Steven Paul Jobs (24 de febrero de 1955 - 5 de octubre de 2011) fue un empresario, inventor e inversor estadounidense, conocido por ser cofundador de la empresa tecnológica Apple Inc. Jobs también fue el fundador de NeXT y presidente y accionista mayoritario de Pixar . Fue un pionero de la revolución de las computadoras personales de las décadas de 1970 y 1980, junto con su primer socio comercial y también cofundador de Apple, Steve Wozniak .
Jobs nació en San Francisco en 1955 y fue adoptado poco después. Asistió al Reed College en 1972 antes de retirarse ese mismo año. En 1974, viajó por la India, buscando la iluminación antes de estudiar más tarde el budismo zen . Él y Wozniak cofundaron Apple en 1976 para seguir desarrollando y vendiendo la computadora personal Apple I de Wozniak . Juntos, el dúo ganó fama y riqueza un año después con la producción y venta de Apple II , una de las primeras microcomputadoras producidas en masa de gran éxito .
En 1979, Jobs vio el potencial comercial de la Xerox Alto , que funcionaba con un ratón y tenía una interfaz gráfica de usuario (GUI). Esto condujo al desarrollo de la fracasada Apple Lisa en 1983, seguida por el revolucionario Macintosh en 1984, el primer ordenador fabricado en serie con una GUI. El Macintosh lanzó la industria de la autoedición en 1985 (por ejemplo, el Aldus Pagemaker ) con la incorporación del Apple LaserWriter , la primera impresora láser que incorporaba gráficos vectoriales y PostScript .
En 1985, Jobs abandonó Apple tras una larga lucha de poder con la junta directiva de la empresa y su entonces director ejecutivo, John Sculley . Ese mismo año, Jobs se llevó a algunos empleados de Apple con él para fundar NeXT, una empresa de desarrollo de plataformas informáticas que se especializaba en computadoras para los mercados de educación superior y empresarial, desempeñándose como su director ejecutivo. En 1986, ayudó a desarrollar la industria de los efectos visuales al financiar la división de gráficos por computadora de Lucasfilm que finalmente se escindió de forma independiente como Pixar, que produjo el primer largometraje animado por computadora en 3D Toy Story (1995) y se convirtió en un estudio de animación líder , produciendo 28 películas desde entonces.
En 1997, Jobs regresó a Apple como director ejecutivo después de la adquisición de NeXT por parte de la compañía. Fue en gran parte responsable de revivir Apple, que estaba al borde de la quiebra. Trabajó en estrecha colaboración con el diseñador británico Jony Ive para desarrollar una línea de productos y servicios que tuvieron ramificaciones culturales más amplias, comenzando con la campaña publicitaria " Think different " y conduciendo al iMac , iTunes , Mac OS X , Apple Store , iPod , iTunes Store , iPhone , App Store y iPad . Jobs también fue miembro de la junta directiva de Gap Inc. de 1999 a 2002. [3] En 2003, a Jobs le diagnosticaron un tumor neuroendocrino pancreático . Murió de un paro respiratorio relacionado con el tumor en 2011; en 2022, se le otorgó póstumamente la Medalla Presidencial de la Libertad . Desde su muerte, ha ganado 141 patentes; Jobs posee más de 450 patentes en total. [4]
Primeros años de vida
Familia
Steven Paul Jobs nació en San Francisco, California , el 24 de febrero de 1955, hijo de Joanne Carole Schieble y Abdulfattah "John" Jandali ( árabe : عبد الفتاح الجندلي ). Abdulfattah Jandali nació en un hogar musulmán de padres sirios adinerados , el más joven de nueve hermanos. Después de obtener su título universitario en la Universidad Americana de Beirut , Jandali realizó un doctorado en ciencias políticas en la Universidad de Wisconsin . Allí, conoció a Joanne Schieble, una católica estadounidense de ascendencia suizo-alemana cuyos padres eran dueños de una granja de visones y bienes raíces en Green Bay . Los dos se enamoraron, pero enfrentaron la oposición del padre de Schieble debido a la fe musulmana de Jandali. Cuando Schieble quedó embarazada, organizó una adopción cerrada y viajó a San Francisco para dar a luz. [5]
Schieble solicitó que su hijo fuera adoptado por graduados universitarios. Se seleccionó a un abogado y su esposa, pero se retiraron después de descubrir que el bebé era un niño, por lo que Jobs fue adoptado por Paul Reinhold y Clara (née Hagopian) Jobs. Paul Jobs, un estadounidense de ascendencia alemana, era hijo de un granjero lechero del condado de Washington, Wisconsin . Después de abandonar la escuela secundaria, trabajó como mecánico y luego se unió a la Guardia Costera de los EE. UU . Cuando su barco fue dado de baja en San Francisco, apostó que podría encontrar una esposa en dos semanas. Luego conoció a Clara Hagopian, una estadounidense de ascendencia armenia , y los dos se comprometieron diez días después, en marzo de 1946, y se casaron ese mismo año. La pareja se mudó a Wisconsin, luego a Indiana, donde Paul Jobs trabajó como maquinista y luego como vendedor de automóviles. Como Clara extrañaba San Francisco, convenció a Paul de que regresara. Allí, Paul trabajó como agente de recuperación de posesión y Clara se convirtió en contable . En 1955, después de tener un embarazo ectópico , la pareja buscó adoptar un niño. [5] Como carecían de educación universitaria, Schieble inicialmente se negó a firmar los papeles de adopción y acudió a los tribunales para solicitar que su hijo fuera retirado de la casa de los Jobs y ubicado con una familia diferente, pero cambió de opinión después de que Paul y Clara prometieron pagar la matrícula universitaria de su hijo. [5] [6]
Infancia
En su juventud, los padres de Jobs lo llevaron a una iglesia luterana . [7] Cuando Steve estaba en la escuela secundaria, Clara le admitió a su novia, Chrisann Brennan , que ella "estaba demasiado asustada para amar [a Steve] durante los primeros seis meses de su vida... Tenía miedo de que me lo quitaran. Incluso después de que ganamos el caso, Steve era un niño tan difícil que cuando tenía dos años sentí que habíamos cometido un error. Quería devolverlo". Cuando Chrisann compartió este comentario con Steve, afirmó que ya lo sabía, [8] y más tarde dijo que Paul y Clara lo habían amado y mimado profundamente. Jobs se "erizaba" cuando se referían a Paul y Clara como sus "padres adoptivos", y los consideraba sus padres "al 1000%". Jobs se refería a sus padres biológicos como "mi banco de esperma y óvulos. Eso no es duro, es simplemente así, una cosa de banco de esperma, nada más". [9]
Infancia
De niño siempre me consideré una persona de humanidades, pero me gustaba la electrónica... entonces leí algo que uno de mis héroes, Edwin Land de Polaroid , dijo sobre la importancia de las personas que podían situarse en la intersección de las humanidades y las ciencias, y decidí que eso era lo que quería hacer.
—Steve Jobs [10]
Paul Jobs trabajó en varios empleos, entre ellos un intento como maquinista, [11] varios otros empleos, [12] y luego "de nuevo a trabajar como maquinista". Paul y Clara adoptaron a la hermana de Jobs, Patricia, en 1957, [13] y en 1959 la familia se había mudado al barrio de Monta Loma en Mountain View, California . [14] Paul construyó un banco de trabajo en su garaje para su hijo con el fin de "transmitirle su amor por la mecánica". Jobs, por su parte, admiraba la artesanía de su padre "porque sabía cómo construir cualquier cosa. Si necesitábamos un armario, él lo construía. Cuando construyó nuestra valla, me dio un martillo para que pudiera trabajar con él... No me interesaba tanto arreglar coches... pero estaba ansioso por pasar el rato con mi padre". [15]

Jobs tenía dificultades para desenvolverse en un aula tradicional, tendía a resistirse a las figuras de autoridad, se portaba mal con frecuencia y fue suspendido varias veces. Con frecuencia gastaba bromas a los demás en la escuela primaria Monta Loma en Mountain View. Sin embargo, su padre Paul (que sufrió abusos cuando era niño) nunca lo reprendió y, en cambio, culpó a la escuela por no desafiar a su brillante hijo. [17] Jobs se saltó el quinto grado y se transfirió al sexto grado en la escuela secundaria Crittenden en Mountain View, donde se convirtió en un "solitario socialmente torpe". [18] Jobs fue a menudo "intimidado" en la escuela secundaria Crittenden, y a mediados del séptimo grado, les dio a sus padres un ultimátum: o lo sacaban de Crittenden o abandonaba la escuela. [19]
La familia Jobs no era adinerada, y solo gastando todos sus ahorros pudieron comprar una nueva casa en 1967, lo que le permitió a Steve cambiar de escuela. La nueva casa (una casa de tres habitaciones en Crist Drive en Los Altos, California ) estaba en el mejor Distrito Escolar de Cupertino , en Cupertino, California . [20] La casa fue declarada sitio histórico en 2013, como el primer sitio de Apple Computer. [16] A partir de 2013 [update], era propiedad de la hermana de Jobs, Patty, y estaba ocupada por su madrastra, Marilyn. [21] Cuando tenía 13 años, en 1968, [22] Jobs recibió un trabajo de verano de Bill Hewlett (de Hewlett-Packard ) después de que Jobs lo llamara en frío para pedirle piezas para un proyecto de electrónica. [23]
Escuela secundaria Homestead
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La ubicación de la casa de Los Altos significaba que Jobs podría asistir a la cercana Homestead High School , que tenía fuertes vínculos con Silicon Valley . [10] Comenzó su primer año allí a fines de 1968 junto con Bill Fernandez , [24] quien presentó a Jobs a Steve Wozniak, y se convertiría en el primer empleado de Apple. Ni Jobs ni Fernandez (cuyo padre era abogado) provenían de hogares de ingenieros y, por lo tanto, decidieron inscribirse en la clase de Electrónica I de John McCollum. [24] Jobs se había dejado crecer el cabello y se involucró en la creciente contracultura, y el joven rebelde eventualmente chocó con McCollum y perdió el interés en la clase. [24]
Jobs experimentó un cambio a mediados de 1970. Más tarde le comentó a su biógrafo oficial que "comencé a escuchar mucha música y comencé a leer más cosas que no fueran solo ciencia y tecnología: Shakespeare , Platón . Me encantaba El rey Lear ... cuando estaba en el último año tuve esta clase fenomenal de inglés avanzado . El profesor era un tipo que se parecía a Ernest Hemingway . Nos llevó a un grupo de nosotros a caminar con raquetas de nieve en Yosemite". Durante sus últimos dos años en Homestead High, Jobs desarrolló dos intereses diferentes: la electrónica y la literatura. [25] Estos intereses duales se reflejaron particularmente durante el último año de Jobs, ya que sus mejores amigos eran Wozniak y su primera novia, la estudiante de tercer año de Homestead Chrisann Brennan . [26]
En 1971, después de que Wozniak comenzara a asistir a la Universidad de California en Berkeley , Jobs lo visitaba allí varias veces por semana. Esta experiencia lo llevó a estudiar en el centro de estudiantes de la cercana Universidad de Stanford . En lugar de unirse al club de electrónica, Jobs montó espectáculos de luces con un amigo para el programa de jazz de vanguardia de Homestead . Un compañero de clase de Homestead lo describió como "una especie de cerebro y una especie de hippie... pero nunca encajó en ninguno de los dos grupos. Era lo suficientemente inteligente como para ser un nerd, pero no era un nerd. Y era demasiado intelectual para los hippies, que solo querían emborracharse todo el tiempo. Era una especie de marginado. En la escuela secundaria todo giraba en torno al grupo al que pertenecías, y si no estabas en un grupo cuidadosamente definido, no eras nadie. Era un individuo, en un mundo donde la individualidad era sospechosa". En su último año, a fines de 1971, estaba tomando una clase de inglés de primer año en Stanford y trabajando en un proyecto de cine underground de Homestead con Chrisann Brennan. [27] [28]
En esa época, Wozniak diseñó una " caja azul " digital de bajo coste para generar los tonos necesarios para manipular la red telefónica, lo que permitía realizar llamadas de larga distancia gratuitas. Se inspiró en un artículo titulado "Los secretos de la pequeña caja azul" de la edición de octubre de 1971 de Esquire . [29] Jobs decidió entonces venderlas y dividir las ganancias con Wozniak. Las ventas clandestinas de las cajas azules ilegales salieron bien y tal vez plantaron la semilla en la mente de Jobs de que la electrónica podía ser divertida y rentable. [30] En una entrevista de 1994, recordó que él y Wozniak tardaron seis meses en diseñar las cajas azules. [31] Jobs reflexionó más tarde que, si no hubiera sido por las cajas azules de Wozniak, "no habría habido una Apple". [32] Afirma que les demostró que podían enfrentarse a grandes empresas y vencerlas. [33] [34]
En su último año de secundaria, Jobs comenzó a consumir LSD . [25] Más tarde recordó que en una ocasión lo consumió en un campo de trigo en las afueras de Sunnyvale, y experimentó "la sensación más maravillosa de mi vida hasta ese momento". [35] A mediados de 1972, después de graduarse y antes de irse a Reed College , Jobs y Brennan alquilaron una casa a su otro compañero de habitación, Al. [36]
Colegio Reed
En septiembre de 1972, Jobs se matriculó en el Reed College de Portland, Oregón . [37] Insistió en postularse solo para el Reed, aunque era una escuela cara que Paul y Clara no podían permitirse. [38] Jobs pronto se hizo amigo de Robert Friedland , [39] quien era el presidente del cuerpo estudiantil del Reed en ese momento. [40] Brennan siguió involucrado con Jobs mientras estaba en Reed.
Me interesaba el misticismo oriental que llegó a las costas en esa época. En Reed había un flujo constante de personas que pasaban por allí, desde Timothy Leary y Richard Alpert hasta Gary Snyder . Había un flujo constante de cuestionamientos intelectuales sobre la verdad de la vida. Esa fue la época en que todos los estudiantes universitarios del país leían Be Here Now y Diet for a Small Planet .
—Steve Jobs [41]
Después de un solo semestre, Jobs abandonó el Reed College sin decirle a sus padres. [42] Jobs explicó más tarde que esto se debía a que no quería gastar el dinero de sus padres en una educación que parecía insignificante para él. Continuó asistiendo como oyente a sus clases, [43] incluyendo un curso de caligrafía que fue impartido por Robert Palladino . En un discurso de graduación de 2005 en la Universidad de Stanford , Jobs declaró que durante este período, dormía en el suelo de los dormitorios de sus amigos, devolvía botellas de Coca-Cola a cambio de dinero para comida y recibía comidas gratuitas semanales en el templo local Hare Krishna . En ese mismo discurso, Jobs dijo: "Si nunca hubiera asistido a ese único curso de caligrafía en la universidad, la Mac nunca habría tenido múltiples tipos de letra o fuentes espaciadas proporcionalmente". [44]
1974–1985
Tuve la suerte de entrar en el mundo de la informática cuando era una industria muy joven e idealista. No se ofrecían muchas titulaciones en informática, así que la gente que trabajaba en el sector era gente brillante que venía de las matemáticas, la física, la música, la zoología, etc. Les encantaba y nadie lo hacía por dinero [...] Hay gente por aquí que crea empresas sólo para ganar dinero, pero las grandes empresas, bueno, no es eso lo que buscan.
—Steve Jobs [45]
Pre-manzana
En febrero de 1974, Jobs regresó a la casa de sus padres en Los Altos y comenzó a buscar trabajo. [46] Pronto fue contratado por Atari, Inc. en Los Gatos, California , como técnico informático . [46] [47] En 1973, Steve Wozniak diseñó su propia versión del clásico videojuego Pong y le dio su placa electrónica a Jobs. Según Wozniak, Atari solo contrató a Jobs porque llevó la placa a la empresa, y pensaron que la había construido él mismo. [48] El cofundador de Atari, Nolan Bushnell , lo describió más tarde como "difícil pero valioso", señalando que "muy a menudo era el tipo más inteligente de la sala, y se lo hacía saber a la gente". [49]
Jobs viajó a la India a mediados de 1974 [50] para visitar a Neem Karoli Baba [51] en su ashram de Kainchi con su amigo del Reed College y futuro empleado de Apple, Daniel Kottke , en busca de enseñanzas espirituales. Cuando llegaron al ashram de Neem Karoli, estaba casi desierto porque Neem Karoli Baba había muerto en septiembre de 1973. Luego hicieron una larga caminata por el lecho seco de un río hasta un ashram de Haidakhan Babaji . [47]
Después de siete meses, Jobs abandonó la India [52] y regresó a los EE. UU. antes que Daniel Kottke. [47] Jobs había cambiado su apariencia; se había rapado la cabeza y vestía ropa tradicional india . [53] [54] Durante este tiempo, Jobs experimentó con psicodélicos , y más tarde calificó sus experiencias con LSD como "una de las dos o tres cosas más importantes [que había] hecho en [su] vida". [55] [56] Pasó un período en All One Farm , una comuna en Oregón que era propiedad de Robert Friedland .
Durante este período, Jobs y Brennan se convirtieron en practicantes del budismo zen a través del maestro zen Kōbun Chino Otogawa . Jobs participó en largos retiros de meditación en el Tassajara Zen Mountain Center , el monasterio zen Sōtō más antiguo de los EE. UU. [57] Consideró establecer su residencia monástica en Eihei-ji en Japón y mantuvo una apreciación de por vida por el zen, [58] la cocina japonesa y artistas como Hasui Kawase . [59]
Jobs regresó a Atari a principios de 1975, y ese verano, Bushnell le asignó crear una placa de circuito para el videojuego arcade Breakout en la menor cantidad de chips posible, sabiendo que Jobs reclutaría a Wozniak para pedirle ayuda. Durante su trabajo diurno en HP, Wozniak dibujó bocetos del diseño del circuito; por la noche, se unió a Jobs en Atari y continuó refinando el diseño, que Jobs implementó en una placa de pruebas . [60] Según Bushnell, Atari ofreció $100 (equivalente a unos $600 en 2023) por cada chip TTL que se eliminara en la máquina. Jobs hizo un trato con Wozniak para dividir la tarifa equitativamente entre ellos si Wozniak podía minimizar la cantidad de chips. Para gran asombro de los ingenieros de Atari, en cuatro días Wozniak redujo el recuento de TTL a 45, muy por debajo de los 100 habituales, aunque Atari luego lo rediseñó para que fuera más fácil de probar y agregar algunas características faltantes. [61] Según Wozniak, Jobs le dijo que Atari les pagó sólo 750 dólares (en lugar de los 5.000 dólares reales), y que la parte de Wozniak era, por tanto, 375 dólares. [62] Wozniak no se enteró de la bonificación real hasta diez años después, pero dijo que si Jobs se lo hubiera contado y le hubiera explicado que necesitaba el dinero, Wozniak se lo habría dado. [63]
Jobs y Wozniak asistieron a reuniones del Homebrew Computer Club en 1975, lo que fue un trampolín hacia el desarrollo y comercialización de la primera computadora Apple. [64] Según un documento publicado por el Departamento de Defensa de los Estados Unidos , Jobs afirmó que en 1975 fue arrestado en Eugene, Oregón , después de ser interrogado por ser menor de edad en posesión de alcohol. Jobs alegó que "no tenía alcohol", pero la policía lo interrogó y posteriormente determinó que tenía una orden de arresto pendiente por una multa por exceso de velocidad sin pagar. Jobs afirmó que luego pagó la multa de $ 50. El arresto supuestamente ocurrió "detrás de una tienda". [65] [66]
Manzana (1976–1985)
Básicamente, Steve Wozniak y yo inventamos el Apple porque queríamos un ordenador personal. No sólo no podíamos permitirnos los ordenadores que había en el mercado, sino que además eran poco prácticos para nosotros. Necesitábamos un Volkswagen . El Volkswagen no es tan rápido ni tan cómodo como otros medios de transporte, pero los propietarios de un VW pueden ir adonde quieran, cuando quieran y con quien quieran. Los propietarios de un VW tienen el control personal de su coche.
—Steve Jobs [67]
En marzo de 1976, Wozniak completó el diseño básico de la computadora Apple I y se la mostró a Jobs, quien sugirió que la vendieran; Wozniak al principio se mostró escéptico ante la idea, pero luego aceptó. [68] En abril de ese mismo año, Jobs, Wozniak y el supervisor administrativo Ronald Wayne fundaron Apple Computer Company (ahora llamada "Apple Inc.") como una sociedad comercial en la casa de los padres de Jobs en Crist Drive el 1 de abril de 1976. La operación comenzó originalmente en el dormitorio de Jobs y luego se trasladó al garaje. [69] [70] Wayne se quedó brevemente, dejando a Jobs y Wozniak como los principales cofundadores activos de la empresa. [71]
Los dos decidieron el nombre "Apple" después de que Jobs regresara de la comuna All One Farm en Oregón y le contara a Wozniak sobre su tiempo en el huerto de manzanas de la granja . [72] Jobs originalmente planeó producir placas de circuito impreso desnudas del Apple I y venderlas a aficionados a las computadoras por $ 50 (equivalente a aproximadamente $ 270 en 2023) cada una. Para financiar el primer lote, Wozniak vendió su calculadora científica HP y Jobs vendió su camioneta Volkswagen . [73] [74] Más tarde ese año, el minorista de computadoras Paul Terrell compró 50 unidades Apple I completamente ensambladas por $ 500 cada una. [75] [76] Finalmente, se produjeron alrededor de 200 computadoras Apple I en total. [77]
Un vecino de Crist Drive recordaba a Jobs como un individuo extraño que recibía a sus clientes "con la ropa interior al aire, descalzo y con aire hippie". Otro vecino, Larry Waterland, que acababa de doctorarse en ingeniería química en Stanford, recordaba que despreciaba el negocio en ciernes de Jobs comparándolo con la industria establecida de los gigantescos ordenadores centrales con grandes mazos de tarjetas perforadas: "Steve me llevó al garaje. Tenía una placa de circuitos con un chip, un televisor DuMont, una grabadora de casetes Panasonic y un teclado. Dijo: 'Esto es un ordenador Apple'. Yo le dije: 'Tienes que estar bromeando'. Descarté toda la idea". El amigo de Jobs del Reed College y de la India, Daniel Kottke , recordaba que, como uno de los primeros empleados de Apple, "era la única persona que trabajaba en el garaje... Woz aparecía una vez a la semana con su último código. Steve Jobs no se ensuciaba las manos en ese sentido". Kottke también afirmó que gran parte del trabajo inicial se llevó a cabo en la cocina de Jobs, donde pasó horas al teléfono tratando de encontrar inversores para la empresa. [21]
Recibieron financiación de un ingeniero y gerente de marketing de productos de Intel semi-retirado llamado Mike Markkula . [78] Scott McNealy , uno de los cofundadores de Sun Microsystems , dijo que Jobs rompió un " techo de la era de cristal " en Silicon Valley porque había creado una empresa muy exitosa a una edad temprana. [34] Markkula trajo Apple a la atención de Arthur Rock , que, después de ver el stand de Apple abarrotado en el Home Brew Computer Show, comenzó con una inversión de $ 60,000 y entró en la junta de Apple. [79] Jobs no estaba contento cuando Markkula reclutó a Mike Scott de National Semiconductor en febrero de 1977 para servir como el primer presidente y CEO de Apple. [80] [81]
Lo que caracteriza a Apple es que su personal científico siempre actuó y se desempeñó como artista: en un campo lleno de personalidades secas y limitadas por los mundos racionales y binarios en los que habitan, los equipos de ingeniería de Apple tenían pasión. Siempre creyeron que lo que estaban haciendo era importante y, sobre todo, divertido. Trabajar en Apple nunca fue sólo un trabajo; también fue una cruzada, una misión, para brindar mejor potencia informática a la gente. En sus raíces, esa actitud provenía de Steve Jobs. Era " Poder para el pueblo ", el eslogan de los años sesenta, reescrito en tecnología para los años ochenta y llamado Macintosh .
—Jeffrey S. Young, 1987 [82]
Después de que Brennan regresara de su propio viaje a la India, ella y Jobs se enamoraron nuevamente, ya que Brennan notó cambios en él que ella atribuye a Kobun (a quien también seguía siguiendo). También fue en esta época cuando Jobs mostró un prototipo de computadora Apple II para Brennan y sus padres en su sala de estar. Brennan nota un cambio en este período de tiempo, donde las dos principales influencias en Jobs fueron Apple Inc. y Kobun .
En abril de 1977, Jobs y Wozniak presentaron el Apple II en la Feria de Computadoras de la Costa Oeste . [83] Es el primer producto de consumo que ha sido vendido por Apple Computer. Diseñado principalmente por Wozniak, Jobs supervisó el desarrollo de su inusual carcasa y Rod Holt desarrolló la fuente de alimentación única. [84] Durante la etapa de diseño, Jobs argumentó que el Apple II debería tener dos ranuras de expansión , mientras que Wozniak quería ocho. Después de una acalorada discusión, Wozniak amenazó a Jobs con que debería "buscarse otro ordenador". Más tarde acordaron ocho ranuras. [85] El Apple II se convirtió en uno de los primeros productos de microcomputadoras producidos en masa de gran éxito en el mundo. [86]
A medida que Jobs tuvo más éxito con su nueva compañía, su relación con Brennan se volvió más compleja. En 1977, el éxito de Apple era ahora parte de su relación, y Brennan, Daniel Kottke y Jobs se mudaron a una casa cerca de la oficina de Apple en Cupertino . [87] Brennan finalmente aceptó un puesto en el departamento de envíos de Apple. [88] La relación de Brennan con Jobs se deterioró a medida que su posición en Apple crecía, y ella comenzó a considerar terminar la relación. En octubre de 1977, Rod Holt se acercó a Brennan , quien le pidió que tomara "un aprendizaje pagado diseñando planos para los Apple". [89] Tanto Holt como Jobs creían que sería un buen puesto para ella, dadas sus habilidades artísticas. Holt estaba particularmente ansioso por que ella aceptara el puesto y desconcertado por su ambivalencia hacia él. La decisión de Brennan, sin embargo, se vio ensombrecida por el hecho de que se dio cuenta de que estaba embarazada y que Jobs era el padre. Le tomó unos días contárselo a Jobs, cuya cara, según Brennan, "se puso fea" ante la noticia. Al mismo tiempo, según Brennan, al comienzo de su tercer trimestre, Jobs le dijo: "Nunca quise pedirte que abortaras. Simplemente no quería hacerlo". [90] También se negó a hablar con ella sobre el embarazo. [90]
Brennan rechazó la pasantía y decidió dejar Apple. Unas semanas antes de que tuviera que dar a luz, Brennan fue invitada a dar a luz a su bebé en All One Farm. Ella aceptó la oferta. [89] Cuando Jobs tenía 23 años (la misma edad que sus padres biológicos cuando lo tuvieron) [90] Brennan dio a luz a su bebé, Lisa Brennan , el 17 de mayo de 1978. [89] Jobs fue allí para el nacimiento después de que Robert Friedland , su amigo en común y el dueño de la granja, lo contactara. Aunque estaban distantes, Jobs trabajó con ella en un nombre para el bebé, que discutieron mientras estaban sentados en los campos sobre una manta. Brennan sugirió el nombre "Lisa", que a Jobs también le gustó y señala que Jobs estaba muy apegado al nombre "Lisa" mientras que "también negaba públicamente la paternidad". Más tarde, ella descubriría que, durante esa época, Jobs se estaba preparando para presentar un nuevo tipo de computadora a la que quería darle un nombre femenino (su primera opción fue "Claire", en honor a St. Clare ). Ella declaró que nunca le dio permiso para usar el nombre del bebé para una computadora y que él le ocultó los planes. Jobs trabajó con su equipo para idear la frase "Arquitectura de software integrada local" como una explicación alternativa para el Apple Lisa . [91] Sin embargo, décadas después, Jobs admitió ante su biógrafo Walter Isaacson que "obviamente, se llamó así por mi hija". [92]
Cuando Jobs negó la paternidad, una prueba de ADN lo estableció como el padre de Lisa. [93] Le exigía que pagara a Brennan 385 dólares (equivalentes a unos 1200 dólares en 2023) mensuales además de devolverle el dinero de la asistencia social que había recibido. Jobs le pagaba 500 dólares (equivalentes a unos 1500 dólares en 2023) mensuales en el momento en que Apple salió a bolsa y lo convirtió en millonario. Más tarde, Brennan aceptó una entrevista con Michael Moritz para la revista Time para su especial Persona del año , publicado el 3 de enero de 1983, en el que habló de su relación con Jobs. En lugar de nombrar a Jobs como la Persona del año, la revista nombró a la computadora personal genérica como la "Máquina del año". [94] En el número, Jobs cuestionó la fiabilidad de la prueba de paternidad, que afirmaba que la "probabilidad de paternidad de Jobs, Steven... es del 94,1%". [93] Respondió argumentando que "el 28% de la población masculina de los Estados Unidos podría ser el padre". Time también señaló que "la niña y la máquina en la que Apple ha depositado tantas esperanzas para el futuro comparten el mismo nombre: Lisa". [93]
En 1978, a los 23 años, Jobs tenía un patrimonio neto de más de un millón de dólares (equivalente a 4,67 millones de dólares en 2023). A los 25 años, su patrimonio neto aumentó a unos 250 millones de dólares (equivalente a 838 millones de dólares en 2023). También fue una de las "personas más jóvenes en aparecer en la lista Forbes de las personas más ricas del país, y una de las pocas que lo han hecho por sí mismas, sin heredar riqueza". [95] En 1982, Jobs compró un apartamento en los dos pisos superiores de The San Remo , un edificio de Manhattan con reputación políticamente progresista. Aunque nunca vivió allí, [96] pasó años renovándolo gracias a IM Pei . En 1983, Jobs alejó a John Sculley de Pepsi-Cola para que se desempeñara como director ejecutivo de Apple, preguntándole: "¿Quieres pasar el resto de tu vida vendiendo agua azucarada o quieres una oportunidad de cambiar el mundo?". [97]
En 1984, Jobs compró la casa y la finca de Jackling y residió allí durante una década. A partir de entonces, la alquiló durante varios años hasta el año 2000, cuando dejó de realizar tareas de mantenimiento de la casa, permitiendo que la erosión la degradara. En 2004, Jobs recibió permiso de la ciudad de Woodside para demoler la casa y construir una más pequeña y de estilo contemporáneo. Después de unos años en los tribunales, la casa fue finalmente demolida en 2011, unos meses antes de su muerte. [98]
Jobs se hizo cargo del desarrollo del Macintosh en 1981, de manos de Jef Raskin , uno de los primeros empleados de Apple , quien había concebido el proyecto. Wozniak y Raskin habían influido mucho en el programa inicial, y Wozniak estaba de licencia durante este tiempo debido a un accidente aéreo a principios de ese año, lo que facilitó que Jobs se hiciera cargo del proyecto. [99] [100] [101] El 22 de enero de 1984, Apple emitió un anuncio de televisión del Super Bowl titulado " 1984 ", que terminaba con las palabras: "El 24 de enero, Apple Computer presentará Macintosh. Y verás por qué 1984 no será como 1984 ". [102] El 24 de enero de 1984, un emocionado Jobs presentó el Macintosh a una audiencia muy entusiasta en la reunión anual de accionistas de Apple celebrada en el Auditorio Flint del De Anza College. [103] [104] El ingeniero de Macintosh Andy Hertzfeld describió la escena como "pandemonio". [105] El Macintosh se inspiró en el Lisa (inspirado a su vez en la interfaz gráfica de usuario controlada por ratón de Xerox PARC ), [106] [107] y fue ampliamente aclamado por los medios con fuertes ventas iniciales. [108] [109] Sin embargo, su bajo rendimiento y la gama limitada de software disponible llevaron a una rápida caída de las ventas en la segunda mitad de 1984. [108] [109] [110]
Las respectivas visiones de Sculley y Jobs para la compañía diferían enormemente. Sculley favorecía los ordenadores de arquitectura abierta como el Apple II, dirigidos a la educación, las pequeñas empresas y los mercados domésticos menos vulnerables a IBM. Jobs quería que la compañía se centrara en el Macintosh de arquitectura cerrada como una alternativa comercial al IBM PC. El presidente y director ejecutivo Sculley tenía poco control sobre la división Macintosh de Jobs, que presidía el consejo de administración; esta y la división Apple II operaban como compañías separadas, duplicando servicios. [111] Aunque sus productos proporcionaban el 85% de las ventas de Apple a principios de 1985, la reunión anual de la compañía de enero de 1985 no mencionó la división Apple II ni a los empleados. Muchos se fueron, incluido Wozniak, quien declaró que la compañía había "ido en la dirección equivocada durante los últimos cinco años" y vendió la mayoría de sus acciones. [112] Aunque frustrado por la decisión de la compañía y de Jobs de abandonar el Apple II en favor del Macintosh, Wozniak se fue amistosamente y siguió siendo un empleado honorario de Apple, manteniendo una amistad de por vida con Jobs. [113] [114] [115]

A principios de 1985, el fracaso de Macintosh para derrotar al IBM PC se hizo evidente, [108] [109] y fortaleció la posición de Sculley en la empresa. En mayo de 1985, Sculley, animado por Arthur Rock, decidió reorganizar Apple y propuso un plan a la junta que eliminaría a Jobs del grupo Macintosh y lo pondría a cargo del "Desarrollo de nuevos productos". Esta medida dejaría a Jobs sin poder dentro de Apple. [116] En respuesta, Jobs desarrolló un plan para deshacerse de Sculley y hacerse cargo de Apple. Sin embargo, Jobs fue confrontado después de que se filtrara el plan y dijo que dejaría Apple. La Junta rechazó su renuncia y le pidió que lo reconsiderara. Sculley también le dijo a Jobs que tenía todos los votos necesarios para seguir adelante con la reorganización. Unos meses después, el 17 de septiembre de 1985, Jobs presentó una carta de renuncia a la Junta de Apple. Cinco empleados de alto rango adicionales de Apple también renunciaron y se unieron a Jobs en su nueva empresa, NeXT. [117]
La lucha de Macintosh continuó después de que Jobs dejara Apple. Aunque se comercializó y recibió con fanfarria, el costoso Macintosh era difícil de vender. [118] : 308–309 En 1985, la empresa de desarrollo de Bill Gates en ese momento, Microsoft , amenazó con dejar de desarrollar aplicaciones Mac a menos que se le otorgara "una licencia para el software del sistema operativo Mac. Microsoft estaba desarrollando su interfaz gráfica de usuario ... para DOS, al que llamaba Windows y no quería que Apple demandara por las similitudes entre la GUI de Windows y la interfaz de Mac". [118] : 321 Sculley le otorgó a Microsoft la licencia que más tarde le causó problemas a Apple. [118] : 321 Además, comenzaron a aparecer clones baratos de IBM PC que ejecutaban software de Microsoft y tenían una interfaz gráfica de usuario. Aunque Macintosh precedió a los clones, era mucho más caro, por lo que "a fines de la década de 1980, la interfaz de usuario de Windows fue mejorando cada vez más y, por lo tanto, le estaba quitando cada vez más participación a Apple". [118] : 322 Los clones de IBM-PC basados en Windows también llevaron al desarrollo de GUI adicionales como TopView de IBM o GEM de Digital Research, [118] : 322 y por lo tanto "la interfaz gráfica de usuario comenzaba a darse por sentada, socavando la ventaja más evidente de Mac... parecía claro a medida que la década de 1980 llegaba a su fin que Apple no podía seguir sola indefinidamente contra todo el mercado de clones de IBM". [118] : 322
1985–1997
Computadora NeXT
Tras su dimisión en Apple en 1985, Jobs fundó NeXT Inc. [119] con 7 millones de dólares. Un año después se estaba quedando sin dinero y buscó capital de riesgo sin ningún producto en el horizonte. Finalmente, Jobs atrajo la atención del multimillonario Ross Perot , que invirtió fuertemente en la empresa. [120] La computadora NeXT se mostró al mundo en lo que se consideró el evento de regreso de Jobs, [121] un lujoso evento de gala de lanzamiento al que solo se podía asistir con invitación [122] que se describió como una extravagancia multimedia. [123] La celebración se llevó a cabo en el Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall , San Francisco, California, el miércoles 12 de octubre de 1988. Steve Wozniak dijo en una entrevista de 2013 que mientras Jobs estaba en NeXT estaba "realmente poniendo su cabeza en orden". [99]
Las estaciones de trabajo NeXT se lanzaron por primera vez en 1990 y tenían un precio de $9,999 (equivalente a aproximadamente $23,000 en 2023). Al igual que la Apple Lisa , la estación de trabajo NeXT era tecnológicamente avanzada y estaba diseñada para el sector educativo, pero fue descartada en gran medida por su costo prohibitivo. [124] La estación de trabajo NeXT era conocida por sus fortalezas técnicas, la principal de ellas su sistema de desarrollo de software orientado a objetos . Jobs comercializó los productos NeXT a la comunidad financiera, científica y académica, destacando sus nuevas tecnologías experimentales e innovadoras, como el núcleo Mach , el chip procesador de señal digital y el puerto Ethernet incorporado . Haciendo uso de una computadora NeXT, el científico informático inglés Tim Berners-Lee inventó la World Wide Web en 1990 en el CERN en Suiza. [125]
En 1990 se lanzó el NeXTcube revisado de segunda generación. Jobs lo promocionó como el primer ordenador "interpersonal" que reemplazaría al ordenador personal. Con su innovador sistema de correo electrónico multimedia NeXTMail , NeXTcube podía compartir voz, imágenes, gráficos y vídeo en el correo electrónico por primera vez. "La informática interpersonal va a revolucionar las comunicaciones humanas y el trabajo en grupo", dijo Jobs a los periodistas. [126] Jobs dirigió NeXT con una obsesión por la perfección estética, como lo demuestra el desarrollo y la atención a la carcasa de magnesio de NeXTcube. [127] Esto puso una presión considerable en la división de hardware de NeXT y, en 1993, después de haber vendido solo 50.000 máquinas, NeXT pasó de lleno al desarrollo de software con el lanzamiento de NeXTSTEP / Intel . [128] La compañía reportó su primer beneficio anual de $1,03 millones en 1994. [129] En 1996, NeXT Software, Inc. lanzó WebObjects , un marco para el desarrollo de aplicaciones web. Después de que NeXT fuera adquirida por Apple Inc. en 1997, WebObjects se utilizó para construir y ejecutar la Apple Store, [128] los servicios MobileMe y la iTunes Store. [130]
Pixar y Disney
En 1986, Jobs financió la escisión de The Graphics Group (más tarde rebautizada como Pixar) de la división de gráficos por ordenador de Lucasfilm por un precio de 10 millones de dólares, de los cuales 5 millones se entregaron a la empresa como capital y 5 millones se pagaron a Lucasfilm por los derechos tecnológicos. [131]

La primera película producida por Pixar con su asociación con Disney , Toy Story (1995), con Jobs acreditado como productor ejecutivo, [132] trajo éxito financiero y elogios de la crítica al estudio cuando se estrenó. A lo largo de la vida de Jobs, bajo el jefe creativo de Pixar, John Lasseter , la compañía produjo éxitos de taquilla como Bichos (1998), Toy Story 2 (1999), Monsters, Inc. (2001), Buscando a Nemo (2003), Los Increíbles (2004), Cars (2006), Ratatouille (2007), WALL-E (2008), Up (2009), Toy Story 3 (2010) y Cars 2 (2011). Brave (2012), la primera película de Pixar producida desde la muerte de Jobs, lo honró con un tributo por sus contribuciones al estudio. [133] Buscando a Nemo , Los Increíbles , Ratatouille , WALL-E , Up , Toy Story 3 y Brave recibieron cada una el Premio de la Academia a la Mejor Película de Animación , un premio introducido en 2001. [134] [135]
En 2003 y 2004, cuando el contrato de Pixar con Disney estaba a punto de terminar, Jobs y el director ejecutivo de Disney, Michael Eisner, intentaron, pero no pudieron, negociar una nueva asociación, [136] y, en enero de 2004, Jobs anunció que nunca volvería a tratar con Disney. [137]
En octubre de 2005, Bob Iger reemplazó a Eisner en Disney, e Iger trabajó rápidamente para reparar las relaciones con Jobs y Pixar. El 24 de enero de 2006, Jobs e Iger anunciaron que Disney había acordado comprar Pixar en una transacción de acciones por un valor de $7.4 mil millones. Cuando se cerró el trato, Jobs se convirtió en el mayor accionista individual de The Walt Disney Company con aproximadamente el siete por ciento de las acciones de la compañía. [138] Las participaciones de Jobs en Disney superaron con creces las de Eisner, que posee el 1,7%, y del miembro de la familia Disney Roy E. Disney , que hasta su muerte en 2009 tenía aproximadamente el 1% de las acciones de la compañía y cuyas críticas a Eisner, especialmente porque agrió la relación de Disney con Pixar, aceleraron la destitución de Eisner. Una vez completada la fusión, Jobs recibió el 7% de las acciones de Disney y se unió a la junta directiva como el mayor accionista individual. [138] [139] [140] Tras la muerte de Jobs, sus acciones en Disney fueron transferidas al Steven P. Jobs Trust dirigido por Laurene Jobs . [141]
Tras la muerte de Jobs, Iger recordó en 2019 que muchos le advirtieron sobre Jobs, "que me intimidaría a mí ya todos los demás". Iger escribió: "¿Quién no querría que Steve Jobs tuviera influencia sobre cómo se dirige una empresa?", y que como miembro activo de la junta directiva de Disney "raramente me creó problemas. No nunca, pero rara vez". Especuló que habrían considerado seriamente fusionar Disney y Apple si Jobs hubiera vivido. [137] Floyd Norman , de Pixar, describió a Jobs como un "individuo maduro y apacible" que nunca interfirió en el proceso creativo de los cineastas. [142] A principios de junio de 2014, el cofundador de Pixar y presidente de Walt Disney Animation Studios, Edwin Catmull, reveló que Jobs una vez le aconsejó que "simplemente se lo explicara hasta que lo entendieran" en caso de desacuerdo. Catmull publicó el libro Creativity, Inc. en 2014, en el que relata numerosas experiencias de trabajo con Jobs. Respecto de su propia manera de tratar con Jobs, Catmull escribe: [143]
En los 26 años que pasé con Steve, Steve y yo nunca tuvimos una de esas discusiones verbales ruidosas, y no es mi naturaleza hacerlo... pero sí que discrepábamos con bastante frecuencia sobre ciertas cosas... Yo le decía algo y él inmediatamente lo desmentía porque podía pensar más rápido que yo... Entonces esperaba una semana... Lo llamaba y le daba mi contraargumento a lo que había dicho y él lo desmentía inmediatamente. Así que tuve que esperar otra semana, y en ocasiones esto continuó durante meses. Pero finalmente sucedió una de tres cosas. Aproximadamente un tercio de las veces él decía: "Ah, ya entiendo, tienes razón", y ahí se acabó. Y era otro tercio del tiempo en el que yo decía: "De hecho, creo que tiene razón". El otro tercio de las veces, cuando no llegábamos a un consenso, él simplemente me dejaba hacerlo a mi manera, nunca dijo nada más al respecto. [143]
1997–2011
Regresar a Apple

In 1996, Jobs's former company Apple was struggling and its survival depended on completing its next operating system. After failed negotiations to purchase Be Inc.,[144][145] Apple eventually came to a deal with NeXT in December[146] for $400 million; the deal was finalized in February 1997, bringing Jobs back to the company he had cofounded.[147] Jobs became de facto chief after then-CEO Gil Amelio was ousted in July 1997. He was formally named interim chief executive on September 16.[148] In March 1998, to concentrate Apple's efforts on returning to profitability, Jobs terminated several projects, such as Newton, Cyberdog, and OpenDoc. In the coming months, many employees developed a fear of encountering Jobs while riding in the elevator, "afraid that they might not have a job when the doors opened. The reality was that Jobs's summary executions were rare, but a handful of victims was enough to terrorize a whole company."[149] Jobs changed the licensing program for Macintosh clones, making it too costly for the manufacturers to continue making machines.
With the purchase of NeXT, much of the company's technology found its way into Apple products, most notably NeXTSTEP, which evolved into Mac OS X. Under Jobs's guidance, the company increased sales significantly with the introduction of the iMac and other new products; since then, appealing designs and powerful branding have worked well for Apple. At the 2000 Macworld Expo, Jobs officially dropped the "interim" modifier from his title at Apple and became permanent CEO.[150] Jobs quipped at the time that he would be using the title "iCEO".[151]
The company subsequently branched out, introducing and improving upon other digital appliances. With the introduction of the iPod portable music player, iTunes digital music software, and the iTunes Store, the company made forays into consumer electronics and music distribution. On June 29, 2007, Apple entered the cellular phone business with the introduction of the iPhone, a multi-touch display cell phone, which also included the features of an iPod and, with its own mobile browser, revolutionized the mobile browsing scene. While nurturing open-ended innovation, Jobs also reminded his employees that "real artists ship".[152]
Jobs had a public war of words with Dell Computer CEO Michael Dell, starting in 1987, when Jobs first criticized Dell for making "un-innovative beige boxes".[153] On October 6, 1997, at a Gartner Symposium, when Dell was asked what he would do if he ran the then-troubled Apple Computer company, he said: "I'd shut it down and give the money back to the shareholders".[154] Then, in 2006, Jobs emailed all employees when Apple's market capitalization rose above Dell's. It read:
Team, it turned out that Michael Dell wasn't perfect at predicting the future. Based on today's stock market close, Apple is worth more than Dell. Stocks go up and down, and things may be different tomorrow, but I thought it was worth a moment of reflection today. Steve.[155]
Jobs was both admired and criticized for his consummate skill at persuasion and salesmanship, which has been dubbed the "reality distortion field" and was particularly evident during his keynote speeches (colloquially known as "Stevenotes") at Macworld Expos and at Apple Worldwide Developers Conferences.[156]
Jobs usually went to work wearing a black long-sleeved mock turtleneck made by Issey Miyake, Levi's 501 blue jeans, and New Balance 991 sneakers.[157][158] Jobs told his biographer Walter Isaacson "...he came to like the idea of having a uniform for himself, both because of its daily convenience (the rationale he claimed) and its ability to convey a signature style".[157]
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In 2001, Jobs was granted stock options in the amount of 7.5 million shares of Apple with an exercise price of $18.30. It was alleged that the options had been backdated, and that the exercise price should have been $21.10. It was further alleged that Jobs had thereby incurred taxable income of $20,000,000 that he did not report, and that Apple overstated its earnings by that same amount. As a result, Jobs potentially faced a number of criminal charges and civil penalties. The case was the subject of active criminal and civil government investigations,[159] though an independent internal Apple investigation completed on December 29, 2006, found that Jobs was unaware of these issues and that the options granted to him were returned without being exercised in 2003.[160]
In 2005, Jobs responded to criticism of Apple's poor recycling programs for e-waste in the US by lashing out at environmental and other advocates at Apple's annual meeting in Cupertino in April. A few weeks later, Apple announced it would take back iPods for free at its retail stores. The Computer TakeBack Campaign responded by flying a banner from a plane over the Stanford University graduation at which Jobs was the commencement speaker. The banner read "Steve, don't be a mini-player—recycle all e-waste".[161]
In 2006, he further expanded Apple's recycling programs to any US customer who buys a new Mac. This program includes shipping and "environmentally friendly disposal" of their old systems.[162] The success of Apple's unique products and services provided several years of stable financial returns, propelling Apple to become the world's most valuable publicly traded company in 2011.[163]
Jobs was perceived as a demanding perfectionist[164][165] who always aspired to position his businesses and their products at the forefront of the information technology industry by foreseeing and setting innovation and style trends. He summed up this self-concept at the end of his keynote speech at the Macworld Conference and Expo in January 2007, by quoting ice hockey player Wayne Gretzky:
There's an old Wayne Gretzky quote that I love. "I skate to where the puck is going to be, not where it has been". And we've always tried to do that at Apple. Since the very, very beginning. And we always will.[166]
On July 1, 2008, a $7 billion class action suit was filed against several members of the Apple board of directors for revenue lost because of alleged securities fraud.[167][168] In a 2011 interview with biographer Walter Isaacson, Jobs revealed that he had met with US President Barack Obama, complained about the nation's shortage of software engineers, and told Obama that he was "headed for a one-term presidency".[169] Jobs proposed that any foreign student who got an engineering degree at a US university should automatically be offered a green card. After the meeting, Jobs commented, "The president is very smart, but he kept explaining to us reasons why things can't get done ... It infuriates me".[169]
Health problems
In October 2003, Jobs was diagnosed with cancer. In mid 2004, he announced to his employees that he had a cancerous tumor in his pancreas.[170] The prognosis for pancreatic cancer is very poor;[171] Jobs stated that he had a rare, less aggressive type, known as islet cell neuroendocrine tumor.[170]
Jobs resisted his doctors' recommendations for medical intervention for nine months,[172] in favor of alternative medicine. Other doctors agree that Jobs's diet was insufficient to address his disease. However, cancer researcher and alternative medicine critic David Gorski wrote that "it's impossible to know whether and by how much he might have decreased his chances of surviving his cancer through his flirtation with woo. My best guess was that Jobs probably only modestly decreased his chances of survival, if that."[173][174] Barrie R. Cassileth, the chief of Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center's integrative medicine department,[175] on the other hand, said, "Jobs's faith in alternative medicine likely cost him his life ... He had the only kind of pancreatic cancer that is treatable and curable ... He essentially committed suicide."[176]
According to biographer Walter Isaacson, "for nine months he refused to undergo surgery for his pancreatic cancer – a decision he later regretted as his health declined".[177] "Instead, he tried a vegan diet, acupuncture, herbal remedies, and other treatments he found online, and even consulted a psychic. He was also influenced by a doctor who ran a clinic that advised juice fasts, bowel cleansings and other unproven approaches, before finally having surgery in July 2004."[178][179] He underwent a pancreaticoduodenectomy (or "Whipple procedure") that appeared to remove the tumor successfully.[180][181] Jobs did not receive chemotherapy or radiation therapy.[170][182] During Jobs's absence, Tim Cook, head of worldwide sales and operations at Apple, ran the company.[170]
In January 2006, only Jobs's wife, his doctors, and Iger knew that his cancer had returned. Jobs told Iger privately that he hoped to live to see his own son Reed's high school graduation in 2010.[137] In early August 2006, Jobs delivered the keynote for Apple's annual Worldwide Developers Conference. His "thin, almost gaunt" appearance and unusually "listless" delivery,[183][184] together with his choice to delegate significant portions of his keynote to other presenters, inspired a flurry of media and internet speculation about the state of his health.[185] In contrast, according to an Ars Technica journal report, Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) attendees who saw Jobs in person said he "looked fine".[186] Following the keynote, an Apple spokesperson said that "Steve's health is robust".[187]
Two years later, similar concerns followed Jobs's 2008 WWDC keynote address.[188] Apple officials stated that Jobs was victim to a "common bug" and was taking antibiotics,[189] while others surmised his cachectic appearance was due to the Whipple procedure.[182] During a July conference call discussing Apple earnings, participants responded to repeated questions about Jobs's health by insisting that it was a "private matter". Others said that shareholders had a right to know more, given Jobs's hands-on approach to running his company.[190][191] Based on an off-the-record phone conversation with Jobs, The New York Times reported, "While his health problems amounted to a good deal more than 'a common bug', they weren't life-threatening and he doesn't have a recurrence of cancer".[192]
On August 28, 2008, Bloomberg mistakenly published a 2500-word obituary of Jobs in its corporate news service, containing blank spaces for his age and cause of death. News carriers customarily stockpile up-to-date obituaries to facilitate news delivery in the event of a well-known figure's death. Although the error was promptly rectified, many news carriers and blogs reported on it,[193] intensifying rumors concerning Jobs's health.[194] Jobs responded at Apple's September 2008 Let's Rock keynote by paraphrasing Mark Twain: "The reports of my death are greatly exaggerated."[195][196] At a subsequent media event, Jobs concluded his presentation with a slide reading "110/70", referring to his blood pressure, stating he would not address further questions about his health.[197]
On December 16, 2008, Apple announced that marketing vice-president Phil Schiller would deliver the company's final keynote address at the Macworld Conference and Expo 2009, again reviving questions about Jobs's health.[198][199] In a statement given on January 5, 2009, on Apple.com, Jobs said that he had been suffering from a "hormone imbalance" for several months.[200][201]
On January 14, 2009, Jobs wrote in an internal Apple memo that in the previous week he had "learned that my health-related issues are more complex than I originally thought".[202] He announced a six-month leave of absence until the end of June 2009, to allow him to better focus on his health. Tim Cook, who previously acted as CEO in Jobs's 2004 absence, became acting CEO of Apple, with Jobs still involved with "major strategic decisions".[202]
In 2009, Tim Cook offered a portion of his liver to Jobs, since both share a rare blood type, and the donor liver can regenerate tissue after such an operation. Jobs yelled, "I'll never let you do that. I'll never do that."[203] In April 2009, Jobs underwent a liver transplantation at Methodist University Hospital Transplant Institute in Memphis, Tennessee.[204][205][206] Jobs's prognosis was described as "excellent".[204]
Resignation
On January 17, 2011, a year and a half after Jobs returned to work following the liver transplant, Apple announced that he had been granted a medical leave of absence. Jobs announced his leave in a letter to employees, stating his decision was made "so he could focus on his health". As it did at the time of his 2009 medical leave, Apple announced that Tim Cook would run day-to-day operations and that Jobs would continue to be involved in major strategic decisions at the company.[207][208] While on leave, Jobs appeared at the iPad 2 launch event on March 2, the WWDC keynote introducing iCloud on June 6, and before the Cupertino City Council on June 7.[209]
On August 24, 2011, Jobs announced his resignation as Apple's CEO, writing to the board, "I have always said if there ever came a day when I could no longer meet my duties and expectations as Apple's CEO, I would be the first to let you know. Unfortunately, that day has come."[210] Jobs became chairman of the board and named Tim Cook as his successor as CEO.[211][212] Jobs continued to work for Apple until the day before his death six weeks later.[213][214][215]
Death

Jobs died at his home in Palo Alto, California, around 3 p.m. (PDT) on October 5, 2011, due to complications from a relapse of his previously treated islet-cell pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor,[64][216][217] which resulted in respiratory arrest.[218] He had lost consciousness the day before and died with his wife, children, and sisters at his side.[219] His sister, Mona Simpson, described his death thus: "Steve's final words, hours earlier, were monosyllables, repeated three times. Before embarking, he'd looked at his sister Patty, then for a long time at his children, then at his life's partner, Laurene, and then over their shoulders past them. Steve's final words were: 'Oh wow. Oh wow. Oh wow.' " He then lost consciousness and died several hours later.[219] A small private funeral was held on October 7, 2011, the details of which, out of respect for Jobs's family, were not made public.[220]
Both Apple[221] and Pixar issued announcements of his death.[222] Apple announced on the same day that they had no plans for a public service, but were encouraging "well-wishers" to send their remembrance messages to an email address created to receive such messages.[223] Apple and Microsoft both flew their flags at half-staff throughout their respective headquarters and campuses.[224][225]
Bob Iger ordered all Disney properties, including Walt Disney World and Disneyland, to fly their flags at half-staff from October 6 to 12, 2011.[226] For two weeks following his death, Apple displayed on its corporate Web site a simple page that showed Jobs's name and lifespan next to his portrait in grayscale.[227][228][229] On October 19, 2011, Apple employees held a private memorial service for Jobs on the Apple campus in Cupertino. It was attended by Jobs's widow, Laurene, and by Tim Cook, Bill Campbell, Norah Jones, Al Gore, and Coldplay. Some of Apple's retail stores closed briefly so employees could attend the memorial. A video of the service was uploaded to Apple's website.[230]
California Governor Jerry Brown declared Sunday, October 16, 2011, to be "Steve Jobs Day".[231] On that day, an invitation-only memorial was held at Stanford University. Those in attendance included Apple and other tech company executives, members of the media, celebrities, politicians, and family and close friends of Jobs. Bono, Yo-Yo Ma, and Joan Baez performed at the service, which lasted longer than an hour. There was high security with guards at all of the university's gates, and a helicopter overhead from an area news station.[232][233] Each attendee was given a small brown box as a "farewell gift" from Jobs, containing a copy of the Autobiography of a Yogi (1946) by Paramahansa Yogananda.[234]
Childhood friend and fellow Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak,[235] former owner of what would become Pixar, George Lucas,[236] his competitor Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates,[237] and President Barack Obama[238] all made statements in response to his death. At his request, Jobs was buried in an unmarked grave at Alta Mesa Memorial Park, the only nonsectarian cemetery in Palo Alto.[239][240]
Innovations and designs
Jobs's design aesthetic was influenced by philosophies of Zen and Buddhism. In India, he experienced Buddhism while on his seven-month spiritual journey,[241] and his sense of intuition was influenced by the spiritual people with whom he studied.[241] Jobs gained insights regarding industrial designs from Richard Sapper.[242] According to Apple co-founder Wozniak, "Steve didn't ever code. He wasn't an engineer and he didn't do any original design...".[243][244] Daniel Kottke, one of Apple's earliest employees and a college friend of Jobs, stated: "Between Woz and Jobs, Woz was the innovator, the inventor. Steve Jobs was the marketing person."[245]
He is listed as either primary inventor or co-inventor in 346 United States patents or patent applications related to a range of technologies from actual computer and portable devices to user interfaces (including touch-based), speakers, keyboards, power adapters, staircases, clasps, sleeves, lanyards, and packages. His contributions to most of his patents were to "the look and feel of the product". He and his industrial design chief Jonathan Ive are named for 200 of the patents.[246] Most of these are design patents as opposed to utility patents or inventions; they are specific product designs such as both original and lamp-style iMacs, and PowerBook G4 Titanium.[247][248] He holds 43 issued US patents on inventions.[247] The patent on the Mac OS X Dock user interface with "magnification" feature was issued the day before he died.[249] Although Jobs had little involvement in the engineering and technical side of the original Apple computers,[244] Jobs later used his CEO position to directly involve himself with product design.[250]
Involved in many projects throughout his career was his long-time marketing executive and confidant Joanna Hoffman, known as one of the few employees at Apple and NeXT who could successfully stand up to Jobs while also engaging with him.[251] Even while terminally ill in the hospital, Jobs sketched new devices that would hold the iPad in a hospital bed.[219] He despised the oxygen monitor on his finger, and suggested ways to revise the design for simplicity.[252]
Apple I
The Apple I was designed entirely by Wozniak, but Jobs had the idea of selling the computer, which led to the founding of Apple Computer in 1976. Jobs and Wozniak constructed several of the Apple I prototype by hand, funded by selling some of their belongings. Eventually, 200 units were produced.[77] One of the main innovations of the Apple I was that it included video display terminal circuitry on its circuit board, allowing it to connect to a low-cost composite video monitor or television, instead of an expensive computer terminal, compared to most existing computers at the time.
Apple II

The Apple II is an 8-bit home computer, one of the world's first highly successful mass-produced microcomputer products,[86] designed primarily by Wozniak. Jobs oversaw the development of the Apple II's unusual case[253] and Rod Holt developed the unique power supply.[84] It was introduced in 1977 at the West Coast Computer Faire by Jobs and Wozniak as the first consumer product sold by Apple. The Apple II was first sold on June 10, 1977.[254][255]
Lisa
The Lisa is a personal computer developed by Apple from 1978 and sold in the early 1980s to business users. It is the first personal computer with a graphical user interface.[256] The Lisa sold poorly at 100,000 units,[257] but despite being considered a commercial failure, it received technical acclaim, introducing several advanced features that reappeared on the Macintosh and eventually IBM PC compatibles. In 1982, after Jobs was forced out of the Lisa project,[258] he took over the Macintosh project, adding inspiration from Lisa. The final Lisa 2/10 was modified and sold as the Macintosh XL.[259]
Macintosh

Once he joined the Macintosh team, Jobs took over the project after Wozniak had experienced a traumatic airplane accident and temporarily left the company.[99] Jobs launched the Macintosh on January 24, 1984, as the first mass-market personal computer featuring an integral graphical user interface and mouse.[260] This first model was later renamed to Macintosh 128k among the prolific series. Since 1998, Apple has phased out the Macintosh name in favor of "Mac", though the product family has been nicknamed "Mac" or "the Mac" since inception. The Macintosh was introduced by a US$1.5 million Ridley Scott television commercial, "1984".[261] It aired during the third quarter of Super Bowl XVIII on January 22, 1984, received as a "watershed event"[262] and a "masterpiece".[263] Regis McKenna called the ad "more successful than the Mac itself".[264] It uses an unnamed heroine to represent the coming of the Macintosh (indicated by a Picasso-style picture of the computer on her white tank top) to save humanity from the conformity of IBM's domination of the computer industry. The ad alludes to George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, which describes a dystopian future ruled by a televised "Big Brother".[265][266]
The Macintosh, however, was expensive, which hindered its ability to be competitive in a market already dominated by the Commodore 64 for consumers, and the IBM Personal Computer and its accompanying clone market for businesses.[267] Macintosh systems still found success in education and desktop publishing and kept Apple as the second-largest PC manufacturer for the next decade.
NeXT Computer
After Jobs was forced out of Apple in 1985, he started NeXT, a workstation computer company. The NeXT Computer was introduced in 1988 at a lavish launch event. Using the NeXT Computer, Tim Berners-Lee created the world's first web browser, the WorldWideWeb. The NeXT Computer's operating system, named NeXTSTEP, begat Darwin, which is now the foundation of most of Apple's operating systems such as Macintosh's macOS and iPhone's iOS.[268][269]
iMac

Apple's iMac G3 was introduced in 1998 and its innovative design is directly the result of Jobs's return to Apple. Apple boasted "the back of our computer looks better than the front of anyone else's".[270] Described as "cartoonlike", the first iMac, clad in Bondi Blue plastic, was unlike any personal computer that came before. In 1999, Apple introduced the Graphite gray Apple iMac and since has varied the shape, color and size considerably while maintaining the all-in-one design. Design ideas were intended to create a connection with the user such as the handle and a "breathing" light effect when the computer went to sleep.[271] The Apple iMac sold for $1,299 at that time. The iMac's forward-thinking changes include eschewing the floppy disk drive and moving exclusively to USB for connecting peripherals. Through the iMac's success, USB was popularized among third-party peripheral makers—as evidenced by the fact that many early USB peripherals were made of translucent plastic to match the iMac design.[272]
iTunes
iTunes is a media player, media library, online radio broadcaster, and mobile device management application developed by Apple. It is used to play, download, and organize digital audio and video on personal computers running the macOS and Microsoft Windows operating systems. The iTunes Store is also available on the iPod Touch, iPhone, and iPad.[273]
Through the iTunes Store, users can purchase and download music, music videos, television shows, audiobooks, podcasts, movies, and movie rentals in some countries, and ringtones, available on the iPhone and iPod Touch (fourth generation onward). Application software for the iPhone, iPad and iPod Touch can be downloaded from the App Store.[273]
iPod
The first generation of iPod was released October 23, 2001. The major innovation of the iPod was its small size achieved by using a 1.8" hard drive compared to the 2.5" drives common to players at that time. The capacity of the first-generation iPod ranged from 5 GB to 10 GB.[274] The iPod sold for US$399 and more than 100,000 iPods were sold before the end of 2001. The introduction of the iPod resulted in Apple becoming a major player in the music industry.[275] Also, the iPod's success prepared the way for the iTunes music store and the iPhone.[276] After the first few generations of iPod, Apple released the touchscreen iPod Touch, the reduced-size iPod Mini and iPod Nano, and the screenless iPod Shuffle in the following years.[275]
iPhone
Apple began work on the first iPhone in 2005 and the first iPhone was released on June 29, 2007. The iPhone created such a sensation that a survey indicated six out of ten Americans were aware of its release. Time declared it "Invention of the Year" for 2007 and included it in the All-TIME 100 Gadgets list in 2010, in the category of Communication.[277] The completed iPhone had multimedia capabilities and functioned as a quad-band touch screen smartphone. A year later, the iPhone 3G was released in July 2008 with three key features: support for GPS, 3G data and tri-band UMTS/HSDPA. In June 2009, the iPhone 3GS, whose improvements included voice control, a better camera, and a faster processor, was introduced by Phil Schiller.[278] The iPhone 4 was thinner than previous models, had a five megapixel camera capable of recording video in 720p HD, and added a secondary front-facing camera for video calls.[279] A major feature of the iPhone 4s, introduced in October 2011, was Siri, a virtual assistant capable of voice recognition.[280]
iPad

The iPad is an iOS-based line of tablet computers designed and marketed by Apple. The first iPad was released on April 3, 2010. The user interface is built around the device's multi-touch screen, including a virtual keyboard. The iPad includes built-in Wi-Fi and cellular connectivity on select models. As of April 2015[update], more than 250 million iPads have been sold.[281]
Personal life

Marriage
In 1989, Jobs first met his future wife, Laurene Powell, when he gave a lecture at the Stanford Graduate School of Business, where she was a student. Soon after the event, he stated that Laurene "was right there in the front row in the lecture hall, and I couldn't take my eyes off of her ... kept losing my train of thought, and started feeling a little giddy".[282] After the lecture, he met her in the parking lot and invited her out to dinner. From that point forward, they were together, with a few minor exceptions, for the rest of his life.[283]
Jobs proposed on New Year's Day 1990; they married on March 18, 1991, in a Buddhist ceremony at the Ahwahnee Hotel in Yosemite National Park.[284] Fifty people, including Jobs's father, Paul, and his sister Mona, attended. The ceremony was conducted by Jobs's guru, Kobun Chino Otogawa.[284] The vegan wedding cake was in the shape of Yosemite's Half Dome, and the wedding ended with a hike and Laurene's brothers' snowball fight. Jobs reportedly said to Mona: "You see, Mona [...], Laurene is descended from Joe Namath, and we're descended from John Muir".[285]
Jobs's and Powell's first child, a son named Reed, was born in 1991.[286] Jobs's father, Paul, died a year and a half later, on March 5, 1993. Jobs's childhood home remains a tourist attraction and is currently owned by his stepmother (Paul's second wife), Marilyn Jobs.[287] Jobs and Powell had two more children, daughters Erin (b. 1995) and Eve Jobs (b. 1998), who is a fashion model.[286] The family lived in Palo Alto, California.[288] Although a billionaire, Jobs made it known that, like Gates, he had stipulated that most of his monetary fortune would not be left to his children.[289][290] Both men had limited their children's access, age appropriate, to social media, computer games, and the Internet.[291][292]
Family
Chrisann Brennan notes that after Jobs was forced out of Apple, "he apologized many times over for his behavior" towards her and Lisa. She said Jobs "said that he never took responsibility when he should have, and that he was sorry".[293] By this time, Jobs had developed a strong relationship with Lisa and when she was nine, Jobs had her name on her birth certificate changed from "Lisa Brennan" to "Lisa Brennan-Jobs".[8] Jobs and Brennan developed a working relationship to co-parent Lisa, a change which Brennan credits to the influence of his newly found biological sister, Mona Simpson, who worked to repair the relationship between Lisa and Jobs.[8] Jobs had found Mona after first finding his birth mother, Joanne Schieble Simpson, shortly after he left Apple.[294]
Jobs did not contact his birth family during his adoptive mother Clara's lifetime, however. He would later tell his official biographer Walter Isaacson: "I never wanted [Paul and Clara] to feel like I didn't consider them my parents, because they were totally my parents [...] I loved them so much that I never wanted them to know of my search, and I even had reporters keep it quiet when any of them found out".[294] However, in 1986, when Jobs was 31, Clara was diagnosed with lung cancer. He began to spend a great deal of time with her and learned more details about her background and his adoption, information that motivated him to find his biological mother. Jobs found on his birth certificate the name of the San Francisco doctor to whom Schieble had turned when she was pregnant. Although the doctor did not help Jobs while he was alive, he left a letter for Jobs to be opened upon his death. As he died soon afterwards, Jobs was given the letter which stated that "his mother had been an unmarried graduate student from Wisconsin named Joanne Schieble".[294]
Jobs only contacted Schieble after Clara died in early 1986 and after he received permission from his father, Paul. In addition, out of respect for Paul, he asked the media not to report on his search.[294] Jobs stated that he was motivated to find his birth mother out of both curiosity and a need "to see if she was okay and to thank her, because I'm glad I didn't end up as an abortion. She was twenty-three and she went through a lot to have me."[295] Schieble was emotional during their first meeting (though she wasn't familiar with the history of Apple or Jobs's role in it) and told him that she had been pressured into signing the adoption papers. She said that she regretted giving him up and repeatedly apologized to him for it. Jobs and Schieble would develop a friendly relationship throughout the rest of his life and would spend Christmas together.[296]
During this first visit, Schieble told Jobs that he had a sister, Mona, who was not aware that she had a brother.[295] Schieble then arranged for them to meet in New York where Mona worked. Her first impression of Jobs was that "he was totally straightforward and lovely, just a normal and sweet guy".[297] Simpson and Jobs then went for a long walk to get to know each other.[297] Jobs later told his biographer that "Mona was not completely thrilled at first to have me in her life and have her mother so emotionally affectionate toward me ... As we got to know each other, we became really good friends, and she is my family. I don't know what I'd do without her. I can't imagine a better sister. My adopted sister, Patty, and I were never close."[297]
I grew up as an only child, with a single mother. Because we were poor and because I knew my father had emigrated from Syria, I imagined he looked like Omar Sharif. I hoped he would be rich and kind and would come into our lives (and our not-yet-furnished apartment) and help us. Later, after I'd met my father, I tried to believe he'd changed his number and left no forwarding address because he was an idealistic revolutionary, plotting a new world for the Arab people. Even as a feminist, my whole life I'd been waiting for a man to love, who could love me. For decades, I'd thought that man would be my father. When I was 25, I met that man, and he was my brother.
—Mona Simpson[219]
Jobs then learned his family history. Six months after he was given up for adoption, Schieble's father died, she wed Jandali, and they had a daughter, Mona.[298][299] Jandali states that after finishing his PhD he returned to Syria to work, and then Schieble left him.[298] They divorced in 1962[10] and he said then he lost contact with Mona for a time:
I also bear the responsibility for being away from my daughter when she was four years old, as her mother divorced me when I went to Syria, but we got back in touch after 10 years. We lost touch again when her mother moved and I didn't know where she was, but since 10 years ago we've been in constant contact, and I see her three times a year. I organized a trip for her last year to visit Syria and Lebanon and she went with a relative from Florida.[298]
A few years later, Schieble married an ice-skating teacher, George Simpson. Mona Jandali took her stepfather's last name, as Mona Simpson. In 1970, after divorcing her second husband, Schieble took Mona to Los Angeles and raised her alone.[299]
When Simpson found that their father, Abdulfattah Jandali, was living in Sacramento, California, Jobs had no interest in meeting him as he believed Jandali did not treat his children well[300] and according to the San Francisco Chronicle, this was because of finding a Seattle Times article about Jandali's abandonment of his students on a trip to Egypt in 1974.[301] Simpson went to Sacramento alone and met Jandali, who worked in a small restaurant. They spoke for several hours, and he told her that he had left teaching for the restaurant business. He said he and Schieble had given another child away for adoption but that "we'll never see that baby again. That baby's gone." He said he once managed a Mediterranean restaurant near San Jose and that "all of the successful technology people used to come there. Even Steve Jobs ... oh yeah, he used to come in, and he was a sweet guy and a big tipper". At the request of Jobs, Simpson did not reveal to Jandali that his own story meant that he had actually already met his son.[302]
After hearing about the visit, Jobs recalled that "it was amazing ... I had been to that restaurant a few times, and I remember meeting the owner. He was Syrian. Balding. We shook hands." However, Jobs still did not want to meet Jandali because "I was a wealthy man by then, and I didn't trust him not to try to blackmail me or go to the press about it ... I asked Mona not to tell him about me".[302] Jandali later discovered his relationship to Jobs through an online blog. He then contacted Simpson and asked, "what is this thing about Steve Jobs?". Simpson told him that it was true and later commented, "My father is thoughtful and a beautiful storyteller, but he is very, very passive ... He never contacted Steve". Because Simpson herself researched her Syrian roots and began to meet the family, she assumed that Jobs would eventually want to meet their father, but he never did. Jobs also never showed an interest in his Syrian heritage or the Middle East. Simpson fictionalized the search for their father in her 1992 novel The Lost Father.[296] Malek Jandali is their cousin.[303]
Philanthropy
Jobs's views and actions on philanthropy and charity are a public mystery.[304] He maintained privacy even over what few of these actions were publicly known. He has been a key figure in public discussions about societal obligations of the wealthy and powerful. Through his career, the media investigated and criticized him and Apple as unusually and inexplicably mysterious or absent among powerful leaders and especially billionaires. His name is absent from the Million Dollar List of all large global philanthropy.[305] Some have speculated about his possible secret role in large anonymous donations.[304]
Mark Vermilion, former charitable leader for Joan Baez, Apple, and Jobs, attributed Jobs's lifelong minimization of direct charity to his perfectionism and limited time. Jobs, Vermilion, and supporters said over the years that corporate products were Jobs's superior contributions to culture and society instead of direct charity.[305] In 1985, Jobs said, "You know, my main reaction to this money thing is that it's humorous, all the attention to it, because it's hardly the most insightful or valuable thing that's happened to me."[304]
Shortly after leaving Apple, he formed the charitable Steven P. Jobs Foundation, led by Mark Vermilion, hired away from Apple's community leadership. Jobs wanted a focus on nutrition and vegetarianism, but Vermilion wanted social entrepreneurship. That year, Jobs soon launched NeXT and closed the foundation with no results. Upon his 1997 return to Apple, Jobs optimized the failing company to the core, such as eliminating all philanthropic programs, never to be restored. In 2007, Stanford Social Innovation Review magazine listed Apple among "America's least philanthropic companies". A few months after another unflattering news report, Apple started a program to match employees' charitable gifts.[305] Jobs declined to sign The Giving Pledge, launched in 2010 by Warren Buffett and Bill Gates for fellow billionaires.[305][304] He donated $50 million to Stanford hospital and contributed to efforts to cure AIDS. Bono reported "tens of millions of dollars" given by Apple while Jobs was CEO, to AIDS and HIV relief programs in Africa, which inspired other companies to join.[305]
Honors and awards

- 1985: awarded National Medal of Technology (with Steve Wozniak) by US President Ronald Reagan, the country's highest honor for technological achievements[307]
- 1987: Jefferson Award for Public Service[308]
- 1989: Entrepreneur of the Decade by Inc.[309]
- 1991: Howard Vollum Award from Reed College[310]
- 2004–2010: listed among the Time 100 Most Influential People in the World on five separate occasions[311]
- 2007: named the most powerful person in business by Fortune magazine[312]
- 2007: inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts[313]
- 2012: Grammy Trustees Award, an award for those who have influenced the music industry in areas unrelated to performance[314]
- 2012: posthumously honored with an Edison Achievement Award for his commitment to innovation throughout his career[315]
- 2013: posthumously inducted as a Disney Legend[316]
- 2017: Steve Jobs Theater opens at Apple Park[317]
- 2022: posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by US President Joe Biden, the country's highest civilian honor[318]
In popular culture
See also
References
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worked as a machinist
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Bibliography
- Brennan, Chrisann (2013). The Bite in the Apple: A Memoir of My Life with Steve Jobs. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1-250-03876-0.
- Isaacson, Walter (2011). Steve Jobs (1st ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4516-4853-9.
- Linzmayer, Owen W. (2004). Apple Confidential 2.0: The Definitive History of the World's Most Colorful Company. No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-010-0.
- Schlender, Brent; Tetzeli, Rick (2015). Becoming Steve Jobs: The Evolution of a Reckless Upstart into a Visionary Leader. Crown Business. ISBN 978-0-7710-7914-6.
- Smith, Alexander (2020). They Create Worlds: The Story of the People and Companies That Shaped the Video Game Industry, Volume 1: 1971–1982. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-138-38992-2.
External links
- Steve Jobs official memorial page at Apple
- Steve Jobs discography at Discogs
- Steve Jobs at IMDb
- Steve Jobs profile at Forbes
- Steven Paul Jobs The Vault at FBI Records
- Steve Jobs at Andy Hertzfeld's The Original Macintosh (folklore.org)
- Steve Jobs at Steve Wozniak's woz.org
- 2011: "Steve Jobs: From Garage to World's Most Valuable Company." Computer History Museum
- 2005: Steve Jobs commencement speech at Stanford University
- 1995: Steve Jobs, Founder, NeXT Computer, excerpts from an Oral History Interview at Smithsonian Institution, April 20, 1995
- 1994: Steve Jobs in 1994: The Rolling Stone Interview in Rolling Stone
- 1990: Steve Jobs Archived December 16, 2014, at the Wayback Machine – memory and imagination "What a computer is to me is it's the most remarkable tool that we've ever come up with, and it's the equivalent of a bicycle for our minds"
- 1983: The "Lost" Steve Jobs Speech from 1983; Foreshadowing Wireless Networking, the iPad, and the App Store (audio clip)
History of Steve Jobs (Full Documentary) on YouTube