
Los emperadores romanos fueron los gobernantes del Imperio romano desde que el Senado romano otorgó el nombre y título de Augusto a Octaviano en el año 27 a. C. [ 1 ] Augusto mantuvo una apariencia de gobierno republicano, rechazando los títulos monárquicos pero autodenominándose princeps senatus (primer hombre del Senado ) y princeps civitatis (primer ciudadano del Estado). El título de Augusto se confirió a sus sucesores en el cargo imperial, y los emperadores gradualmente se volvieron más monárquicos y autoritarios. [ 2 ]
El estilo de gobierno instituido por Augusto se llama Principado y continuó hasta finales del siglo III o principios del IV. [ 3 ] La palabra moderna "emperador" deriva del título imperator , que un ejército otorgaba a un general victorioso; durante la fase inicial del imperio, el título generalmente solo lo usaba el princeps . [ 4 ] Por ejemplo, Augusto se autodenominó oficialmente Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus . [ 5 ] El territorio bajo el mando del emperador se había desarrollado durante el período de la República Romana , cuando esta invadió y ocupó gran parte de Europa y partes del norte de África y Oriente Medio . Bajo la república, el Senado y el Pueblo de Roma autorizaban a los gobernadores provinciales, que solo respondían ante ellos, a gobernar regiones del imperio. [ 6 ] Los principales magistrados de la república eran dos cónsules elegidos cada año; los cónsules continuaron siendo elegidos en el período imperial, pero su autoridad estaba subordinada a la del emperador, quien también controlaba y determinaba su elección. [ 7 ] A menudo, los propios emperadores, o familiares cercanos, eran elegidos como cónsules. [ 8 ]
Después de la Crisis del Siglo III , Diocleciano aumentó la autoridad del emperador y adoptó el título de dominus noster (nuestro señor). El auge de poderosas tribus bárbaras a lo largo de las fronteras del imperio, el desafío que representaban para la defensa de fronteras lejanas, así como una sucesión imperial inestable, llevaron a Diocleciano a dividir la administración del Imperio geográficamente con un co- augusto en 286. En 330, Constantino el Grande , el emperador que aceptó el cristianismo, estableció una segunda capital en Bizancio , que fue renombrada Constantinopla . Los historiadores consideran que el período Dominado del imperio comenzó con Diocleciano o Constantino, según el autor. [ 9 ] Durante la mayor parte del período de 286 a 480, hubo más de un emperador principal reconocido, y la división generalmente se basaba en regiones geográficas. Esta división se hizo permanente tras la muerte de Teodosio I en 395, fecha que los historiadores tradicionalmente han datado como la división entre el Imperio Romano de Occidente y el Imperio Romano de Oriente . Sin embargo, formalmente el Imperio siguió siendo una sola entidad política, con coemperadores separados en cortes separadas. [ 10 ]
La caída del Imperio Romano de Occidente se fecha bien en la fecha de facto de 476, cuando Rómulo Augústulo fue depuesto por los hérulos germánicos liderados por Odoacro , o bien en la fecha de jure de 480, con la muerte de Julio Nepote , cuando el emperador oriental Zenón puso fin al reconocimiento de una corte occidental separada. [ 11 ] Los historiadores suelen referirse al imperio en los siglos siguientes como el « Imperio Bizantino », gobernado por los emperadores bizantinos. [ a ] Dado que «bizantino» es una designación historiográfica posterior y que los habitantes y emperadores del imperio mantuvieron continuamente la identidad romana , esta designación no se usa universalmente y sigue siendo objeto de debate entre los especialistas. [ b ] Bajo Justiniano I , en el siglo VI, se reconquistó una gran parte del imperio occidental, incluyendo Italia, África y parte de España. [ 15 ] A lo largo de los siglos siguientes, se perdió la mayor parte de los territorios imperiales, lo que finalmente restringió el imperio a Anatolia y los Balcanes . [ c ] La línea de emperadores continuó hasta la muerte de Constantino XI Paleólogo en la caída de Constantinopla en 1453, cuando los territorios restantes fueron conquistados por los turcos otomanos liderados por el sultán Mehmed II . [ 21 ] [ d ] Tras la conquista, Mehmed II se proclamó kayser-i Rûm (" César de los romanos"), [ e ] reclamando así ser el nuevo emperador, [ 24 ] una pretensión mantenida por los sultanes sucesores. [ 25 ] Otros estados e imperios, así como numerosos pretendientes posteriores , también han presentado reclamaciones de sucesión al Imperio romano . [ 26 ]
Legitimidad

Si bien el gobierno imperial del Imperio Romano rara vez fue cuestionado durante sus cinco siglos en Occidente y quince en Oriente, los emperadores individuales a menudo enfrentaban desafíos constantes en forma de usurpaciones y guerras civiles perpetuas. [ 27 ] Desde el ascenso de Augusto , el primer emperador romano, en el 27 a. C. hasta el saqueo de Roma en el 455 d. C., hubo más de cien usurpaciones o intentos de usurpación (un promedio de una usurpación o intento cada cuatro años aproximadamente). Desde el asesinato de Cómodo en el 192 hasta el siglo V, apenas hubo una década sin conflictos de sucesión y guerras civiles. Muy pocos emperadores murieron de causas naturales, y el regicidio se había convertido, en la práctica, en el final esperado de un emperador romano a finales de la Antigüedad . [ 28 ] La distinción entre un usurpador y un emperador legítimo es difusa, dado que un gran número de emperadores que comúnmente se consideraban legítimos comenzaron su gobierno como usurpadores, rebelándose contra el emperador legítimo anterior. [ 29 ]
Las verdaderas estructuras y teorías legitimadoras eran débiles, o totalmente inexistentes en el Imperio Romano, [ 28 ] y no existían criterios legales objetivos para ser proclamado emperador más allá de la aceptación del ejército romano . [ 30 ] La sucesión dinástica no estaba formalizada legalmente, pero tampoco era infrecuente, y los gobernantes poderosos a veces lograban transmitir el poder a sus hijos u otros parientes. Si bien los lazos dinásticos podían llevar a alguien al trono, no eran garantía de que su gobierno no fuera desafiado. [ 31 ] Con la excepción de Tito ( r. 79–81; hijo de Vespasiano ), ningún hijo de un emperador que gobernó tras la muerte de su padre murió de muerte natural hasta Constantino I en 337. El control de la propia Roma y la aprobación del Senado romano tenían cierta importancia como factores legitimadores, pero eran principalmente simbólicos. Los emperadores que comenzaron sus carreras como usurpadores a menudo habían sido considerados enemigos públicos por el Senado antes de lograr tomar la ciudad. Los emperadores no necesitaban ser aclamados ni coronados en la propia Roma, como se demostró en el Año de los Cuatro Emperadores (69), cuando los pretendientes fueron coronados por ejércitos en las provincias romanas , y el papel del Senado en la legitimación de los emperadores prácticamente había desaparecido para la Crisis del Siglo III (235-285). A finales del siglo III, la importancia de Roma era principalmente ideológica, e incluso varios emperadores y usurpadores comenzaron a establecer su corte en otras ciudades del imperio, más cerca de la frontera imperial. [ 32 ]
Los métodos comunes que usaban los emperadores para afirmar su legitimidad, como la proclamación del ejército, los lazos de sangre (a veces ficticios) con emperadores anteriores, el uso de insignias imperiales, la distribución de sus propias monedas o estatuas y las pretensiones de virtud preeminente mediante propaganda, eran empleados tanto por muchos usurpadores como por emperadores legítimos. [ 33 ] No existían distinciones constitucionales ni legales que diferenciaran a los emperadores legítimos de los usurpadores. En los textos romanos antiguos, las diferencias entre emperadores y «tiranos» (término que se usaba habitualmente para los usurpadores) solían ser morales (a los tiranos se les atribuía un comportamiento malvado) más que legales. Normalmente, la distinción real radicaba en si el pretendiente había sido victorioso o no. En la Historia Augusta , una antigua colección romana de biografías imperiales, se señala expresamente al usurpador Pescenio Níger (193-194) como tirano únicamente porque fue derrotado por Septimio Severo ( r. 193-211). [ 34 ] Esto también se sigue en la historiografía moderna , donde, en ausencia de criterios constitucionales que los separen, el factor principal que distingue a los usurpadores de los emperadores romanos legítimos es su grado de éxito. Lo que convierte a una figura que comenzó como usurpadora en un emperador legítimo es, por lo general, que logró obtener el reconocimiento de un emperador legítimo de mayor rango, o que logró derrotar a un emperador legítimo de mayor rango y arrebatarle el poder por la fuerza. [ 31 ]
Criterios de inclusión de la lista
Dado que el concepto de legitimidad constitucional era irrelevante en el Imperio Romano, y los emperadores solo eran "legítimos" en la medida en que podían ser aceptados en el imperio en general, [ 35 ] esta lista de emperadores opera sobre una serie de criterios de inclusión:
- Los pretendientes imperiales cuyo poder en todo el imperio se volvió, o fue desde el principio, absoluto y que gobernaron sin oposición son tratados como emperadores legítimos. [ 36 ] A partir del 286, cuando el poder imperial generalmente se dividía entre dos colegas en el este y el oeste, [ 37 ] el control sobre la mitad respectiva es suficiente incluso si un pretendiente no fue reconocido en la otra mitad, como fue el caso de varios de los últimos emperadores en el oeste. [ 38 ]
- Los pretendientes imperiales que fueron proclamados emperadores por otro emperador legítimo de mayor rango, o que fueron reconocidos por un emperador legítimo de mayor rango, son tratados como emperadores legítimos. [ 39 ] Muchos emperadores gobernaron junto a uno o varios coemperadores. Sin embargo, y especialmente a partir del siglo IV, la mayoría de estos eran niños que nunca gobernaron por derecho propio. Los estudiosos del Imperio tardío siempre omiten a estos gobernantes, [ 40 ] pero no siempre se aplica lo mismo durante el Imperio temprano. [ 41 ] Para fines de coherencia, los mandatos de los emperadores de mayor rango posteriores como coemperadores menores no se cuentan como parte de su reinado. La lista también da a todos los coemperadores su propia entrada solo hasta el siglo IV.
- Los pretendientes imperiales que lograron el reconocimiento del Senado romano, especialmente en tiempos de incertidumbre y guerra civil, son considerados emperadores legítimos debido al papel nominal del Senado como órgano electivo. [ 42 ] En épocas posteriores, sobre todo cuando los emperadores gobernaban desde otras ciudades, este criterio se basaba en la posesión y el control de la propia Roma. En el Imperio de Oriente tardío, la posesión de la capital, Constantinopla, era un elemento esencial de la legitimidad imperial. [ 43 ]
En el caso de emperadores no dinásticos posteriores o durante el reinado de una dinastía, es costumbre entre los historiadores agruparlos con los gobernantes de dicha dinastía, [ 44 ] un enfoque que se sigue en esta lista. Las rupturas dinásticas con gobernantes no dinásticos se indican con líneas horizontales más gruesas.
Principado (27 a. C. – 284 d. C.)
Dinastía Julio-Claudia (27 a. C. - 68 d. C.)
Año de los Cuatro Emperadores (68-69)
Dinastía Flavia (69-96)
Dinastía Nerva-Antonina (96-192)
Año de los Cinco Emperadores (193)
- Nota: Los otros pretendientes durante el Año de los Cinco Emperadores fueron Pescenio Níger y Clodio Albino , generalmente considerados usurpadores, y Septimio Severo , que se menciona en la siguiente sección.
Dinastía Severa (193–235)
Crisis del siglo III (235–285)
Dominar (284–476)
Tetrarquía (293–324)
Dinastía constantiniana (306–363)
Dinastía valentiniana (364–392)
Dinastía teodosiana (379–457)
Últimos emperadores occidentales (455–476)
Emperadores orientales posteriores (457–1453)
Dinastía Leónidas (457–518)
Dinastía de Justiniano (518–602)
Dinastía Heraclia (610–695)
Veinte años de anarquía (695–717)
Dinastía isauria (siria) (717–802)
Dinastía nicéfora (802-813)
Dinastía amorria (820–867)
Dinastía macedonia (867–1056)
Doukas dynasty (1059–1078)
Komnenos dynasty (1081–1185)
Angelos dynasty (1185–1204)
Laskaris dynasty, in Nicaea (1205–1261)
- Note: Roman rule in Constantinople was interrupted with the capture and sack of the city by the crusaders in 1204, which led to the establishment of the Frankokratia. Though the crusaders created a new line of Latin emperors in the city, modern historians recognize the line of emperors of the Laskaris dynasty, reigning in Nicaea, as the legitimate Roman emperors during the struggle for Constantinople because the Nicene Empire eventually retook the city.[22] For other lines of claimant emperors, see List of Trapezuntine emperors and List of Thessalonian emperors.
Palaiologos dynasty (1259–1453)
- Note: The Empire had up to three capitals: Selymbria, Thessalonica and Constantinople.[268]
Other claims to the Roman imperial title
See also
- List of Roman empresses – for a list of the consorts of the Roman emperors
- Burial places of Roman emperors – for a list of the burial places of the Roman emperors
- List of Roman consuls – for a list of the consuls who held power during the Roman Republic and who continued to be appointed in imperial times
- List of Roman dictators – for a list of dictators during the Roman Republic
- List of Roman dynasties – for a list of the many dynasties that ruled the Roman Empire
- Family tree of Roman emperors – for a concise family tree of emperors and their immediate family (27 BC–518 AD)
- Family tree of Byzantine emperors – for a concise family tree of emperors and their immediate family (337–1453)
Notes
- ↑The term basileus eventually replaced augustus as the official title of the emperor, although both were seen as equals already by the times of Constantine I.[12]
- ↑The Byzantine Empire is universally recognized as the remnant, continuation or later stage of the Roman Empire. There is no universally agreed date used to separate the ancient Roman and "Byzantine" empires, with proposed dates ranging in age from 284 to 717.[13] Some authors reject the term "Byzantine" entirely.[14]
- ↑Spain was lost in 625[16] and Africa in 698.[17] A large portion of Italy was conquered by the Lombards already under Justinian I's successor, Justin II.[18] Rome and its surroundings remained under imperial control until 756, when they became the Papal States,[19] though the last Italian holdouts were not lost until 1071 with the fall of Bari.[20] The seventh century also saw much of the empire's eastern and southern territories lost permanently to Arab Muslim conquests.[21]
- ↑There is no generally-accepted count of Roman emperors given that different scholars sometimes include and omit different emperors (see Legitimacy). This list includes 174 emperors, 11 of whose legitimacy is disputed in scholarship (also including the four emperors of Nicaea, who are often seen as the "legitimate" emperors during the interregnum of 1204–1261),[22] and 4 ruling empresses for a total of 178 monarchs. Also included are 34 junior co-emperors, 1 junior co-empress (Thekla), and 2 co-empresses in Thessalonica. All in all, this list thus includes a total of 215 occupants of the Roman imperial office.
- ↑This was one of the titles used for the emperors in Constantinople by Ottoman writers prior to 1453.[23]
- ↑Entries also include the regnal name of each emperor. These generally differed from their birth name, often adopting elements from the previous emperor.[45]Augustus's full name would be "Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus" according to Roman naming conventions ("Octavian" was a nickname), but he styled himself as "Imperator Caesar Augustus", treating "Caesar" as a family name.[46] Given that "Imperator" was only a victory title, it will be omitted from the emperors' full nomenclature.
- ↑The conventional date for the Empire's founding is 27 BC,[47] when the Senate awarded Octavian the title and name Augustus alongside one of several grants of power.[48] Ancient writers, however, give him a rule of 56 years.[47] He became de facto monarch in 31 BC, after defeating his last remaining opposition at the Battle of Actium.[49] This is a date also used by some writers.[47] Augustus himself dated his accession to legal power to 7 January 43 BC, when he first received imperium.[48] Later that year he became consul (19 August) and then triumvir (27 November) alongside Mark Antony and Lepidus. Augustus thus ruled the Roman state for exactly 56 years, but only 40 as "emperor".[48]
- ↑By this time, 'Caesar' and 'Augustus' are regarded less as personal names and more as imperial titles, with the former denoting the heir-apparent and the latter indicating the emperor himself.[65]
- ↑The date of his acclamation is usually given as 27 November 176. This is the day in which he was proclaimed imperator and Commodus himself appears to have considered it the beginning of his reign. Some scholars argue that his actual reign as augustus began later, as he does not appear in official documents of early 177.[69][70][71]
- 12The junior co-emperors marked as being of "varying ascribed status" are figures, mostly children, who are usually not counted as "true" emperors given their submissive status to the senior emperor, but are still present in some lists of rulers.[41]
- 12345678Unless otherwise noted to be some other ambiguity, the emperors marked to be of ambiguous legitimacy are those who fulfill one or more of the inclusion criteria above, but who are not universally regarded by scholars to count as legitimate. In most cases, such figures are those who held power only briefly, and/or who in times of more than one emperor held one of the capitals but never achieved the full recognition of the other emperor(s).[82][83][84][85]
- ↑On account of the limited surviving source material, almost all dates used here are just approximate. The chronology of the whole period is dubious and sources rarely agree on each other, in part due to the fact that many reigns overlap due to most emperors starting as rivals. For an analysis of the chronology, see Rea 1972, Peachin 1990 and Burgess 2014.
- ↑Unattested in coinage; only briefly mentioned by Aurelius Victor and Cyprian (the latter indirectly).
- ↑Unmentioned in literary sources and known only from two coins seemingly issued in Rome, implying he was proclaimed emperor in the capital, probably between Aemilianus and Valerian, or against either.[103][104][105]
- ↑Made caesar by his father and only referred to as augustus in a single series of coins, issued while he was besieged in Cologne in 260. Coinage issued after his death lack any title; probably because Gallienus did not want to advertise the death of a second emperor in one year.[109][110] It is unclear whether his acclamation was ever recognized (or even known) by Gallienus, but if he had survived it would surely have been recognized (like Valentinian II, who was proclaimed by the army but was accepted by Gratian).
- ↑The chronology of Maximian's career is disputed. Some authors argue that he was promoted to augustus without ever being caesar, as claimed by many others. Another possible date for his accession as emperor (and the first division of the Roman Empire) is 13 December 285.[122]
- ↑The extent to which Constantine supported Domitius Alexander is disputed. It appears that Constantine never officially recognized him as emperor, but still offered some cautious support as a way to pressure Maxentius.[127]
- 12Legitimately appointed as co-emperor by Licinius, though as western emperor (in opposition to Constantine I). Referred as caesar in literary sources, but called augustus in coinage. Did not actually rule anything given that Licinius did not control the west.[132]
- ↑Although technically recognized by Constantius II, who even sent him the imperial diadem, Vetranio is often regarded as a usurper.[140]
- ↑From the fourth century, emperors and other high-profile men of non-aristocratic birth often bore the name "Flavius", the family name of the Constantinian dynasty. Because it was often used as a status marker rather than personal name,[144] "Flavius" will generally be omitted in the following entries for simplicity.
- ↑Distinction between nomen, praenomen and cognomen, the core elements of Roman naming conventions, began to fade away from the 3rd century onwards. Given that "new Romans" —that is, barbarians turned citizens— adopted the names of their masters, many citizens adopted the names Julius, Flavius (notable the Constantinians) and Marcus Aurelius (notable the 3rd century emperors), thus making them obsolete as surnames. As a result, most citizens of the Empire, even emperors, reverted back to single-names by the 5th century.[146]
- 12345678910111213141516171819Although they constitutionally held the same supreme power as their senior counterpart, it is customary among scholars of the later empire to only regard those who actually ruled as emperors, omitting junior co-emperors who only exercised power nominally and never governed in their own name. Most of these co-emperors were children that barely appear in historical records.[151][152]
- 12There is particular confusion surrounding the name "Constantine III", as it has been applied to both a Western (Constantine) and an Eastern emperor (Heraclius Constantine). Heraclius Constantine is often enumerated as 'Constantine III',[159] but this name is also often applied to the earlier western emperor and has also been used for Heraclius Constantine's son Constans II (who actually ruled under the name 'Constantine', 'Constans' being a nickname).[160]
- ↑From 629 onwards, Heraclius issued administrative documents in Greek.[188] Latin continued to be used in communication with Western Europe until the end of the empire and coins continued to be struck with Latin inscriptions until the early eighth century.[189]
- ↑Tiberius and Heraclius were crowned by their father Constans II on 2 June 659, likely as babies. Constantine tried to get rid of his brothers as soon as they came of age, but the army rioted. He initially accepted, but quickly turn against the leaders of the revolt and executed them. Then, around October 681, cut Tiberius and Heraclius’ noses, a common Byzantine punishment that disqualified anyone from the throne.[194]
- ↑Latin ceased being used in coin inscriptions under Leo III.[189]
- 12Most of miniature portraits used for the 9th to 11th centuries are not contemporary, but taken from the 12th-century Madrid Skylitzes. The portrait of Nikephoros I is taken from the Manasses Chronicle (c. 1345), while the portrait of Nikephoros II is taken from a 15th-century miniature of uncertain origin. All of these portraits are almost certainly imaginary. The 15th-century Mutinensis gr. 122 is used for some 11th-century emperors with no surviving portrait, although these are probably imaginary as well.
- ↑Theodora's daughter Thekla appears to have been formally associated with Theodora and Michael III in the government of the Empire, although almost nothing is known about her actual role during her mother's rule.[215][216]
- ↑Son of Christopher and grandson of Romanos I; unattested in official documents and only briefly mentioned by Michael Psellos and Joannes Zonaras. He was probably crowned as a baby but died shortly after, certainly before 927.[221]
- 12Most emperors began to officially use family names from Constantine IX Monomachos onwards. Michael VI notably avoided using his surname, Bringas, because it was far less distinguished than those of the other imperial families.[234]
- ↑Some historians regard Eudokia as an empress regnant, while others consider her as a regent.
- ↑Unattested in official documents; Leo is only called emperor in a singular letter, while his brother's status can only be deduced from the fact that he was born in the purple and that he also used the "imperial tokens".[240]
- ↑Constantine Doukas notably served as junior co-emperor of two emperors, first his father Michael VII and then Alexios I, who briefly restored his rights. As always, this was only symbolical, as Constantine remained a minor during both tenures, having been crowned as a newborn. He died on 12 August 1094, aged around 20 years old.[244]
- ↑The identification of this figure from Vat. Gr. 1851 as Alexios II is by Ioannis Spatharakis.[248] Other historians variously identify him as a young Andronikos IV Palaiologos[249] or Andronikos II Palaiologos.[250]
- 12Many of the miniature portraits used for the late Byzantine period are not contemporary, but taken from the Codex Mutinensis graecus 122, completed c. 1425 and expanded after 1453. The codex depicts almost every single Roman emperor from Augustus to Constantine XI, but only the later portraits are considered reliable, especially those of the Palaiologoi. The accuracy of earlier portraits is disputed, but at least from Heraclius onwards they appear to be based on sources available to their author.[253]
- ↑Alexios III used the name Alexios Komnenos Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος) prior to his accession but reigned as Alexios Komnenos, dropping his own family name in order to stress his matrilineal descent from the Komnenos dynasty.[255]
- ↑Unattested in coins, Nicholas is called "emperor and heir" in a single document. He died soon after, less than 10 years old.[261]
- ↑It has been argued that Constantine Laskaris, Theodore's brother, ruled for a time after April 1204. According to Nicetas Choniates, Constantine was proclaimed emperor by the remaining Varangian Guard at Hagia Sophia. However, he also notes that Constantine ultimately refused the imperial insignia, and the populace and army quickly ignored him.[262] Constantine is not attested as emperor of Nicaea in any known source.[263] The date of Theodore's proclamation as emperor is also uncertain. Modern authors often date it to 1205.[264] However, contemporary sources imply a late date in 1204. One manuscript credits Theodore with a rule of 17 years and 3 months, while the historian George Akropolites gives him 18 years.[263]
- 12During the last years of the Empire, the territory of Thessalonica was effectively ruled as separate realm from Constantinople. Two empresses, Irene and Anna, took residence there, even having their own courts and ruling as de facto empresses regnant. Anna notably ruled in Thessalonica in opposition to John VI Kantakouzenos, who later recognized her portion of the empire.[270][271]
- ↑Michael IX is often listed as full emperor (rather than co-emperor) in modern sources, although he never reigned in his own name. He appears to have used the title of autokrator alongside his father, which implied an equal status.[273]
- ↑Matthew Kantakouzenos, already an adult, was given part of Thrace by his father John VI Kantakouzenos as an appanage in 1343. He was crowned co-emperor in April 1353, during his father's war against John V Palaiologos. Matthew retained his Thracian domains until December 1357, when he abdicated following a military defeat against the Serbs. John V later appointed him as despot of the Morea.[277]
- ↑John VII inherited his father's lands around Selymbria and, as per a 1381 agreement with Andronikos IV that legitimized his role as co-emperor and heir. He ruled there with the title of emperor (basileus), although he ruled heavily influenced by the Ottomans and Genoese.[280]
- ↑Manuel, who previously had been given governorship over Thessalonica and had already been crowned co-emperor, set up an independent court and ruled there as basileus instead of despotes. Manuel ruled in opposition of his father's soft policies towards the Ottomans, waging war upon them. However, the city eventually fell and Manuel had to flee in shame.[282]
- ↑This depiction of John VIII is from the Magi Chapel, which was painted in 1459–1461 (about a decade after his death) by Benozzo Gozzoli. Gozzoli likely saw John in person at the Council of Florence. He also seems to have used a contemporary medal by Pisanello as a source.[284][285]
References
Citations
- ↑Mosshammer 2008, pp. 342–343; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 53–54
- ↑Loewenstein 1973, pp. 329, 403.
- ↑Loewenstein 1973, p. 238.
- ↑Loewenstein 1973, p. 329.
- ↑Loewenstein 1973, p. 245.
- ↑Richardson 1984, pp. 39–40.
- ↑Wu 2016, p. 35.
- ↑Loewenstein 1973, p. 443.
- ↑Loewenstein 1973, pp. 238, 403.
- ↑Sandberg 2008, pp. 199–213..
- ↑Arnold, Bjornlie & Sessa 2016, p. 3; Williams & Friell 1998, p. 187.
- ↑ODB, p. 264.
- ↑Mango 2002, p. 2.
- ↑Goldsworthy 2009, p. 8.
- ↑Halsall 2018, p. 53.
- ↑Collins 2004, pp. 47–49.
- ↑Becker 1913, p. 370.
- ↑Hartmann 1913, p. 196.
- ↑Logan 2012, pp. 71–74.
- ↑Chalandon 1923, p. 325.
- 12Nicol 1992, p. ix.
- 12Treadgold 1997, p. 734.
- ↑Çolak 2014, p. 19.
- ↑Nicol 1967, p. 334.
- ↑Çolak 2014, pp. 21–22.
- ↑Nicol 1992, pp. 115–116.
- ↑Omissi 2018, p. 3.
- 12Smolin 2021, p. 22.
- ↑Claes 2015, p. 15.
- ↑Omissi 2018, p. 25.
- 12Claes 2015, p. 23.
- ↑Omissi 2018, pp. 9, 14, 17, 24.
- ↑Smolin 2021, pp. 22–23.
- ↑Omissi 2018, pp. 21, 29–30.
- ↑Omissi 2018, p. 34.
- ↑Omissi 2018, p. 32.
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Enlaces citados
- " Lista de emperadores romanos ". Encyclopædia Britannica
- Lista de emperadores romanos . Livius.org
- " Lista de gobernantes del Imperio Romano ". Museo Metropolitano de Arte.
Enlaces externos
- " Los Gobernantes del Imperio Romano ". De Imperatoribus Romanis
- Cronología de los emperadores romanos por Ian Mladjov
- emperadores romanos
- Gobierno del Imperio Romano
- Listas de monarcas
- Listas de funcionarios en la antigua Roma