason to argue that they are totally unrelated groups of people. Linguistics shows the spread of the Slavic language in Eastern Europe in the second half of the first millennium CE; history and archaeology tell us about at least some major migrations in this same period of worsening living conditions (due to the Late Antique Little Ice Age and Justinian's Plague); population genetics shows the relatively recent common ancestry of most of the population in this area. These are distinct stories, but not unrelated stories, and the challenge is to construct an integrated view of the early speakers of Slavic on their basis, not to bury the Slavs under ontological doubts and methodological scruples.
- ^ Koder, Johannes (2020). "On the Slavic Immigration in the Byzantine Balkans". In Johannes Preiser-Kapeller; Lucian Reinfandt; Yannis Stouraitis (eds.). Migration Histories of the Medieval Afroeurasian Transition Zone: Aspects of Mobility Between Africa, Asia and Europe, 300–1500 C.E. Brill. pp. 81–100. doi:10.1163/9789004425613_004. ISBN 978-90-04-42561-3. S2CID 218997565.
- ^ From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms: Archaeologists and Migrations, p. 264
- ^ Russian Identities. A Historical Survey. N. V. Riasonovsky. Pg 10. Oxford University Press, quoting Johanna Nichols.
- ^ Repanšek, Luka; Šekli, Matej (2017). 12. letno srečanje Združenja za slovansko jezikoslovje: Povzetki prispevkov. Založba ZRC. pp. 113–114. ISBN 978-961-05-0027-8. "There is no single explanation for the Slavic spread in the east of Europe as there was in the west for the spread of Latin and Proto-Romance. The West, East, and South Slavic areas exhibit different scenarios."
- ^ Repanšek & Šekli 2017, p. 113: "The spread in the west, to the Elbe and the Pomeranian shore, was closest to a demic spread, that is, a classical migration model. The Germanic population of the area had already become rather scarce; historians speak about the "German collapse" that occurred there by the sixth century (Heather 2010: 371).
- ^ Repanšek & Šekli 2017, pp. 113–114: "The East Slavic spread involved both migrations and language shift from Baltic and Finno-Ugric languages. A Finno-Ugric substrate is clearly visible in Russian (Kiparsky 1969) and especially in Old Novgrodian as attested in the birch bark documents (Dombrowski 2016). After the introduction of Christianity and Cyrillic literacy linked with it, the spread of East Slavic was a typical case of prestige language expansion."
- ^ Repanšek & Šekli 2017, pp. 113–114: "In the south, the Avar-Slavic symbiosis supported Slavic spread into a densely populated area characterized by high population density, and the result was a complex scenario of adstratal and substratal influences and language shifts to and from Slavic over the centuries. Slavic did not initially spread as a prestige language of a higher culture but as a language of strong local and tribal networks, not unlike Anglo-Saxon [in England].
- ^ Kamusella, Tomasz (17 June 2021). Politics and the Slavic Languages. Routledge. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-000-39599-0. "The Avar elite probably instituted Slavic as the Khaganate's lingua franca, which led to the spread of this language wherever the Avars managed to expand their rule (Curta 2004)."
- ^ Dolukhanov 2013, p. 167: "In the process, once Slavs had "gained substantial political and military experience in their dealings with their warlike nomadic assailants, [they] emerged as a dominant force and established a new socio-political network in the entire area of central and southeastern Europe... One may suggest that economic power stood at the bottom of this newly emerged Slavic socio-political network. An extensive exchange of goods and communication, as in all similar cases, bound together various groups involved in this sociopolitical network. The Slavic languages functioned as a common information medium [...]"
- ^ Curta 2004, p. 133.
- ^ Curta 2004, p. 148: It is possible that the expansion of the Avar khanate during the second half of the eighth century coincided with the spread of ... Slavic into the neighbouring areas of Bohemia, Moravia and southern Poland, (but) could hardly explain the spread of Slavic into Poland, Ukraine, Belarus and Russia, all regions that produced so far almost no archaeological evidence of Avar influence."
- ^ Renfrew 1987, p. 131-136.
- ^ Florin Curta, "The Making of the Slavs between ethnogenesis, invention, and migration", Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana, 2 (4), 2008, pp. 155–172
- ^ Tomáš Gábriš, Róbert Jáger, "Back to Slavic Legal History? On the Use of Historical Linguistics in the History of Slavic Law", Frühmittelalterliche Studien, 53 (1), 2019, pp. 41–42
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R1a-M458 exceeds 20% in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, and Western Belarus. The lineage averages 11–15% across Russia and Ukraine and occurs at 7% or less elsewhere (Figure 2d). Unlike hg R1a-M458, the R1a-M558 clade is also common in the Volga-Uralic populations. R1a-M558 occurs at 10–33% in parts of Russia, exceeds 26% in Poland and Western Belarus, and varies between 10 and 23% in the Ukraine, whereas it drops 10-fold lower in Western Europe. In general, both R1a-M458 and R1a-M558 occur at low but informative frequencies in Balkan populations with known Slavonic heritage.
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Az I2-CTS10228 (köznevén "dinári-kárpáti") alcsoport legkorábbi közös őse 2200 évvel ezelőttre tehető, így esetében nem arról van szó, hogy a mezolit népesség Kelet-Európában ilyen mértékben fennmaradt volna, hanem arról, hogy egy, a mezolit csoportoktól származó szűk család az európai vaskorban sikeresen integrálódott egy olyan társadalomba, amely hamarosan erőteljes demográfiai expanzióba kezdett. Ez is mutatja, hogy nem feltétlenül népek, mintsem családok sikerével, nemzetségek elterjedésével is számolnunk kell, és ezt a jelenlegi etnikai identitással összefüggésbe hozni lehetetlen. A csoport elterjedése alapján valószínűsíthető, hogy a szláv népek migrációjában vett részt, így válva az R1a-t követően a második legdominánsabb csoporttá a mai Kelet-Európában. Nyugat-Európából viszont teljes mértékben hiányzik, kivéve a kora középkorban szláv nyelvet beszélő keletnémet területeket.
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Based on SNP analysis, the CTS10228 group is 2200 ± 300 years old. The group's demographic expansion may have begun in Southeast Poland around that time, as carriers of the oldest subgroup are found there today. The group cannot solely be tied to the Slavs, because the proto-Slavic period was later, around 300–500 CE... The SNP-based age of the Eastern European CTS10228 branch is 2200 ± 300 years old. The carriers of the most ancient subgroup live in Southeast Poland, and it is likely that the rapid demographic expansion which brought the marker to other regions in Europe began there. The largest demographic explosion occurred in the Balkans, where the subgroup is dominant in 50.5% of Croatians, 30.1% of Serbs, 31.4% of Montenegrins, and in about 20% of Albanians and Greeks. As a result, this subgroup is often called Dinaric. It is interesting that while it is dominant among modern Balkan peoples, this subgroup has not been present yet during the Roman period, as it is almost absent in Italy as well (see Online Resource 5; ESM_5).
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The geographic distributions of the major eastern European NRY haplogroups (R1a-Z282, I2a-P37) overlap with the area occupied by the present-day Slavs to a great extent, and it might be tempting to consider both haplogroups as Slavic-specic patrilineal lineages ... Altogether, long genomic segments distribution in eastern Europe, where Slavs predominate today but are not an exclusive linguistic group, are compatible with actual movements of people across this region, presumably within historical time
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In modern Serbians, ancestry can be estimated as 40–50% Iron Age Balkans and 50–60% Slavic
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Slavic migrations in the latter half of the first millennium shaped the linguistic landscape of northwestern Russia... Concordantly, our dataset captures the arrival of the Slavic ancestry component and the medieval coexistence of Slavic-like and Uralic-like groups. In Shekshovo 9, we detected approximately equal numbers of individuals from both genetic groups, and their burial placement showed no apparent distinction between them. Moreover, some individuals with Uralic-like ancestry were buried with "Slavic" grave goods or a mixture of Slavic and "Uralic" items, indicating cultural integration of the groups. However, our model suggests that the Slavic-like group contributed a major proportion (70%) of ancestry to the later population. Obviously, our medieval sample may be too small to be fully representative, but the difference could also suggest additional contribution from the surrounding Slavic population in the Late Middle Ages.
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- Yelmo (1120). Crónica Slavorum .[ Se necesita cita completa ]
- Procopio (años 550). Historia de las guerras .[ Se necesita cita completa ]
- Georgios Kardaras (2017), una nueva aproximación al relato etnográfico de Procopio sobre los primeros eslavos[ Se necesita cita completa ]
- Jordanes (551). La Gética de Jordanes .[ Se necesita cita completa ]
- Teofilacto Simocatta (630). La Historia Universal .[ Se necesita cita completa ]
- Ibn Rusta (903). El libro de los Registros Preciosos .[ Se necesita cita completa ]
- Ibrahim Ibn Ya'qub (961–976). Libro de caminos y reinos .[ Se necesita cita completa ]
- Kevin F. Kiley (2013). Uniformes del mundo romano .[ Se necesita cita completa ]
Lectura adicional
- Nowakowski, Wojciech; Bartkiewicz, Katarzyna. "Baltes et proto-Slaves dans l'Antiquité. Textes et archéologie". En: Diálogos de historia antigua , vol. 16, n°1, 1990. págs. 359–402. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/dha.1990.1472];[www.persee.fr/doc/dha_0755-7256_1990_num_16_1_1472]