Cooperación Estructurada Permanente

La PESCO se incluyó por primera vez en la Constitución Europea en el artículo III-312 , que no fue ratificado, y posteriormente en el Tratado de Lisboa de 2009. Este tratado añadía la posibilidad de que aquellos Estados miembros cuyas capacidades militares cumplieran criterios más exigentes y que hubieran asumido compromisos más vinculantes entre sí en este ámbito, con vistas a las misiones más exigentes, establecieran una cooperación estructurada permanente (PESCO) en el marco de la UE. La PESCO se consideraba la vía para posibilitar la defensa común prevista en el artículo 42, pero el escepticismo hacia una mayor integración surgido tras el rechazo de la Constitución Europea hizo improbable su activación. El presidente Jean-Claude Juncker la denominó la « bella durmiente » del Tratado de Lisboa . ^{[ 3 ] [ 4 ]}

In the 2010s, the geopolitical landscape around the EU began to change, triggering a series of crises. The Libyan Civil War, the Syrian Civil War and the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant caused the European migrant crisis. Russia invaded Ukraine in 2014, annexing Crimea and triggering an ongoing conflict in the country over the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement. In 2016, Donald Trump, who was elected as President of the United States, was critical of NATO allies, even refusing on several occasions to back the mutual defence clause; and the United Kingdom, one of the EU's two largest military powers, voted in a referendum to withdraw from the EU.^[4][5]

This new environment, while very different from the one PESCO was designed for, gave new impetus to European defence cooperation. The withdrawal of the UK, historically an opponent of that cooperation, gave further hope of success. At a rally in Bavaria, Angela Merkel argued that: “The times in which we could completely depend on others are, to a certain extent, over ... I’ve experienced that in the last few days. We Europeans truly have to take our fate into our own hands.” In late 2016, the EU put defence co-operation on its post-Brexit Bratislava and Rome declarations.^[4][5]

There was some disagreement between France and Germany about the nature of PESCO. France foresaw a small but ambitious group with serious capabilities making major practical leaps forward; while Germany, weary of further divisions in the EU, wanted a more inclusive approach that could potentially include all states, regardless of their military capability or willingness to integrate. Further, for Germany, it was about building capabilities and giving a post-Brexit signal of unity, whereas France was focused on operations and looking for help for its overstretched African deployments. Their compromise was to re-imagine PESCO as a process. PESCO would be inclusive, but not all states had to take part in all projects and progress would be phased allowing the development of new, common capabilities without having to resolve larger differences on end-goals first. Further, states would not need to already have capabilities, but merely pledge to work towards them. This allowed France's idea of improving military capabilities without shutting out states who did not already attain the threshold.^[6][7]

On 7 September 2017, an agreement was made between EU foreign affairs ministers to move forward with PESCO with 10 initial projects.^{[8][9][1][10]} The agreement was signed on 13 November by 23 of the 28 member states. Ireland and Portugal notified the High Representative and the Council of the European Union of their desire to join PESCO on 7 December 2017^[11] and PESCO was activated by the 25 states on 11 December 2017 with the approval of a Council Decision.^[12][13] Denmark did not participate as (prior to its abolition in July 2022) it had an opt-out from the Common Security and Defence Policy, nor did the United Kingdom, which withdrew from the EU in 2020.^[14][15] Malta opted out as well, due to concerns it might conflict with its neutrality.^[16][17] As per Article 46 of the TEU, non-participating EU member states can request to join by notifying the Council, which will approve based on a qualified majority of participating member states.

Denmark originally had an opt-out from participating in the common defence policy. However, following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, the Danish parliament adopted a proposal in favour of the country participating in the Common Security and Defence Policy, including the European Defence Agency and PESCO, on 8 April 2022.^[19] Danish voters approved ending the opt-out in a 1 June 2022 referendum,^[20] which became effective 1 July.^[21] Subsequently the country proceeded to consider participating in PESCO,^[22] which was approved by Parliament in March 2023.^[23][24] The Council of the EU approved Denmark joining PESCO on 23 May 2023.^[25][26][27]

Since November 2020, third countries can also participate in PESCO.

PESCO incluye a dos de los tres estados de la UE que se describen a sí mismos como neutrales (Austria e Irlanda), y está diseñado para ser lo más inclusivo posible, permitiendo a los estados unirse o no según lo permitan sus políticas exteriores particulares. Algunos miembros del Parlamento irlandés consideraron que la adhesión de Irlanda a PESCO suponía un abandono de la neutralidad. La medida fue aprobada, y el gobierno argumentó que su carácter de adhesión voluntaria permitía a Irlanda «unirse a elementos de PESCO que eran beneficiosos, como la lucha contra el terrorismo, la ciberseguridad y el mantenimiento de la paz... lo que no vamos a hacer es comprar portaaviones y aviones de combate». ^{[ 39 ]} Si bien los críticos de la participación de Irlanda señalan el compromiso de aumentar el gasto en defensa, el gobierno ha dejado claro que el compromiso del 2 % es colectivo, y no para cada estado individualmente. El gobierno irlandés ha dejado claro que cualquier aumento del gasto en defensa por parte de Irlanda sería mínimo. ^{[ 40 ]} Malta, el único estado neutral que no participa, argumentó que iba a esperar y ver cómo se desarrolla PESCO, para ver si comprometería la neutralidad maltesa. ^{[ 18 ]}

Aunque PESCO se formó en parte debido a las dudas sobre el compromiso de Estados Unidos con la OTAN, ^{[ 3 ]} los funcionarios enfatizan que PESCO será complementaria a la seguridad de la OTAN en lugar de competir con ella. El secretario general de la OTAN, Jens Stoltenberg, también destacó cómo la movilidad militar es un ejemplo clave de la cooperación entre la OTAN y la UE. ^{[ 41 ] [ 42 ]}

Potential future PESCO projects include the following existing intergovernmental cooperations between member states' militaries, presently outside the CSDP framework:

Forces and command centres:

• Eurocorps
• European Gendarmerie Force
• European Air Transport Command
• European Maritime Force
• Movement Coordination Centre Europe

Bodies fostering integration:

• European Air Group
• Finabel
• Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation
• European Personnel Recovery Centre