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Lilio

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Lilium ( / ˈ l ɪ l i ə m / LIL -ee-əm ) [ 3 ] es un género de plantas herbáceas con flores que crecen a partir de bulbos, todas con flores grandes y a menudo llamativas. Los lirios son un grupo de plantas con flores importantes en la cultura y la literatura de gran parte del mundo. La mayoría de las especies son nativas del hemisferio norte y su distribución abarca climas templados y se extiende hasta las zonas subtropicales . Muchas otras plantas tienen "lirio" en sus nombres comunes , pero no pertenecen al mismo género y, por lo tanto, no son verdaderos lirios. Se sabe que los verdaderos lirios son altamente tóxicos para los gatos. [ 4 ]

Descripción

Flor de Lilium longiflorum : 1. estigma , 2. estilo , 3. anteras , 4. filamento, 5. tépalo.

Los lirios son plantas perennes altas que alcanzan una altura de 30 a 180 cm (1 a 6 pies ) . Forman bulbos subterráneos escamosos, desnudos o sin túnica , que son sus órganos de perennización . En algunas especies norteamericanas, la base del bulbo se desarrolla en rizomas , en los que se encuentran numerosos bulbos pequeños. Algunas especies desarrollan estolones . [ 5 ] La mayoría de los bulbos se entierran profundamente en el suelo, pero algunas especies los forman cerca de la superficie. Muchas especies desarrollan raíces de tallo. Con estas, el bulbo crece naturalmente a cierta profundidad en el suelo, y cada año el nuevo tallo produce raíces adventicias por encima del bulbo al emerger del suelo. Estas raíces se suman a las raíces basales que se desarrollan en la base del bulbo; algunas especies también producen raíces contráctiles que mueven los bulbos a mayor profundidad en el suelo. [ 6 ]  

Lirio, pétalo

Las flores son grandes, a menudo fragantes y presentan una amplia gama de colores, incluyendo blancos, amarillos, naranjas, rosas, rojos y morados. Las marcas incluyen manchas y pinceladas. Las plantas florecen a finales de la primavera o en verano. Las flores se presentan en racimos o umbelas en la punta del tallo, con seis tépalos extendidos o reflejos, lo que da lugar a flores con formas que varían desde embudo hasta "gorro turco". Los tépalos están libres entre sí y portan un nectario en la base de cada flor. El ovario es "superior", situado por encima del punto de inserción de las anteras . El fruto es una cápsula de tres lóculos. [ 7 ]

Estambre de lirio

Las semillas maduran a finales del verano. Presentan patrones de germinación variables y, a veces, complejos , muchos de ellos adaptados a climas templados fríos.

La mayoría de las especies de clima templado frío son caducifolias y permanecen inactivas en invierno en su entorno natural. Sin embargo, algunas especies nativas de zonas con veranos calurosos e inviernos suaves ( Lilium candidum , Lilium catesbaei , Lilium longiflorum ) pierden sus hojas y entran en un breve período de latencia en verano u otoño, brotan desde otoño hasta invierno, formando tallos enanos que portan una roseta basal de hojas hasta que, después de haber recibido suficiente frío, el tallo comienza a alargarse con el aumento de las temperaturas.

semillas de Lilium candidum

El número básico de cromosomas es doce (n=12). [ 8 ]

Taxonomía

La división taxonómica en secciones sigue la división clásica de Comber, [ 9 ] la aceptación de especies sigue la Lista de verificación mundial de familias de plantas seleccionadas , [ 10 ] la taxonomía de la sección Pseudolirium es de la Flora de América del Norte, [ 11 ] la taxonomía de la Sección Liriotypus se da en consideración de Resetnik et al. 2007, [ 12 ] la taxonomía de las especies chinas (varias secciones) sigue la Flora de China [ 13 ] y la taxonomía de la Sección Sinomartagon sigue a Nishikawa et al. [ 14 ] al igual que la taxonomía de la Sección Archelirion . [ 15 ]

Los Sinomartagon se dividen en tres grupos parafiléticos , mientras que los Leucolirion se dividen en dos grupos parafiléticos. [ 16 ]

Hay siete secciones:

  • Martagon
  • Pseudolirio
  • Liriotypus
  • Archelirion
  • Sinomartagon
  • Leucolirión
  • Daurolirión

En este género se han contabilizado 119 especies. [ 17 ] Para obtener una lista completa de las especies aceptadas con sus rangos de distribución nativos, consulte la Lista de especies de Lilium .

Algunas especies que antes se incluían en este género ahora se han clasificado en otros géneros. Estos géneros incluyen Cardiocrinum , Notholirion y Fritillaria . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] Otros cuatro géneros, Lirium , Martagon y Nomocharis, son considerados sinónimos por la mayoría de las fuentes. [ 17 ]

Etimología

El nombre botánico Lilium es la forma latina y es un nombre linneano . El nombre latino deriva de la palabra griega λείριον leírion , generalmente se asume que se refiere a los verdaderos lirios blancos, como el lirio de la Virgen . [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] La palabra fue tomada del copto ϩ̀ⲣⲏⲣⲓ , [ 27 ] del demótico ḥrry , del egipcio ḥrr.t "flor". [ 28 ] El griego antiguo : κρῖνον , krīnon , era usado por los griegos, aunque para lirios de cualquier color. [ 29 ]

El término «lirio» se ha aplicado en el pasado a numerosas plantas con flores, a menudo con solo una semejanza superficial con el verdadero lirio, incluyendo el nenúfar , el lirio de fuego , el lirio del Nilo , el lirio cala , el lirio trucha , el lirio kaffir , el lirio cobra , el lirio del valle , el lirio de día , el lirio jengibre , el lirio amazónico , el lirio puerro , el lirio peruano y otros. Todas las traducciones inglesas de la Biblia traducen el hebreo shūshan , shōshan , shōshannā como «lirio», pero el «lirio entre espinas» del Cantar de los Cantares , por ejemplo, podría ser la madreselva. [ 30 ]

Distribución y hábitat

Lirio de gorro turco que crece en los Alpes de Carintia.

En el Viejo Mundo, la distribución de los lirios abarca gran parte de Europa, la mayor parte de Asia hasta Japón, el sur hasta la India y el este hasta Indochina y Filipinas. En el Nuevo Mundo, se extienden desde el sur de Canadá hasta gran parte de Estados Unidos. Suelen adaptarse a hábitats boscosos, a menudo de montaña , o a veces a pastizales. Algunos pueden sobrevivir en marismas y se conocen epífitas en el sudeste asiático tropical. En general, prefieren suelos moderadamente ácidos o sin cal.

Ecología

Los lirios son utilizados como plantas alimenticias por las larvas de algunas especies de lepidópteros , incluido el lirio de Dunbar .

La proliferación de ciervos (por ejemplo, Odocoileus virginianus ) en Norteamérica, debido principalmente a factores como la eliminación de grandes depredadores para la seguridad humana, es responsable de una disminución en las poblaciones de lirios silvestres y también representa una amenaza para los lirios de jardín. [ 31 ] Podrían ser necesarias cercas de hasta 2,4 metros de altura para evitar que consuman las plantas, una solución poco práctica para la mayoría de las áreas silvestres. [ 32 ]

Cultivo

Muchas especies se cultivan ampliamente en jardines de regiones templadas , subtropicales y tropicales . [ 33 ] Se han desarrollado numerosos híbridos ornamentales. Se utilizan en bordes herbáceos, plantaciones de bosques y arbustos, y como plantas de patio. Algunos lirios, especialmente Lilium longiflorum , constituyen importantes cultivos de flor cortada o plantas en maceta. Estos se fuerzan a florecer fuera de la temporada de floración normal para mercados específicos; por ejemplo, Lilium longiflorum para el comercio de Pascua, cuando se le puede llamar lirio de Pascua.

Los lirios se suelen plantar como bulbos durante la época de dormancia. Se plantan mejor en un lugar con orientación sur (hemisferio norte), en una ladera ligeramente inclinada, a pleno sol o en semisombra, a una profundidad de 2,5 veces la altura del bulbo (excepto Lilium candidum, que debe plantarse en la superficie). La mayoría prefiere un suelo franco y poroso, y un buen drenaje es esencial. La mayoría de las especies florecen en julio o agosto (hemisferio norte). Los periodos de floración de algunas especies de lirios comienzan a finales de la primavera, mientras que otras florecen a finales del verano o principios del otoño. [ 34 ] Tienen raíces contráctiles que arrastran la planta a la profundidad correcta, por lo que es mejor plantarlas demasiado superficialmente que demasiado profundamente. Un pH del suelo de alrededor de 6,5 es generalmente seguro. La mayoría crece mejor en suelos bien drenados, y las plantas se riegan durante la época de crecimiento. Algunas especies y cultivares tienen tallos fuertes y fibrosos, pero aquellos con cabezas florales pesadas se entutoran para mantenerlos erguidos. [ 35 ] [ 36 ]

Premios

Las siguientes especies y cultivares de lirios actualmente poseen el Premio al Mérito de Jardinería de la Real Sociedad de Horticultura (confirmado en 2017): [ 37 ] [ 38 ]

'Esplendor dorado'

Clasificación de las formas de jardín

Numerosas formas, en su mayoría híbridos, se cultivan para el jardín. Varían según las especies e híbridos interespecíficos de los que derivan, y se clasifican en los siguientes grupos amplios: [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ]

Híbridos asiáticos (División I)

Estos se derivan de híbridos entre especies de la sección Sinomartagon de Lilium . [ 47 ] [ 48 ]
Se derivan de especies de Asia central y oriental e híbridos interespecíficos, incluidos Lilium amabile , Lilium bulbiferum , Lilium callosum , Lilium cernuum , Lilium concolor , Lilium dauricum , Lilium davidii , Lilium × hollandicum , Lilium lancifolium (sin. Lilium tigrinum ), Lilium lankongense , Lilium leichtlinii , Lilium × maculatum , Lilium pumilum , Lilium × scottiae , Lilium wardii y Lilium wilsonii .
Se trata de plantas con flores de tamaño mediano, erguidas o que miran hacia afuera, en su mayoría sin fragancia. Existen diversos cultivares como Lilium 'Cappuccino', Lilium 'Dimension', Lilium 'Little Kiss' y Lilium 'Navona' . [ 49 ]
  • Las variedades enanas (de patio, de borde) son mucho más bajas, de aproximadamente 36 a 61  cm de altura, y fueron diseñadas para macetas. [ 50 ] A menudo llevan el nombre de cultivar 'Tiny', como la serie 'Lily Looks', por ejemplo, 'Tiny Padhye', [ 51 ] 'Tiny Dessert'. [ 52 ]

Híbridos Martagon (División II)

Estos se basan en Lilium dalhansonii , Lilium hansonii , Lilium martagon , Lilium medeoloides y Lilium tsingtauense .
Las flores son colgantes, al estilo de un gorro turco (con los pétalos fuertemente curvados hacia atrás).

Híbridos de Candidum (eurocaucásicos) (División III)

Esto incluye especies principalmente europeas: Lilium candidum , Lilium chalcedonicum , Lilium kesselringianum , Lilium monadelphum , Lilium pomponium , Lilium pyrenaicum y Lilium × testaceum .

Híbridos americanos (División IV)

Estas son en su mayoría formas de crecimiento más altas, originalmente derivadas de Lilium bolanderi , Lilium × burbankii , Lilium canadense , Lilium columbianum , Lilium grayi , Lilium humboldtii , Lilium kelleyanum , Lilium kelloggii , Lilium maritimum , Lilium michauxii , Lilium michiganense , Lilium occidentale , Lilium × pardaboldtii , Lilium pardalinum. , Lilium parryi , Lilium parvum , Lilium philadelphicum , Lilium pitkinense , Lilium superbum , Lilium ollmeri , Lilium washingtonianum y Lilium wigginsii .
Muchas son plantas perennes que forman matas y tienen rizomas.

Híbridos de Longiflorum (División V)

Se trata de formas cultivadas de esta especie y sus subespecies.
Son especialmente importantes como plantas para flor cortada , y se cultivan con menos frecuencia en el jardín que otros híbridos.

Lirios trompeta (División VI), incluidos los híbridos aurélicos (con L. henryi )

Este grupo incluye híbridos de muchas especies asiáticas y sus híbridos interespecíficos, incluidos Lilium × aurelianense , Lilium brownii , Lilium × centigale , Lilium henryi , Lilium × imperiale , Lilium × kewense , Lilium leucanthum , Lilium regale , Lilium rosthornii , Lilium sargentiae , Lilium sulphureum y Lilium × sulphurgale .
Las flores tienen forma de trompeta, apuntan hacia afuera o ligeramente hacia abajo, y suelen ser muy fragantes, a menudo especialmente por la noche.

Híbridos orientales (División VII)

Estos se basan en híbridos dentro de la sección Archelirion de Lilium , [ 47 ] [ 48 ] específicamente Lilium auratum y Lilium speciosum , junto con cruces de varias especies nativas de Japón, incluidas Lilium nobilissimum , Lilium rubellum , Lilium alexandrae y Lilium japonicum .
Son fragantes y sus flores suelen mirar hacia afuera. Las plantas tienden a ser altas y las flores pueden ser bastante grandes. A todo el grupo se le conoce a veces como "observadoras de estrellas" porque muchas de ellas parecen mirar hacia arriba. (Para el cultivar específico, véase Lilium 'Stargazer' ).

Otros híbridos (División VIII)

Incluye todos los demás híbridos de jardín.

Especies (División IX)

En este grupo se incluyen todas las especies naturales y las formas que se dan de forma natural.

Las flores se pueden clasificar por su aspecto y forma: [ 53 ]

  • Aspecto de la flor:
  • una orientada hacia arriba
  • b orientado hacia afuera
  • c mirando hacia abajo
  • Forma de la flor:
  • con forma de trompeta
  • b con forma de cuenco
  • do bemol (o con las puntas de los tépalos recurvadas)
  • Los tépalos d se curvaban fuertemente (con la forma de gorro turco como estado final).

Muchas variedades comerciales más recientes se desarrollan utilizando nuevas tecnologías como el cultivo de ovarios y el rescate de embriones. [ 54 ]

Plagas y enfermedades

Escarabajos del lirio escarlata, Oxfordshire , Reino Unido

Los pulgones pueden infestar las plantas. Los tipúlidos se alimentan de las raíces. Las larvas del escarabajo del lirio escarlata pueden causar daños graves a los tallos y las hojas. El escarabajo escarlata pone sus huevos y completa su ciclo de vida solo en lirios verdaderos ( Lilium ) y fritilarias ( Fritillaria ). [ 55 ] Los lirios orientales, rubrum, tigre y trompeta, así como las trompetas orientales (orienpets) y los lirios de gorro turco y las especies nativas de Lilium de América del Norte son vulnerables, pero el escarabajo prefiere algunos tipos sobre otros. El escarabajo también podría estar teniendo un efecto en especies nativas canadienses y algunas especies raras y en peligro de extinción que se encuentran en el noreste de América del Norte. [ 56 ] Los lirios de día ( Hemerocallis , no lirios verdaderos) están excluidos de esta categoría. Las plantas pueden sufrir daños causados ​​por ratones, ciervos y ardillas. Las babosas, [ 57 ] los caracoles y los milpiés atacan las plántulas, las hojas y las flores.

Las manchas marrones en las hojas húmedas pueden indicar una infección por Botrytis elliptica , también conocida como tizón del lirio, fuego del lirio y tizón foliar por Botrytis. [ 58 ] Varias enfermedades virales pueden causar moteado en las hojas y retraso del crecimiento, incluyendo la raya del rizado del lirio, la mancha anular y el virus de la roseta del lirio. [ 59 ]

Propagación y crecimiento

Los lirios se pueden propagar de varias maneras;

  • por división de los bulbos
  • mediante bulbillos que crecen sobre el tallo , los cuales son bulbos adventicios que se forman en él.
  • mediante escamación, para lo cual se desprenden escamas enteras del bulbo y se plantan para formar un nuevo bulbo.
  • by seed; there are many seed germination patterns, which can be complex
  • by micropropagation techniques (which include tissue culture);[60] commercial quantities of lilies are often propagated in vitro and then planted out to grow into plants large enough to sell. A highly efficient technique for multiple shoot and propagule formation was given by Yadav et al., in 2013.[61]

Plant grow regulators (PGRs) are used to limit the height of lilies, especially those sold as potted plants. Commonly used chemicals include ancymidol, fluprimidol, paclobutrazol, and uni-conazole, all of which are applied to the foliage to slow the biosynthesis of gibberellins, a class of plant hormones responsible for stem growth.[62]

Research

A comparison of meioticcrossing-over (recombination) in lily and mouse led, in 1977, to the conclusion that diverse eukaryotes share a common pattern of meiotic crossing-over.[63]Lilium longiflorum has been used for studying aspects of the basic molecular mechanism of genetic recombination during meiosis.[64][65]

Toxicity

Some Lilium species are toxic to cats. This is known to be especially so for Lilium longiflorum, though other Lilium and the unrelated Hemerocallis can also cause the same symptoms with equal lethality.[66][67][68][69] The true mechanism of toxicity is undetermined, but it involves damage to the renal tubular epithelium (composing the substance of the kidney and secreting, collecting, and conducting urine), which can cause acute kidney failure.[69] Veterinary help should be sought, as a matter of urgency, for any cat that is suspected of eating any part of a lily – including licking pollen that may have brushed onto its coat. Due to the high mortality rate, medical care should be sought immediately once it is known a cat came into contact with lilies, ideally before any symptoms develop.[70]

Culinary uses

Chinese cuisine

Lily bulbs are starchy and edible as root vegetables, though bulbs of some species may be too bitter to eat.[71]

Lilium brownii var. viridulum, known as 百合 (pak hop; pinyin:bǎi hé; Cantonese Yale:baak hap; lit.'hundred united'), is one of the most prominent edible lilies in China. Its bulbs are large in size and not bitter. They were even exported and sold in the San Francisco Chinatown in the 19th century, available both fresh and dry.[71] A landrace called 龍牙百合 (pinyin:lóng yá bǎi hé; lit.'dragon-tooth lily') mainly cultivated in Hunan and Jiangxi is especially renowned for its good-quality bulbs.[72]

L. lancifolium (Chinese:卷丹; pinyin:juǎn dān; lit.'reflexed red') is widely cultivated in China, especially in Yixing, Huzhou and Longshan. Its bulbs are slightly bitter.[72]

L. davidii var. unicolor (Chinese:蘭州百合; lit.'Lanzhou lily') is mainly cultivated in Lanzhou and its bulbs are valued for sweetness.[72]

Other edible Chinese lilies include L. brownii var. brownii, L. davidii var. davidii, L. concolor, L. pensylvanicum, L. distichum, L. martagon var. pilosiusculum, L. pumilum, L. rosthornii and L. speciosum var. gloriosoides.[73] Researchers have also explored the possibility of using ornamental cultivars as edible lilies.[76]

The dried bulbs are commonly used in the south to flavor soup.[77] They may be reconstituted and stir-fried, grated and used to thicken soup, or processed to extract starch.[78] Their texture and taste draw comparisons with the potato, although the individual bulb scales are much smaller.[79]

The commonly marketed "lily" flower buds, called kam cham tsoi (Chinese:金针菜; pinyin:jīnzhēncài; Cantonese Yale:gāmjām choi; lit.'gold needle vegetable')[80] in Chinese cuisine, are actually from daylilies, Hemerocallis citrina,[81] or possibly H. fulva.[a][80] Flowers of the H. graminea and Lilium bulbiferum were reported to have been eaten as well, but samples provided by the informant were strictly daylilies and did not include L. bulbiferum.[b][82]

Lily flowers and bulbs are eaten especially in the summer, for their perceived ability to reduce internal heat.[83] A 19th century English source reported that "Lily flowers are also said to be efficacious in pulmonary affections, and to have tonic properties".[82]

Asiatic lily cultivars are also imported from the Netherlands; the seedling bulbs must be imported from the Netherlands every year.[84][85][86]

The parts of Lilium species which are officially listed as food material in Taiwan are the flower and bulbs of Lilium lancifolium, Lilium brownii var. viridulum, Lilium pumilum and Lilium candidum.[87]

Japanese cuisine

Loose scales of lily bulb in a donburi bowl dish

The lily bulb or yuri-ne is sometimes used in Japanese cuisine.[c][88] It may be most familiar in the present day as an occasional ingredient (具, gu) in the chawan-mushi (savoury egg custard),[89] where a few loosened scales of this optional ingredient are found embedded in the "hot pudding" of each serving.[90][91] It could also be used as an ingredient in a clear soup or suimono.[92][93]

The boiled bulb may also be strained[d] into purée for use, as in the sweetened kinton,[94][95] or chakin-shibori.[95][96][e]

Yokan

There is also the yuri-yōkan, one recipe of which calls for combining measures of yuri starch with agar dissolved in water and sugar.[98] This was a specialty of Hamada, Shimane,[99] and the shop Kaisei-dō (開盛堂) established in 1885 became famous for it.[100][101] Because a certain Viscount Jimyōin wrote a waka poem about the confection which mentioned hime-yuri "princess lily",[f] one source stated that the hime-yuri (usually taken to mean L. concolor) had to have been used,[100] but another source points out that the city of Hamada lies back to back with across a mountain range with Fuchu, Hiroshima which is renowned for its production of yama-yuri (L. auratum).[97][g]

Species used

Current Japanese governmental sources (c.2005) list the following lily species as prominent in domestic consumption:[105][106] the oni yuri or tiger lily Lilium lancifolium, the kooni yuriLilium leichtlinii var. maximowiczii,[h] and the gold-banded white yama-yuriL. auratum.

But Japanese sources c. 1895–1900,[102][107] give a top-three list which replaces kooni yuri with the sukashi-yuri (透かし百合; lit. "see-through lily", L. maculatum) named from the gaps between the tepals.[108][109]

There is uncertainty regarding which species is meant by the hime-yuri used as food, because although this is usually the common name for L. concolor in most up-to-date literature,[110] it used to ambiguously referred to the tiger lily as well, c. 1895–1900.[102] The non-tiger-lily himeyuri is certainly described as quite palatable in the literature at the time, but the extent of exploitation could not have been as significant.[i]

North America

The flower buds and roots of Lilium columbianum are traditionally gathered and eaten by North American indigenous peoples.[111]Coast Salish, Nuu-chah-nulth and most western Washington peoples steam, boil or pit-cook the bulbs of Lilium columbianum. Bitter or peppery-tasting, they were mostly used as a flavoring, often in soup with meat or fish.[112]

Medicinal uses

Traditional Chinese medicine list the use of the following: 野百合 Lilium brownii, 百合 Lilium brownii var. viridulum, 渥丹 Lilium concolor, 毛百合 Lilium dauricum, 卷丹 Lilium lancifolium, 山丹 Lilium pumilum, 南川百合 Lilium rosthornii, 药百合Lilium speciosum var. gloriosoides, 淡黄花百合 Lilium sulphureum.[113][114]

In Taiwan, governmental publications list Lilium lancifolium Thunb., Lilium brownii var. viridulum Baker, Lilium pumilum DC.[115]

In the kanpō or Chinese medicine as practiced in Japan, the official Japanese governmental pharmacopeiaNihon yakkyokuhō (日本薬局方) includes the use of lily bulb (known as byakugō (ビャクゴウ 百合) in traditional pharmacological circles), listing the use of the following species: Lilium lancifolium, Lilium brownii, Lilium brownii var. colchesteri, Lilium pumilum[116] The scales flaked off from the bulbs are used, usually steamed.[116]

In South Korea, the lilium species which are officially listed for medicinal use are 참나리 Lilium lancifolium Thunberg; 당나리 Lilium brownii var. viridulun Baker.[117][118]

In culture

Symbolism

In the Victorianlanguage of flowers, lilies portray love, ardor, and affection for one's loved ones, while orange lilies stand for happiness, love, and warmth.[119]

White lilies have been used since the Romantic era of Japanese literature to symbolize beauty and purity in women, and are a de facto symbol of the yuri genre (yuri (百合) translates literally to "lily"),[120] which describes the portrayal of intimate love, sex, or emotional connections between women. The term Yurizoku (百合族; lit. "lily tribe") was coined in 1976 by Ito Bungaku, editor of the gay men's magazine Barazoku (see above), to refer to his female readers.[121][122] While not all those women were lesbians, and it is unclear whether this was the first instance of the term yuri in this context, an association of yuri with lesbianism subsequently developed.[123] In Korea and China, "lily" is used as a semantic loan from the Japanese usage to describe female-female romance media, where each use the direct translation of the term – baekhap (백합) in Korea[124] and bǎihé (百合) in China.[125]

Lilies are the flowers most commonly used at funerals, where they symbolically signify that the soul of the deceased has been restored to the state of innocence.[126]

A Rukai lady adorned with Formosan lilies at a function in Taiwan

Lilium formosanum, or Taiwanese lily, is called "the flower of broken bowl" (Chinese:打碗花) by the elderly members of the Hakka ethnic group. They believe that because this lily grows near bodies of clean water, harming the lily may damage the environment, just like breaking the bowls that people rely on.[127] A different viewpoint proposes that parents discourage kids from picking lilies by informing them of the possible repercussions, like their dinner bowls breaking if they harm the flower. The indigenousRukai people who call this same species bariangalay consider it as a symbol of bravery and perseverance.[128]

In Western Christianity, Madonna lily or Lilium candidum has been associated with the Virgin Mary since at least the Medieval Era. Medieval and Renaissance depictions of the Virgin Mary, especially at the Annunciation, often show her with these flowers. Madonna lilies are also commonly included in depictions of Christ's resurrection. Lilium longiflorum, the Easter lily, is a symbol of Easter, and Lilium candidum, the Madonna lily, carries a great deal of symbolic value in many cultures. See the articles for more information.

In Ancient Minoan Crete and Cyclades cultures, lilies are depicted associated with an unknown religious meaning. The crown from the "Priest-King" fresco at Knossos is covered with white lilies while a depiction of a shrine in the Xesté 3 house Akrotiri is covered in red lilies.[129]

Heraldry

Lilium bulbiferum has long been recognised as a symbol of the Orange Order in Northern Ireland.[130]

Lilium mackliniae is the state flower of Manipur. Lilium michauxii, the Carolina lily, is the official state flower of North Carolina. Idyllwild, California, hosts the Lemon Lily Festival, which celebrates Lilium parryi.[131]Lilium philadelphicum is the floral emblem of Saskatchewan province in Canada, and is on the flag of Saskatchewan.[132][133][134]

Other plants referred to as lilies

Lily of the valley, flame lilies, daylilies, water lilies and spider lilies are symbolically important flowers commonly referred to as lilies, but they are not in the genus Lilium.

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ↑Blasdale cites Bretschneider (1889), but in Bretschneider (1875), "Notes on Chinese Mediaeval Travellers to the West", p. 123, first gives the Chinese name for H. fulva as "kïm châm hōa" as according to João de Loureiro, while he himself only recognized its name as "kin huang hua" 金黃花 or as [黃花菜]; huang-hua ts'ai; 'yellow-flower vegetable' as they were called by Beijing merchants.
  2. ↑The informant, Pelham L. Warren, consul at Taiwan was presumably providing imports from China (main port Hankou) or Japan.
  3. ↑"not a common food" (Shizuo Tsuji).
  4. ↑The term uragoshi "straining" orthodoxically means using the "uragoshi-ki", traditionally a sieve with a fine mesh of horse-hair instead of metal wire.
  5. ↑These could refer to essentially the same thing, except for slight difference in texture and appearance. The yuri-kinton has been described as "ogura an (sweet adzuki bean paste) core surrounded with stipples (soboro) of strained lily bulb and white adzuki (shiroazuki or shiroshōzu).[97] A recipe for lily bulb dumplings or chakin-shibori calls for wrapping adzuki bean paste with lily bulb mashed into purée, then wrapping it in a cloth and wringing the dumpling into a ball shape.[96]
  6. ↑Jimyōin Motoaki b. 1865 was a viscount and poet. So was his son Motonori.
  7. ↑And as discussed below, this yama-yuri was also called "hime-yuri" in earlier days.[102]
  8. ↑The kooni yuri (小鬼百合; "lesser ogre lily").
  9. ↑That is, not in the top three of this period.[102]

References

Citations
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  2. ↑lectotype designated by N. L. Britton et A. Brown, Ill. Fl. N. U.S. ed. 2. 1: 502 (1913)
  3. ↑"lilium". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. OCLC 1032680871.
  4. ↑Langston, Cathy E. (2002-01-01). "Acute renal failure caused by lily ingestion in six cats". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 220 (1): 49–52. doi:10.2460/javma.2002.220.49. ISSN 0003-1488. PMID 12680447.
  5. ↑Batygina, T. B. (2019-04-23). Embryology of Flowering Plants: Terminology and Concepts, Vol. 3: Reproductive Systems. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-429-52671-8.
  6. ↑Gracie, Carol (2020-04-28). Summer Wildflowers of the Northeast: A Natural History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-20330-0.
  7. ↑European Garden Flora; Volume 1
  8. ↑Pelkonen, Veli-Pekka; Pirttilä, Anna-Maria (2012). "Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Lilium"(PDF). Floriculture and Ornamental Biotechnology. 6 (Special Issue 2): 1–8. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2016-10-08. Retrieved 2016-07-29.
  9. ↑Harold Comber, 1949. "A new classification of the genus Lilium". Lily Yearbook, Royal Hortic. Soc., London. 15:86–105.
  10. ↑Govaerts, R. (ed.). "Lilium". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Archived from the original on 2020-09-01. Retrieved 2013-02-03.
  11. ↑Flora of North America, Vol. 26, OnlineArchived 2012-10-15 at the Wayback Machine
  12. ↑Resetnik I.; Liber Z.; Satovic Z.; Cigic P.; Nikolic T. (2007). "Molecular phylogeny and systematics of the Lilium carniolicum group (Liliaceae) based on nuclear ITS sequences". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 265 (1–2): 45–58. Bibcode:2007PSyEv.265...45R. doi:10.1007/s00606-006-0513-y. S2CID 32644749.
  13. ↑Flora of China, Vol. 24, eFloras.orgArchived 2012-09-12 at the Wayback Machine
  14. ↑Nishikawa Tomotaro; Okazaki Keiichi; Arakawa Katsuro; Nagamine Tsukasa (2001). "Phylogenetic Analysis of Section Sinomartagon in Genus Lilium Using Sequences of the Internal Transcribed Spacer Region in Nuclear Ribosomal DNA". 育種学雑誌 Breeding Science. 51 (1): 39–46. Bibcode:2001BrSci..51...39N. doi:10.1270/jsbbs.51.39.
  15. ↑Nishikawa Tomotaro; Okazaki Keiichi; Nagamine Tsukasa (2002). "Phylogenetic Relationships among Lilium auratum Lindley, L. auratum var. platyphyllum Baker and L. rubellum Baker Based on Three Spacer Regions in Chloroplast DNA". 育種学雑誌 Breeding Science. 52 (3): 207–213. Bibcode:2002BrSci..52..207N. doi:10.1270/jsbbs.52.207.
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  22. ↑"Notholirion Wall. ex Boiss". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 17 October 2024.
  23. ↑"Fritillaria Tourn. ex L."Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 17 October 2024.
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  33. ↑"Azucenas en tierra boricua trascienden generaciones [Lilium in Puerto Rican land transcend generations]". El Nuevo Día (in Spanish). 2017-07-08. Archived from the original on 2020-07-19. Retrieved 2020-07-19.
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  39. ↑"RHS Plantfinder – Lilium Golden Splendor Group". Archived from the original on 24 March 2018. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
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  41. ↑"RHS Plantfinder – Lilium pardalinum". Archived from the original on 24 March 2018. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
  42. ↑"RHS Plantfinder – Lilium Pink Perfection Group". Archived from the original on 24 March 2018. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
  43. ↑"RHS Plantfinder – Lilium regale". Archived from the original on 24 March 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
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  54. ↑van Tuyl, J.M.; Binoa, R.J.; Vancreij, M.; Vankleinwee, T.; Franken, J.; Bino, R. (1991). "Application of in vitro pollination, ovary culture, ovule culture and embryo rescue for overcoming incongruity barriers in interspecific Lilium crosses". Plant Science. 74 (1): 115–126. Bibcode:1991PlnSc..74..115V. doi:10.1016/0168-9452(91)90262-7.
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  • La lista de plantas
  • Sociedad Norteamericana del Lirio
  • Grupo de lirios de la Real Sociedad de Horticultura
  • 1 2 3 Vídeos a cámara rápida
  • EL GÉNERO LILIUM
  • " Lilium " . La enciclopedia de la vida .
  • Perenialización del lirio, Programa de Investigación de Bulbos Florales, Departamento de Horticultura, Universidad de Cornell
  • Polígono de cruce del género Lilium .
  • Producción de bulbos florales; lirios, Centro Internacional de Bulbos Florales
  • Libro ilustrado de lirios, Centro Internacional de Bulbos de Flores

Flora

  • Flora Europaea: Lilium
  • Flora de China: Lilium
  • Flora de Nepal: Lista de especies de Lilium
  • Flora de América del Norte: Lilium