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Deity

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brahmán
Buda
Cubilete
Orisha
Ares
Jano
Itzamná e Ixchel
Kami
Examples of representations of deities in different cultures; clockwise from upper left: Hinduism, Buddhism, Yoruba, Egyptian, Maya, Shinto, Christianity, Graeco-Roman, and Inca

A deity or god is a supernatural being considered to have authority over some aspect of the universe and/or life, with many also being considered as sacred and worthy of worship.[1] It is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or to control some part of the universe or life, for which such a deity is often worshipped".[2] The Oxford Dictionary of English explains deity as being a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine.[3] While, C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater than those of ordinary humans, but who interacts with humans, positively or negatively, in ways that carry humans to new levels of consciousness, beyond the grounded preoccupations of ordinary life".[4] Belief in the existence of at least one deity, who may interact with the world, is called theism.[5]

Religions can be categorized by how many deities they worship. Monotheistic religions accept only one deity (predominantly referred to as "God"),[6][7] whereas polytheistic religions accept multiple deities.[8]Henotheistic religions accept one supreme deity without denying other deities, considering them as aspects of the same divine principle.[9][10]Nontheistic religions deny any supreme eternal creator deity, but may accept a pantheon of deities which live, die and may be reborn like any other being.[11]:35–37[12]:357–358

Aunque la mayoría de las religiones monoteístas tradicionalmente conciben a su dios como omnipotente , omnipresente , omnisciente , omnibenevolente y eterno , [ 13 ] [ 14 ] ninguna de estas cualidades es esencial para la definición de una "deidad" [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] y diversas culturas han conceptualizado a sus deidades de manera diferente. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Sin embargo, algunas formas filosóficas de monoteísmo o henoteísmo van un paso más allá e identifican precisamente a Dios con el Ser mismo como fundamento metafísico de los atributos anteriores. Las religiones monoteístas suelen referirse a su dios en términos masculinos, [ 18 ] [ 19 ] : 96 mientras que otras religiones se refieren a sus deidades de diversas maneras: masculinas, femeninas, hermafroditas o sin género. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] [ 22 ]

Muchas culturas —incluidas las de los antiguos mesopotámicos , egipcios , griegos , romanos y pueblos germánicos— han personificado fenómenos naturales , ya sea como causas o efectos deliberados. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Algunas deidades avésticas y védicas eran consideradas conceptos éticos. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] En las religiones indias , se ha concebido a las deidades manifestándose dentro del templo del cuerpo de cada ser vivo, como órganos sensoriales y mente. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 28 ] Se concibe a las deidades como una forma de existencia ( Saṃsāra ) después del renacimiento , para los seres humanos que obtienen mérito a través de una vida ética, donde se convierten en deidades guardianas y viven dichosamente en el cielo , pero también están sujetos a la muerte cuando pierden su mérito. [ 11 ] : 35–38 [ 12 ] : 356–359

Etimología

La palabra inglesa deity deriva del francés antiguo deité , [ 29 ] del latín deitatem (nominativo deitas ) o "naturaleza divina", acuñado por Agustín de Hipona a partir de deus ("dios"). Deus está relacionado a través de un origen protoindoeuropeo (PIE) común con *deiwos . [ 30 ] Esta raíz produce la antigua palabra india Deva que significa "brillar, uno brillante", de *div- "brillar", así como el griego dios " divino " y Zeus ; y el latín deus "dios" ( latín antiguo deivos ). [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] : 230–31 Deva es masculino, y el equivalente femenino relacionado es devi . [ 34 ] : 496 Etimológicamente, los cognados de Devi son el latín dea y el griego thea . [ 35 ] En persa antiguo , daiva- significa " demonio , dios maligno", [ 32 ] mientras que en sánscrito significa lo opuesto, refiriéndose a las "cosas celestiales, divinas y terrestres de alta excelencia, exaltadas y brillantes". [ 34 ] : 496 [ 36 ] [ 37 ]

El término estrechamente vinculado " dios " se refiere a "ser supremo, deidad", según Douglas Harper, [ 38 ] y deriva del protogermánico * guthan , del protoindoeuropeo * ghut- , que significa "aquello que es invocado". [ 33 ] : 230–231 Guth en el idioma irlandés significa "voz". El término * ghut- es también la fuente del antiguo eslavo eclesiástico zovo ("llamar"), sánscrito huta- ("invocado", un epíteto de Indra ), de la raíz * gheu(e)- ("llamar, invocar"), [ 38 ]

An alternate etymology for the term "god" comes from the Proto-Germanic Gaut, which traces it to the PIE root *ghu-to- ("poured"), derived from the root *gheu- ("to pour, pour a libation"). The term *gheu- is also the source of the Greek khein "to pour".[38] Originally the word "god" and its other Germanic cognates were neuter nouns but shifted to being generally masculine under the influence of Christianity in which the god is typically seen as male.[33]:230–231[38] In contrast, all ancient Indo-European cultures and mythologies recognized both masculine and feminine deities.[37]

Definitions

Pantheists believe that the universe itself and everything in it forms a single, all-encompassing deity.[39][40]

There is no universally accepted consensus on what a deity is, and concepts of deities vary considerably across cultures.[19]:69–74[41]Huw Owen states that the term "deity or god or its equivalent in other languages" has a bewildering range of meanings and significance.[42]:vii–ix It has ranged from "infinite transcendent being who created and lords over the universe" (God), to a "finite entity or experience, with special significance or which evokes a special feeling" (god), to "a concept in religious or philosophical context that relates to nature or magnified beings or a supra-mundane realm", to "numerous other usages".[42]:vii–ix

A deity is typically conceptualized as a supernatural or divine concept, manifesting in ideas and knowledge, in a form that combines excellence in some or all aspects, wrestling with weakness and questions in other aspects, heroic in outlook and actions, yet tied up with emotions and desires.[43][44] In other cases, the deity is a principle or reality such as the idea of "soul". The Upanishads of Hinduism, for example, characterize Atman (soul, self) as deva (deity), thereby asserting that the deva and eternal supreme principle (Brahman) is part of every living creature, that this soul is spiritual and divine, and that to realize self-knowledge is to know the supreme.[45][46][47]

Theism is the belief in the existence of one or more deities.[48][49]Polytheism is the belief in and worship of multiple deities,[50] which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, with accompanying rituals.[50] In most polytheistic religions, the different gods and goddesses are representations of forces of nature or ancestral principles, and can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects or emanations of a creator God or transcendentalabsolute principle (monistic theologies), which manifests immanently in nature.[50]Henotheism accepts the existence of more than one deity, but considers all deities as equivalent representations or aspects of the same divine principle, the highest.[10][51][9][52]Monolatry is the belief that many deities exist, but that only one of these deities may be validly worshipped.[53][54]

El monoteísmo es la creencia de que solo existe una deidad. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ] [ 60 ] [ 61 ] Una deidad monoteísta, conocida como "Dios", se describe generalmente como omnipotente , omnipresente , omnisciente , omnibenevolente y eterna . [ 62 ] Sin embargo, no todas las deidades han sido consideradas de esta manera [ 15 ] [ 17 ] [ 63 ] [ 64 ] y una entidad no necesita ser todopoderosa, omnipresente, omnisciente, omnibenevolente o eterna para calificar como una deidad. [ 15 ] [ 17 ] [ 63 ]

El deísmo es la creencia de que existe una sola deidad, que creó el universo, pero que generalmente no interviene en el mundo resultante. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] El deísmo fue particularmente popular entre los intelectuales occidentales durante los siglos XVIII y XIX. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] El panteísmo es la creencia de que el universo mismo es Dios [ 39 ] o que todo compone una deidad inmanente y omniabarcante . [ 40 ] El pandeísmo es una posición intermedia entre estas, que propone que el creador se convirtió en un universo panteísta. [ 70 ] El panenteísmo es la creencia de que la divinidad impregna el universo, pero que también lo trasciende . [ 71 ] El agnosticismo es la posición de que es imposible saber con certeza si existe una deidad de cualquier tipo. [ 72 ] [ 73 ] [ 74 ] El ateísmo es la no creencia en la existencia de cualquier deidad. [ 75 ]

Prehistórico

Estatuilla de una mujer desnuda, corpulenta y sentada, flanqueada por dos felinos , procedente de Çatalhöyük , que data de alrededor del 6000 a. C. y que la mayoría de los arqueólogos consideran que representa a una diosa de algún tipo [ 76 ] [ 77 ].

Scholars infer the probable existence of deities in the prehistoric period from inscriptions and prehistoric arts such as cave drawings, but it is unclear what these sketches and paintings are and why they were made.[78] Some engravings or sketches show animals, hunters or rituals.[79] It was once common for archaeologists to interpret virtually every prehistoric female figurine as a representation of a single, primordial goddess, the ancestor of historically attested goddesses such as Inanna, Ishtar, Astarte, Cybele, and Aphrodite;[80] this approach has now generally been discredited.[80] Modern archaeologists now generally recognize that it is impossible to conclusively identify any prehistoric figurines as representations of any kind of deities, let alone goddesses.[80] Nonetheless, it is possible to evaluate ancient representations on a case-by-case basis and rate them on how likely they are to represent deities.[80] The Venus of Willendorf, a female figurine found in Europe and dated to about 25,000 BCE has been interpreted by some as an exemplar of a prehistoric female deity.[79] A number of probable representations of deities have been discovered at 'Ain Ghazal[80] and the works of art uncovered at Çatalhöyük reveal references to what is probably a complex mythology.[80]

Religions and cultures

Sub-Saharan African

Yoruba deity from Nigeria

Diversas culturas africanas desarrollaron teología y conceptos de deidades a lo largo de su historia. En Nigeria y los países vecinos de África Occidental , por ejemplo, dos deidades prominentes (llamadas localmente Òrìṣà ) [ 81 ] se encuentran en la religión yoruba , a saber, el dios Ogun y la diosa Osun . [ 81 ] Ogun es la deidad masculina primordial, así como la archidivinidad y guardián de ocupaciones como la fabricación y el uso de herramientas, la metalurgia, la caza, la guerra, la protección y la determinación de la equidad y la justicia. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Osun es una deidad femenina primordial igualmente poderosa y una guardiana multidimensional de la fertilidad, el agua, la maternidad, la salud, las relaciones sociales, el amor y la paz. [ 81 ] Las tradiciones de Ogun y Osun fueron traídas a América en barcos de esclavos . Fueron preservadas por los africanos en sus comunidades de plantaciones, y sus festivales continúan celebrándose. [ 81 ] [ 82 ]

En las culturas del sur de África , una combinación similar de deidades masculinas y femeninas ha aparecido en otras formas, particularmente como las deidades de la Luna y el Sol. [ 84 ] Una cosmología del sur de África consiste en Hieseba o Xuba (deidad, dios), Gaune (espíritus malignos) y Khuene (personas). El Hieseba incluye a Nladiba (masculino, dios creador del cielo) y Nladisara (femeninas, las dos esposas de Nladiba). Las deidades del Sol (femenina) y la Luna (masculina) son vistas como descendientes de Nladiba y dos Nladisara . El Sol y la Luna son vistos como manifestaciones de la deidad suprema, y ​​el culto está programado y dirigido a ellos. [ 85 ] En otras culturas africanas, el Sol es visto como masculino, mientras que la Luna es femenina, ambos símbolos de la divinidad. [ 86 ] : 199–120 En Zimbabue , la deidad suprema es andrógina con aspectos masculinos y femeninos, concebida como la dadora de lluvia, tratada simultáneamente como el dios de la oscuridad y la luz, y se llama Mwari Shona . [ 86 ] : 89 En la región del lago Victoria , el término para una deidad es Lubaale , o alternativamente Jok . [ 87 ]

Antiguo Cercano Oriente

egipcio

Pintura de una tumba egipcia que muestra a los dioses Osiris , Anubis y Horus , que se encuentran entre las principales deidades de la antigua religión egipcia [ 88 ].

La antigua cultura egipcia veneraba a numerosas deidades. Los registros e inscripciones egipcias enumeran los nombres de muchas cuya naturaleza se desconoce y hacen referencias vagas a otras deidades sin nombre. [ 89 ] : 73 El egiptólogo James P. Allen estima que más de 1400 deidades se nombran en los textos egipcios, [ 90 ] mientras que Christian Leitz ofrece una estimación de "miles y miles" de deidades egipcias. [ 91 ] : 393–394 Sus términos para las deidades eran nṯr (dios) y femenino nṯrt (diosa); [ 92 ] : 42 sin embargo, estos términos también podrían haberse aplicado a cualquier ser —espíritus y seres humanos fallecidos, pero no demonios— que de alguna manera estuvieran fuera de la esfera de la vida cotidiana. [ 93 ] : 216 [ 92 ] : 62 Las deidades egipcias típicamente tenían un culto, un rol y mitologías asociados. [ 93 ] : 7–8, 83

Alrededor de 200 deidades son prominentes en los textos de las pirámides y los templos antiguos de Egipto, muchas zoomórficas . Entre ellas, estaban Min (dios de la fertilidad), Neith (diosa creadora), Anubis , Atum , Bes , Horus , Isis , Ra , Meretseger , Nut , Osiris , Shu , Sia y Thoth . [ 88 ] : 11–12 La mayoría de las deidades egipcias representaban fenómenos naturales, objetos físicos o aspectos sociales de la vida, como fuerzas inmanentes ocultas dentro de estos fenómenos. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] La deidad Shu , por ejemplo, representaba el aire; la diosa Meretseger representaba partes de la tierra, y el dios Sia representaba los poderes abstractos de la percepción. [ 96 ] : 91, 147 Deidades como Ra y Osiris estaban asociadas con el juicio de los muertos y su cuidado durante la vida después de la muerte. [ 88 ] : 26–28 Los dioses principales a menudo tenían múltiples funciones y estaban involucrados en múltiples fenómenos. [ 96 ] : 85–86

Las primeras evidencias escritas de deidades datan de principios del tercer milenio a. C., probablemente derivadas de creencias prehistóricas. [ 97 ] Sin embargo, las deidades se sistematizaron y sofisticaron tras la formación del estado egipcio bajo los faraones y su tratamiento como reyes sagrados con derechos exclusivos para interactuar con los dioses, en la última parte del tercer milenio a. C. [ 98 ] [ 89 ] : 12–15 Durante los primeros siglos de la era común, a medida que los egipcios interactuaban y comerciaban con culturas vecinas, se adoptaron y veneraron deidades extranjeras. [ 99 ] [ 91 ] : 160

levantino

La moneda del Dios en la Rueda Alada , una moneda de dracma (cuarto de siclo ) del siglo IV a. C. del Imperio Aqueménida , que posiblemente representa a Yahvé sentado en un trono solar alado y con ruedas.

The ancient Canaanites were polytheists who believed in a pantheon of deities,[100][101][102] the chief of whom was the god El, who ruled alongside his consort Asherah and their seventy sons.[100]:22–24[101][102]Baal was the god of storm, rain, vegetation and fertility,[100]:68–127 while his consort Anat was the goddess of war[100]:131,137–139 and Astarte, the West Semitic equivalent to Ishtar, was the goddess of love.[100]:146–149 The people of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah originally believed in these deities,[100][102][103] alongside their own national god Yahweh.[104][105] El later became syncretized with Yahweh, who took over El's role as the head of the pantheon,[100]:13–17 with Asherah as his divine consort[106]:45[100]:146 and the "sons of El" as his offspring.[100]:22–24 During the later years of the Kingdom of Judah, a monolatristic faction rose to power insisting that only Yahweh was fit to be worshipped by the people of Judah.[100]:229–233 Monolatry became enforced during the reforms of King Josiah in 621 BCE.[100]:229 Finally, during the national crisis of the Babylonian captivity, some Judahites began to teach that deities aside from Yahweh were not just unfit to be worshipped, but did not exist.[107][42]:4 The "sons of El" were demoted from deities to angels.[100]:22

Mesopotamian

Akkadian cylinder seal impression showing Inanna, the Sumerian goddess of love, sex, and war
Wall relief of the Assyrian national god Aššur in a "winged male" hybrid iconography

Ancient Mesopotamian culture in southern Iraq had numerous dingir (deities, gods and goddesses).[19]:69–74[41] Mesopotamian deities were almost exclusively anthropomorphic.[108]:93[19]:69–74[109] They were thought to possess extraordinary powers[108]:93 and were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size.[108]:93 They were generally immortal,[108]:93 but a few of them, particularly Dumuzid, Geshtinanna, and Gugalanna were said to have either died or visited the underworld.[108]:93 Both male and female deities were widely venerated.[108]:93

In the Sumerian pantheon, deities had multiple functions, which included presiding over procreation, rains, irrigation, agriculture, destiny, and justice.[19]:69–74 The gods were fed, clothed, entertained, and worshipped to prevent natural catastrophes as well as to prevent social chaos such as pillaging, rape, or atrocities.[19]:69–74[110]:186[108]:93 Many of the Sumerian deities were patron guardians of city-states.[110]

The most important deities in the Sumerian pantheon were known as the Anunnaki,[111] and included deities known as the "seven gods who decree": An, Enlil, Enki, Ninhursag, Nanna, Utu and Inanna.[111] After the conquest of Sumer by Sargon of Akkad, many Sumerian deities were syncretized with East Semitic ones.[110] The goddess Inanna, syncretized with the East Semitic Ishtar, became popular,[112][113]:xviii,xv[110]:182[108]:106–09 with temples across Mesopotamia.[114][108]:106–09

The Mesopotamian mythology of the first millennium BCE treated Anšar (later Aššur) and Kišar as primordial deities.[115]Marduk was a significant god among the Babylonians. He rose from an obscure deity of the third millennium BCE to become one of the most important deities in the Mesopotamian pantheon of the first millennium BCE. The Babylonians worshipped Marduk as creator of heaven, earth and humankind, and as their national god.[19]:62,73[116] Marduk's iconography is zoomorphic and is most often found in Middle Eastern archaeological remains depicted as a "snake-dragon" or a "human-animal hybrid".[117][118][119]

Indo-European

Germanic

The Kirkby Stephen Stone, discovered in Kirkby Stephen, England, depicts a bound figure, who some have theorized may be the Germanic god Loki.

In Germanic languages, the terms cognate with 'god' such as Old English: god and Old Norse: guð were originally neuter but became masculine, as in modern Germanic languages, after Christianisation due their use in referring to the Christian god.[120]

In Norse mythology, Æsir (singular áss or ǫ́ss) are the principal group of gods,[121] while the term ásynjur (singular ásynja) refers specifically to the female Æsir.[122] These terms, states John Lindow, may be ultimately rooted in the Indo-European root for "breath" (as in "life giving force"), and are cognate with Old English: os (a heathen god) and Gothic: anses.[123]:49–50

Another group of deities found in Norse mythology are termed as Vanir, and are associated with fertility. The Æsir and the Vanirwent to war, according to the Nordic sources. The account in Ynglinga saga describes the Æsir–Vanir War ending in truce and ultimate reconciliation of the two into a single group of gods, after both sides chose peace, exchanged ambassadors (hostages),[124]:181 and intermarried.[123]:52–53[125]

The Norse mythology describes the cooperation after the war, as well as differences between the Æsir and the Vanir which were considered scandalous by the other side.[124]:181 The goddess Freyja of the Vanir taught magic to the Æsir, while the two sides discover that while Æsir forbid mating between siblings, Vanir accepted such mating.[124]:181[126][127]

Los templos que albergaban imágenes de dioses germánicos (como Thor , Odín y Freyr ), así como los rituales de culto pagano, continuaron en Escandinavia hasta el siglo XII, según los registros históricos. Se ha propuesto que, con el tiempo, se sustituyeron las deidades germánicas por equivalentes cristianos para ayudar a suprimir el paganismo como parte de la cristianización de los pueblos germánicos . [ 124 ] : 187–188 El culto a los dioses germánicos se ha revivido en la época moderna como parte del nuevo movimiento religioso del paganismo . [ 128 ]

Griego

Zeus , el rey de los dioses en la religión griega antigua , representado en un estátero de oro de Lampsaco ( c. 360-340 a. C.).
Placa corintia de figuras negras de Poseidón , el dios griego de los mares ( c. 550-525 a. C.)
Cílix ático de figuras rojas sobre fondo blanco que representa a Afrodita , la diosa griega del amor, montada en un cisne ( c. 46–470 a. C.).
Busto de Atenea , la diosa griega de la sabiduría, copia de una estatua votiva de Cresilao en Atenas ( c. 425 a. C.).

Los antiguos griegos veneraban tanto a dioses como a diosas. [ 129 ] Estos continuaron siendo venerados durante los primeros siglos de la era común, y muchas de las deidades griegas inspiraron y fueron adoptadas como parte de un panteón mucho más amplio de deidades romanas. [ 130 ] : 91–97 La religión griega era politeísta, pero no tenía una iglesia centralizada ni textos sagrados. [ 130 ] : 91–97 Las deidades estaban asociadas en gran medida con mitos y representaban fenómenos naturales o aspectos del comportamiento humano. [ 129 ] [ 130 ] : 91–97

Several Greek deities probably trace back to more ancient Indo-European traditions, since the gods and goddesses found in distant cultures are mythologically comparable and are cognates.[33]:230–231[131]:15–19Eos, the Greek goddess of the dawn, for instance, is cognate to Indic Ushas, Roman Aurora and Latvian Auseklis.[33]:230–232Zeus, the Greek king of gods, is cognate to Latin Iūpiter, Old German Ziu, and Indic Dyaus, with whom he shares similar mythologies.[33]:230–232[132] Other deities, such as Aphrodite, originated from the Near East.[133][134][135][136]

Greek deities varied locally, but many shared panhellenic themes, celebrated similar festivals, rites, and ritual grammar.[137] The most important deities in the Greek pantheon were the Twelve Olympians: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Hermes, Demeter, Dionysus, Hephaestus, and Ares.[131]:125–170 Other important Greek deities included Hestia, Hades and Heracles.[130]:96–97 These deities later inspired the Dii Consentes galaxy of Roman deities.[130]:96–97

Besides the Olympians, the Greeks also worshipped various local deities.[131]:170–181[138] Among these were the goat-legged god Pan (the guardian of shepherds and their flocks), Nymphs (nature spirits associated with particular landforms), Naiads (who dwelled in springs), Dryads (who were spirits of the trees), Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods, satyrs (a class of lustful male nature spirits), and others. The dark powers of the underworld were represented by the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives.[138]

The Greek deities, like those in many other Indo-European traditions, were anthropomorphic. Walter Burkert describes them as "persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts".[131]:182 They had fantastic abilities and powers; each had some unique expertise and, in some aspects, a specific and flawed personality.[139]:52 They were not omnipotent and could be injured in some circumstances.[140] Greek deities led to cults, were used politically and inspired votive offerings for favors such as bountiful crops, healthy family, victory in war, or peace for a loved one recently deceased.[130]:94–95[141]

Roman

4th-century Roman sarcophagus depicting the creation of man by Prometheus, with major Roman deities Jupiter, Neptune, Mercury, Juno, Apollo, Vulcan watching

El panteón romano tenía numerosas deidades, tanto griegas como no griegas. [ 130 ] : 96–97 Las deidades más famosas, que se encuentran en las mitologías y las artes europeas del segundo milenio d. C., han sido las deidades antropomórficas sincretizadas con las deidades griegas. Estas incluyen a los seis dioses y seis diosas: Venus, Apolo, Marte, Diana, Minerva, Ceres, Vulcano, Juno, Mercurio, Vesta, Neptuno, Júpiter (Jove, Zeus); así como Baco, Plutón y Hércules. [ 130 ] : 96–97 [ 142 ] Las principales deidades no griegas incluyen a Jano, Fortuna, Vesta, Quirino y Tellus (diosa madre, probablemente la más antigua). [ 130 ] : 96–97 [ 143 ] Algunas de las deidades no griegas probablemente tuvieron orígenes en culturas europeas más antiguas, como la antigua religión germánica, mientras que otras pudieron haber sido tomadas prestadas, por razones políticas, de centros comerciales vecinos, como los de la civilización minoica o del antiguo Egipto . [ 144 ] [ 145 ] [ 146 ]

Las deidades romanas, de manera similar a los antiguos griegos, inspiraban festivales comunitarios, rituales y sacrificios dirigidos por flamines (sacerdotes, pontífices), pero las sacerdotisas (vírgenes vestales) también eran muy respetadas por mantener el fuego sagrado utilizado en los rituales votivos para las deidades. [ 130 ] : 100–101 Las deidades también se mantenían en santuarios domésticos ( larario ), como Hestia, honrada en los hogares como la diosa del fuego del hogar. [ 130 ] : 100–101 [ 147 ] Esta religión romana tenía reverencia por el fuego sagrado, y esto también se encuentra en la cultura hebrea (Levítico 6), el Homa de la cultura védica, los antiguos griegos y otras culturas. [ 147 ]

Eruditos romanos antiguos como Varrón y Cicerón escribieron tratados sobre la naturaleza de los dioses de su época. [ 148 ] Varrón afirmó, en sus Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum , que es el hombre supersticioso quien teme a los dioses, mientras que la persona verdaderamente religiosa los venera como padres. [ 148 ] Cicerón, en sus Academica , elogió a Varrón por esta y otras ideas. [ 148 ] Según Varrón, existían tres concepciones de las deidades en la sociedad romana: la mítica, creada por los poetas para el teatro y el entretenimiento; la civil, utilizada por el pueblo para la veneración y por la ciudad; y la natural, creada por los filósofos. [ 149 ] El estado óptimo, añade Varrón, es aquel en el que la teología civil combina la concepción mítica poética con la filosófica. [ 149 ] Las deidades romanas continuaron siendo veneradas en Europa durante la época de Constantino y después del año 313 d. C., cuando promulgó el Edicto de Tolerancia. [ 139 ] : 118–120

nativo americano

Inca

El Inti Raymi, una fiesta del solsticio de invierno del pueblo inca, venera a Inti , la deidad del sol; entre las ofrendas se incluyen pan redondo y cerveza de maíz.

La cultura inca ha creído en Viracocha (también llamado Pachacutec ) como la deidad creadora . [ 150 ] : 27–30 [ 151 ] : 726–729 Viracocha ha sido una deidad abstracta para la cultura inca, una que existía antes de crear el espacio y el tiempo. [ 152 ] Todas las demás deidades del pueblo inca han correspondido a elementos de la naturaleza. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] : 726–729 De estas, las más importantes han sido Inti ( deidad del sol ) responsable de la prosperidad agrícola y como padre del primer rey inca, y Mama Qucha la diosa del mar, los lagos, los ríos y las aguas. [ 150 ] En algunas mitologías, Inti es hijo de Viracocha y Mama Qucha . [ 150 ] [ 153 ]

Festival del dios Sol Inca

Oh creador, Sol y Trueno, sé siempre abundante, no nos hagas envejecer, que haya paz en todas las cosas, multiplica el pueblo, que haya alimento y que todo sea fructífero.

—Inti Raymi prayers[154]

Inca people have revered many male and female deities. Among the feminine deities have been Mama Kuka (goddess of joy), Mama Ch'aska (goddess of dawn), Mama Allpa (goddess of harvest and earth, sometimes called Mama Pacha or Pachamama), Mama Killa (moon goddess) and Mama Sara (goddess of grain).[153][150]:31–32 During and after the imposition of Christianity during Spanish colonialism, the Inca people retained their original beliefs in deities through syncretism, where they overlay the Christian God and teachings over their original beliefs and practices.[155][156][157] The male deity Inti became accepted as the Christian God, but the Andean rituals centered around Inca deities have been retained and continued thereafter into the modern era by the Inca people.[157][158]

Maya and Aztec

In Maya culture, Kukulkan has been the supreme creator deity, also revered as the god of reincarnation, water, fertility and wind.[151]:797–798 The Maya people built step pyramid temples to honor Kukulkan, aligning them to the Sun's position on the spring equinox.[151]:843–844 Other deities found at Maya archaeological sites include Xib Chac—the benevolent male rain deity, and Ixchel—the benevolent female earth, weaving and pregnancy goddess.[151]:843–844 The Maya calendar had 18 months, each with 20 days (and five unlucky days of Uayeb); each month had a presiding deity, who inspired social rituals, special trading markets and community festivals.[158]

Quetzalcoatl in the Codex Borgia

A deity with aspects similar to Kulkulkan in the Aztec culture has been called Quetzalcoatl.[151]:797–798 However, states Timothy Insoll, the Aztec ideas of deity remain poorly understood. What has been assumed is based on what was constructed by Christian missionaries. The deity concept was likely more complex than these historical records.[159] In Aztec culture, there were hundred of deities, but many were henotheistic incarnations of one another (similar to the avatar concept of Hinduism). Unlike Hinduism and other cultures, Aztec deities were usually not anthropomorphic, and were instead zoomorphic or hybrid icons associated with spirits, natural phenomena or forces.[159][160] The Aztec deities were often represented through ceramic figurines, revered in home shrines.[159][161]

Polynesian

Deities of Polynesia carved from wood (bottom two are demons)

The Polynesian people developed a theology centered on numerous deities, with clusters of islands having different names for the same idea. There are great deities found across the Pacific Ocean. Some deities are found widely, and there are many local deities whose worship is limited to one or a few islands or sometimes to isolated villages on the same island.[162]:5–6

The Māori people, of what is now New Zealand, called the supreme being as Io, who is also referred elsewhere as Iho-Iho, Io-Mataaho, Io Nui, Te Io Ora, Io Matua Te Kora among other names.[163]:239 The Io deity has been revered as the original uncreated creator, with power of life, with nothing outside or beyond him.[163]:239Other deities in the Polynesian pantheon include Tangaloa (god who created men),[162]:37–38La'a Maomao (god of winds), Tu-Matauenga or Ku (god of war), Tu-Metua (mother goddess), Kane (god of procreation) and Rangi (sky god father).[163]:261,284,399,476

The Polynesian deities have been part of a sophisticated theology, addressing questions of creation, the nature of existence, guardians in daily lives as well as during wars, natural phenomena, good and evil spirits, priestly rituals, as well as linked to the journey of the souls of the dead.[162]:6–14,37–38,113,323

Abrahamic

Christianity

Holy Trinity (1756–1758) by Szymon Czechowicz, showing God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit, all of whom are revered in Christianity as a single deity

Christianity is a monotheistic religion in which most mainstream congregations and denominations accept the concept of the Holy Trinity.[164]:233–234 Modern orthodox Christians believe that the Trinity is composed of three equal, cosubstantial persons: God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit.[164]:233–234 The first person to describe the persons of the Trinity as homooúsios (ὁμοούσιος; "of the same substance") was the Church Father Origen.[165] Although most early Christian theologians (including Origen) were Subordinationists,[166] who believed that the Father was superior to the Son and the Son superior to the Holy Spirit,[165][167][168] this belief was condemned as heretical by the First Council of Nicaea in the fourth century, which declared that all three persons of the Trinity are equal.[166] Christians regard the universe as an element in God's actualization[164]:273 and the Holy Spirit is seen as the divine essence that is "the unity and relation of the Father and the Son".[164]:273 According to George Hunsinger, the doctrine of the Trinity justifies worship in a Church, wherein Jesus Christ is deemed to be a full deity with the Christian cross as his icon.[164]:296

The theological examination of Jesus Christ, of divine grace in incarnation, his non-transferability and completeness has been a historic topic. For example, the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE declared that in "one person Jesus Christ, fullness of deity and fullness of humanity are united, the union of the natures being such that they can neither be divided nor confused".[169] Jesus Christ, according to the New Testament, is the self-disclosure of the one, true God, both in his teaching and in his person; Christ, in Christian faith, is considered the incarnation of God.[42]:4,29[170][171]

Islam

Ilah, ʾIlāh (Arabic: إله; plural: آلهةʾālihah), is an Arabic word meaning "god".[172][173] It appears in the name of the monotheistic god of Islam as Allah (al-Lāh).[174][175][176] which literally means "the god" in Arabic.[172][173] Islam is strictly monotheistic[177] and the first statement of the shahada, or Muslim confession of faith, is that "there is no ʾilāh (deity) but Allah (God)",[178] who is perfectly unified and utterly indivisible.[177][178][179]

The term Allah is used by Muslims for God. The Persian word Khuda (Persian: خدا) can be translated as god, lord or king, and is also used today to refer to God in Islam by Persian, Urdu, Tat and Kurdish speakers. The Turkic word for god is Tengri; it exists as Tanrı in Turkish.

Judaism

The tetragrammaton in Phoenician (12th century BCE to 150 BCE), Paleo-Hebrew (10th century BCE to 135 CE), and square Hebrew (3rd century BCE to present) scripts

Judaism affirms the existence of one God (Yahweh, or YHWH), who is not abstract, but He who revealed himself throughout Jewish history particularly during the Exodus and the Exile.[42]:4 Judaism reflects a monotheism that gradually arose, was affirmed with certainty in the sixth century "Second Isaiah", and has ever since been the axiomatic basis of its theology.[42]:4

The classical presentation of Judaism has been as a monotheistic faith that rejected deities and related idolatry.[180] However, states Breslauer, modern scholarship suggests that idolatry was not absent in biblical faith, and it resurfaced multiple times in Jewish religious life.[180] The rabbinic texts and other secondary Jewish literature suggest worship of material objects and natural phenomena through the medieval era, while the core teachings of Judaism maintained monotheism.[180][181]

According to Aryeh Kaplan, God is always referred to as "He" in Judaism, "not to imply that the concept of sex or gender applies to God", but because "there is no neuter in the Hebrew language, and the Hebrew word for God is a masculine noun" as he "is an active rather than a passive creative force".[182]

Mandaeism

In Mandaeism, Hayyi Rabbi (lit=The Great Life), or 'The Great Living God',[183] is the supreme God from which all things emanate. He is also known as 'The First Life', since during the creation of the material world, Yushamin emanated from Hayyi Rabbi as the "Second Life."[184] "The principles of the Mandaean doctrine: the belief of the only one great God, Hayyi Rabbi, to whom all absolute properties belong; He created all the worlds, formed the soul through his power, and placed it by means of angels into the human body. So He created Adam and Eve, the first man and woman."[185] Mandaeans recognize God to be the eternal, creator of all, the one and only in domination who has no partner.[186]

Asian

Anitism

Left: Bakunawa depicted in a Bisaya sword hilt; Right: Ifugao rice deity statues

Anitism, composed of an array of indigenous religions from the Philippines, has multiple pantheons of deities. There are more than a hundred different ethnic groups in the Philippines, each having their own supreme deity or deities. Each supreme deity or deities normally rules over a pantheon of deities, contributing to the sheer diversity of deities in Anitism.[187]The supreme deity or deities of ethnic groups are almost always the most notable.[187]

For example, Bathala is the Tagalog supreme deity,[188] Mangechay is the Kapampangan supreme deity,[189]Malayari is the Sambal supreme deity,[190] Melu is the Blaan supreme deity,[191] Kaptan is the Bisaya supreme deity,[192] and so on.

Buddhism

Left: Buddhist deity in Ssangbongsa in South Korea; Right: Chinese deity adopted into Buddhism

Although Buddhists do not believe in a creator deity,[193] deities are an essential part of Buddhist teachings about cosmology, rebirth, and saṃsāra.[193] Buddhist deities (such as devas and bodhisattvas) are believed to reside in a pleasant, heavenly realm within Buddhist cosmology, which is typically subdivided into twenty six sub-realms.[194][193][11]:35

Devas are numerous, but they are still mortal;[194] they live in the heavenly realm, then die and are reborn like all other beings.[194] A rebirth in the heavenly realm is believed to be the result of leading an ethical life and accumulating very good karma.[194] A deva does not need to work, and is able to enjoy in the heavenly realm all pleasures found on Earth. However, the pleasures of this realm lead to attachment (upādāna), lack of spiritual pursuits, and therefore no nirvana.[11]:37 Nonetheless, according to Kevin Trainor, the vast majority of Buddhist lay people in countries practicing Theravada have historically pursued Buddhist rituals and practices because they are motivated by their potential rebirth into the deva realm.[194][195][196] The deva realm in Buddhist practice in Southeast Asia and East Asia, states Keown, include gods found in Hindu traditions such as Indra and Brahma, and concepts in Hindu cosmology such as Mount Meru.[11]:37–38

Mahayana Buddhism also includes different kinds of deities, such as numerous Buddhas, bodhisattvas and fierce deities.

Hinduism

Left: Ganesha god of new beginnings, remover of obstacle; Right: Saraswati, goddess of knowledge and music

The concept of God varies in Hinduism, it being a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism and monism among others.[197][198]

In the ancient Vedic texts of Hinduism, a deity is often referred to as Deva (god) or Devi (goddess).[34]:496[36] The root of these terms mean "heavenly, divine, anything of excellence".[34]:492[36] Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi. In the earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called Asuras.[199]:5–11,22,99–102[34]:121 Over time, those with a benevolent nature become deities and are referred to as Sura, Deva or Devi.[199]:2–6[200]

Devas or deities in Hindu texts differ from Greek or Roman theodicy, states Ray Billington, because many Hindu traditions believe that a human being has the potential to be reborn as a deva (or devi), by living an ethical life and building up saintly karma.[201] Such a deva enjoys heavenly bliss, till the merit runs out, and then the soul is reborn again into Saṃsāra. Thus deities are henotheistic manifestations, embodiments and consequence of the virtuous, the noble, the saint-like living in many Hindu traditions.[201]

Musok

Musok is a folk polytheistic religion in Korea, involving the veneration of many deities known as Sillyeong (Korean: 신령;Hanja: 神靈). Sillyeong are supernatural being possessing divine power.[202][203] They are generally invisible to the human eye but are said to occasionally appear in the form of humans or natural objects.[202] These entities—which include nature spirits, heroes, and deified ancestors—are central to Korean shamanism and are summoned by mudangs during rituals known as Gut. The pantheon of sillyeongs, which has changed over time,[204] is termed sindang (신당;神堂;lit. 'Divine Shrine'),[205] with over 130 sillyeongs having been identified.[204]

Shinto

Shinto is polytheistic, involving the veneration of many deities known as kami,[206] or sometimes as jingi.[207] In Japanese, no distinction is made here between singular and plural, and hence the term kami refers both to individual kami and the collective group of kami.[208] Although lacking a direct English translation,[209] the term kami has sometimes been rendered as "god" or "spirit".[210] The historian of religion Joseph Kitagawa deemed these English translations "quite unsatisfactory and misleading",[211] and various scholars urge against translating kami into English.[212] In Japanese, it is often said that there are eight millionkami, a term which connotes an infinite number,[213] and Shinto practitioners believe that they are present everywhere.[214] They are not regarded as omnipotent, omniscient, or necessarily immortal.[215]

Taoism

Taoism is a polytheistic religion. The gods and immortals（神仙） believed in by Taoism can be roughly divided into two categories, namely "gods" and "xian" (immortals). Among them,"Gods" are also called deities and there are many kinds, that is, god of heaven（天神), god of ground（地祇), wuling（物灵: animism, the spirit of all things), god of netherworld（地府神灵), god of human body（人体之神), god of human ghost（人鬼之神）etc. Among these "gods" such as god of heaven（天神), god of ground（地祇), god of netherworld（阴府神灵), god of human body（人体之神） are innate beings.In China, "gods" are often referred to together with "xian". "Xian" (immortals) is acquired the cultivation of the Tao，persons with vast supernatural powers, unpredictable changes and immortality.[216]

Jainism

Padmavati, a Jain guardian deity

Jainism does not believe in a creator, omnipotent, omniscient, eternal God; however, the cosmology of Jainism incorporates a meaningful causality-driven reality, including four realms of existence (gati), one of them being deva (celestial beings, gods).[12]:351–357 A human being can choose and live an ethical life, such as being non-violent (ahimsa) against all living beings, and thereby gain merit and be reborn as deva.[12]:357–358[217]

Jain texts reject a trans-cosmic God, one who stands outside of the universe and lords over it, but they state that the world is full of devas who are in human-image with sensory organs, with the power of reason, conscious, compassionate and with finite life.[12]:356–357 Jainism believes in the existence of the soul (Self, atman) and considers it to have "god-quality", whose knowledge and liberation is the ultimate spiritual goal in both religions. Jains also believe that the spiritual nobleness of perfected souls (Jina) and devas make them worship-worthy beings, with powers of guardianship and guidance to better karma. In Jain temples or festivals, the Jinas and Devas are revered.[12]:356–357[218]

Zoroastrianism

Investiture of Sassanid emperor Shapur II (center) with Mithra (left) and Ahura Mazda (right) at Taq-e Bostan, Iran

Ahura Mazda (/əˌhʊrəˌmæzdə/);[219] is the Avestan name for the creator and sole God of Zoroastrianism.[220] The literal meaning of the word Ahura is "mighty" or "lord" and Mazda is wisdom.[220]Zoroaster, the founder of Zoroastrianism, taught that Ahura Mazda is the most powerful being in all of the existence[221] and the only deity who is worthy of the highest veneration.[221] Nonetheless, Ahura Mazda is not omnipotent because his evil twin brother Angra Mainyu is nearly as powerful as him.[221] Zoroaster taught that the daevas were evil spirits created by Angra Mainyu to sow evil in the world[221] and that all people must choose between the goodness of Ahura Mazda and the evil of Angra Mainyu.[221] According to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda will eventually defeat Angra Mainyu and good will triumph over evil once and for all.[221] Ahura Mazda was the most important deity in the ancient Achaemenid Empire.[222] He was originally represented anthropomorphically,[220] but, by the end of the Sasanian Empire, Zoroastrianism had become fully aniconic.[220]

Local, regional, and universal deities

A deity may originate as a local deity, whose realm or influence applies to a specific geographic place.[a] Some local deities may become or merge with trans-regional deities[b] or even universal ones. Within the Ancient Greek context, Pan started as a local Arcadian deity whose influence spread.[224] The Roman Empire adopted many regional deities[225] from places such as Greece (Apollo, for example), Asia (Cybele, Mithras) and Egypt (Isis, Serapis) in the process of building a multi-ethnic polity. The Romans spread the worship of several non-Roman deities and syncretised some of their features. Roman authorities eventually favoured Yahweh, first associated with a mountain in northwestern Arabia.[226] prior to his becoming a tribal deity of the peripatetic Hebrews[c] and thus eventually the supreme god of Christianity.

Skeptical interpretations

The Greek philosopher Democritus argued that belief in deities arose when humans observed natural phenomena such as lightning and attributed such phenomena to supernatural beings.

Attempts to rationally explain belief in deities extend at least as far back as Ancient Greece.[131]:311–317 The Greek philosopher Democritus argued that the concept of deities arose when human beings observed natural phenomena such as lightning, solar eclipses, and the changing of the seasons.[131]:311–317 Later, in the third century BCE, the scholar Euhemerus argued in his book Sacred History that the gods were originally flesh-and-blood mortal kings, posthumously deified, and that religion was therefore the continuation of these kings' mortal reigns, a view now known as Euhemerism.[228]Sigmund Freud suggested that God-concepts are a projection of one's father.[229]

A tendency to believe in deities and other supernatural beings may be an integral part of human consciousness.[230][231][232][233]:2–11 Children are naturally inclined to believe in supernatural entities such as gods, spirits, and demons, even without being introduced into a particular religious tradition.[233]:2–11 Humans have an overactive agency-detection system,[230][234][233]:25–27 which has a tendency to conclude that events are caused by intelligent entities, even if they really are not.[230][234] This is a system which may have evolved to cope with threats to the survival of human ancestors:[230] in the wild, a person who perceived intelligent and potentially dangerous beings everywhere was more likely to survive than a person who failed to perceive actual threats, such as wild animals or human enemies.[230][233]:2–11 Humans are also inclined to think teleologically and to ascribe meaning and significance to their surroundings, traits which may lead people to believe in a creator-deity.[235] This may have developed as a side-effect of human social intelligence, the ability to discern what other people are thinking.[235]

Stories of encounters with supernatural beings are especially likely to be retold, passed on, and embellished due to their descriptions of standard ontological categories (person, artifact, animal, plant, natural object) with counterintuitive properties (humans that are invisible, houses that remember what happened in them, etc.).[236] As belief in deities spread, humans may have attributed anthropomorphic thought-processes to them,[237] leading to the idea of leaving offerings to the gods and praying to them for assistance,[237] ideas which are seen in all cultures around the world.[230]

Sociologists of religion have proposed that the personality and characteristics of deities may reflect a culture's sense of self-esteem and that a culture projects its revered values into deities and in spiritual terms. The cherished, desired or sought human personality is congruent with the personality it defines to be gods.[229] Lonely and fearful societies tend to invent wrathful, violent, submission-seeking deities, while happier and secure societies tend to invent loving, non-violent, compassionate deities.[229]Émile Durkheim states that gods represent an extension of human social life to include supernatural beings. According to Matt Rossano, God-concepts may be a means of enforcing morality and building more cooperative community-groups.[238]

  1. ↑ Compare the role of a genius loci.
  2. ↑ Koppen analyzes "mediative elevation" as a tactic by which local religious authorities may "merge an important local deity and a chosen minor transregional deity". [223]
  3. ↑ Yahweh's sphere of influence expanded: in the Book of Jonah, the prophet tries (unsuccessfully) to remove himself from the perceived divine domain in the Levant to a far-off land – "to flee unto Tarshish from the presence of the LORD".[227]

See also

References

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  2. ↑
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  4. ↑Littleton, C. Scott (2005). Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology. New York: Marshall Cavendish. p. 378. ISBN 978-0-7614-7559-0. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
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  6. ↑Becking, Bob; Dijkstra, Meindert; Korpel, Marjo; Vriezen, Karel (2001). Only One God?: Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Veneration of the Goddess Asherah. London: New York. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-567-23212-0. Retrieved 28 June 2017. The Christian tradition is, in imitation of Judaism, a monotheistic religion. This implies that believers accept the existence of only one God. Other deities either do not exist, are considered inferior, are seen as the product of human imagination, or are dismissed as remnants of a persistent paganism
  7. ↑Korte, Anne-Marie; Haardt, Maaike De (2009). The Boundaries of Monotheism: Interdisciplinary Explorations Into the Foundations of Western Monotheism. Brill. p. 9. ISBN 978-90-04-17316-3. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
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  9. 12Taliaferro, Charles; Harrison, Victoria S.; Goetz, Stewart (2012). The Routledge Companion to Theism. Routledge. pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-1-136-33823-6. Archived from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
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  44. ↑Gupta, Bina (2012). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom. Taylor & Francis. pp. 88–96. ISBN 978-1-136-65309-4.
  45. ↑Cohen, Signe (2008). Text and Authority in the Older Upaniṣads. Brill. pp. 40, 219–220, 243–244. ISBN 978-90-474-3363-7.
  46. ↑Fowler, Jeaneane (1997). Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. pp. 10, 17–18, 114–118, 132–133, 149. ISBN 978-1-898723-60-8. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
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  50. 123Libbrecht, Ulrich (2007). Within the Four Seas: Introduction to Comparative Philosophy. Peeters Publishers. p. 42. ISBN 978-90-429-1812-2.
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  53. ↑Eakin, Frank Jr. (1971). The Religion and Culture of Israel. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. p. 70., Quote: "Monolatry: The recognition of the existence of many gods but the consistent worship of one deity".
  54. ↑McConkie, Bruce R. (1979). Mormon Doctrine (2nd ed.). Salt Lake City, UT: Bookcraft. p. 351.
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  57. ↑Wainwright, William (2013). "Monotheism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2018.
  58. ↑Van Baaren, Theodorus P. "Monotheism". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 December 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2018.
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  63. 12Beck, Guy L. (2005). Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 169, note 11. ISBN 978-0-7914-6415-1.
  64. ↑Williams, George M. (2008). Handbook of Hindu Mythology (Reprint ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 24–35. ISBN 978-0-19-533261-2.
  65. ↑Manuel, Frank Edward; Pailin, David A. (1999). "Deism". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 1 May 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2018. In general, Deism refers to what can be called natural religion, the acceptance of a certain body of religious knowledge that is inborn in every person or that can be acquired by the use of reason and the rejection of religious knowledge when it is acquired through either revelation or the teaching of any church.
  66. ↑Kohler, Kaufmann; Hirsch, Emil G. (1906). "DEISM". Jewish Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 9 January 2018. Retrieved 22 January 2018. DEISM: A system of belief which posits God's existence as the cause of all things, and admits His perfection, but rejects Divine revelation and government, proclaiming the all-sufficiency of natural laws.
  67. ↑Kurian, George Thomas (2008). The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization. Malden, MA: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-470-67060-6. Deism is a rationalistic, critical approach to theism with an emphasis on natural theology. The Deists attempted to reduce religion to what they regarded as its most foundational, rationally justifiable elements. Deism is not, strictly speaking, the teaching that God wound up the world like a watch and let it run on its own, though that teaching was embraced by some within the movement.
  68. ↑Thomsett, Michael C. (2011). Heresy in the Roman Catholic Church: A History. Jefferson: McFarland & Co. p. 222. ISBN 978-0-7864-8539-0. Retrieved 22 January 2018.
  69. ↑Wilson, Ellen Judy; Reill, Peter Hanns (2004). Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment (Revised ed.). New York: Facts On File. pp. 146–158. ISBN 978-0-8160-5335-3. Retrieved 22 January 2018.
  70. ↑Sal Restivo (2021). "The End of God and the Beginning of Inquiry". Society and the Death of God. Routledge. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-3676-3764-4. Archived from the original on 25 April 2021. Retrieved 25 April 2021. In the pandeism argument, an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God creates the universe and in the process becomes the universe and loses his powers to intervene in human affairs.
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  72. ↑Borchert, Donald M. (2006). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-02-865780-6. In the most general use of the term, agnosticism is the view that we do not know whether there is a God or not.
  73. ↑Craig, Edward; Floridi, Luciano (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3. Retrieved 22 January 2018. In the popular sense, an agnostic is someone who neither believes nor disbelieves in God, whereas an atheist disbelieves in God. In the strict sense, however, agnosticism is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist. In so far as one holds that our beliefs are rational only if they are sufficiently supported by human reason, the person who accepts the philosophical position of agnosticism will hold that neither the belief that God exists nor the belief that God does not exist is rational.
  74. ↑"agnostic, agnosticism". OED Online, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press. 2012. agnostic. : A. n[oun]. :# A person who believes that nothing is known or can be known of immaterial things, especially of the existence or nature of God. :# In extended use: a person who is not persuaded by or committed to a particular point of view; a sceptic. Also: person of indeterminate ideology or conviction; an equivocator. : B. adj[ective]. :# Of or relating to the belief that the existence of anything beyond and behind material phenomena is unknown and (as far as can be judged) unknowable. Also: holding this belief. :# a. In extended use: not committed to or persuaded by a particular point of view; sceptical. Also: politically or ideologically unaligned; non-partisan, equivocal. agnosticism n. The doctrine or tenets of agnostics with regard to the existence of anything beyond and behind material phenomena or to knowledge of a First Cause or God.
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  76. ↑Mellaart, James (1967). Catal Huyuk: A Neolithic Town in Anatolia. McGraw-Hill. p. 181.
  77. ↑A typical assessment: "A terracotta statuette of a seated (mother) goddess giving birth with each hand on the head of a leopard or panther from Çatalhöyük (dated around 6000 B.C.E.)" (Sarolta A. Takács, "Cybele and Catullus' Attis", in Eugene N. Lane, Cybele, Attis and related cults: essays in memory of M.J. Vermaseren 1996:376.
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  82. 12Barnes, Sandra T. (1997). Africa's Ogun: Old World and New (2nd ed.). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. pp. ix–x, 1–3, 59, 132–134, 199–200. ISBN 978-0-253-21083-8. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
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  85. ↑Barnard, Alan (2001). Hunters and Herders of Southern Africa: A Comparative Ethnography of the Khoisan Peoples. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 87–88, 153–155, 252–256. ISBN 978-0-521-42865-1. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
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Lecturas adicionales

  • Baines, John (2001). Figuras de fecundidad: personificación egipcia e iconología de un género (  Edición reimpresa). Oxford: Griffith Institute. ISBN 978-0-900416-78-1.