Articulo de referencia

Free will

A dirt jumper performing a trick, according to some interpretations, is the result of free will. Free will is generally understood as the capacity or ability of people to (a) ch...

A dirt jumper performing a trick, according to some interpretations, is the result of free will.

Free will is generally understood as the capacity or ability of people to (a) choose between different possible courses of action,[1] (b) exercise control over their actions in a way that is necessary for moral responsibility, or (c) be the ultimate source or originator of their actions.[2][3][4] There are different theories as to its nature, and these aspects are often emphasized differently depending on philosophical tradition, with debates focusing on whether and how such freedom can coexist with physical determinism, divine foreknowledge, and other constraints.

Free will is closely linked to the concepts of moral responsibility and moral desert, praise, culpability, and other judgements that can logically apply only to actions that are freely chosen. It is also connected with the concepts of advice, persuasion, deliberation, and prohibition. Traditionally, only actions that are freely willed are seen as deserving credit or blame. Whether free will exists and the implications of whether it exists or not constitute some of the longest-running debates of philosophy.

Algunos filósofos y pensadores conciben el libre albedrío como la capacidad de tomar decisiones no determinadas por eventos pasados. Sin embargo, el determinismo sugiere que el mundo natural se rige por relaciones de causa y efecto, y que solo es posible un curso de eventos, lo cual es incompatible con un modelo libertario de libre albedrío. [ 5 ] La filosofía griega antigua identificó este problema, [ 6 ] que sigue siendo un foco importante del debate filosófico hasta el día de hoy. La postura que postula que el libre albedrío es incompatible con el determinismo se llama incompatibilismo y abarca tanto el libertarismo metafísico (la afirmación de que el determinismo es falso y, por lo tanto, el libre albedrío es al menos posible) como el determinismo duro o el incompatibilismo duro (la afirmación de que el determinismo es verdadero y, por lo tanto, el libre albedrío no es posible). Otra postura incompatibilista es el ilusionismo o incompatibilismo duro , que sostiene que no solo el determinismo, sino también el indeterminismo (aleatoriedad) son incompatibles con el libre albedrío y, por lo tanto, que el libre albedrío es imposible independientemente de la verdad metafísica del determinismo.

En contraste, los compatibilistas sostienen que el libre albedrío es compatible con el determinismo. Algunos filósofos compatibilistas (es decir, los compatibilistas duros) incluso sostienen que el determinismo es necesario para la existencia del libre albedrío y la agencia, basándose en que la elección implica la preferencia por un curso de acción sobre otro, lo que requiere una idea de cómo resultarán las elecciones. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Diferentes compatibilistas ofrecen definiciones muy distintas de lo que significa "libre albedrío" y, en consecuencia, encuentran diferentes tipos de restricciones relevantes para el tema. Los compatibilistas clásicos consideraban el libre albedrío simplemente libertad de acción, considerando a alguien libre de voluntad si, de haber querido contrafactualmente hacer de otra manera, podría haberlo hecho sin impedimento físico. Muchos compatibilistas contemporáneos, en cambio, identifican el libre albedrío como una capacidad psicológica, como la de dirigir el propio comportamiento de una manera que responda a la razón o que sea potencialmente sancionable. Existen aún otras concepciones diferentes del libre albedrío, cada una con sus propias preocupaciones, que comparten únicamente la característica común de no considerar la posibilidad del determinismo físico como una amenaza para la posibilidad del libre albedrío. [ 9 ]

Historia del libre albedrío

El problema del libre albedrío se ha identificado en la literatura filosófica griega antigua . La noción de libre albedrío compatibilista se ha atribuido tanto a Aristóteles (siglo IV a. C.) como a Epicteto (siglo I d. C.): «era el hecho de que nada nos impedía hacer o elegir algo lo que nos hacía tener control sobre ello». [ 6 ] [ 10 ] Según Susanne Bobzien , la noción de libre albedrío incompatibilista se identifica quizás por primera vez en las obras de Alejandro de Afrodisias (siglo III d. C.): «lo que nos hace tener control sobre las cosas es el hecho de que somos causalmente indeterminados en nuestra decisión y, por lo tanto, podemos decidir libremente entre hacer/elegir o no hacer/elegir».

El término «libre albedrío» ( liberum arbitrium ) fue introducido por la filosofía cristiana (siglo IV d. C.). Tradicionalmente ha significado (hasta que la Ilustración propuso sus propios significados) la falta de necesidad en la voluntad humana, [ 11 ] de modo que «la voluntad es libre» significaba «la voluntad no tiene por qué ser como es». Este requisito fue universalmente aceptado tanto por incompatibilistas como por compatibilistas. [ 12 ]

filosofía occidental

Las preguntas fundamentales son si poseemos el control sobre nuestras acciones que creemos tener y, de ser así, qué tipo o grado de control ejercemos sobre nuestro comportamiento voluntario. Estos antiguos problemas filosóficos son anteriores a los primeros estoicos griegos (por ejemplo, Crisipo ), y algunos filósofos modernos aún lamentan la falta de progreso a lo largo de todos estos siglos. [ 13 ] [ 14 ]

Por un lado, los seres humanos poseen un fuerte sentido de libertad, capacidad de acción y autodeterminación, lo que conduce a una creencia natural en el libre albedrío y a un sentido de identidad. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Por otro lado, una sensación intuitiva de libre albedrío podría ser errónea. [ 17 ] [ 18 ]

Resulta difícil conciliar la evidencia intuitiva de que las decisiones conscientes tienen un efecto causal con la idea de que el mundo físico puede explicarse completamente mediante leyes físicas . [ 19 ] El conflicto entre la libertad sentida intuitivamente y la ley natural surge cuando se afirma el cierre causal o el determinismo físico ( determinismo nomológico ). Con el cierre causal, ningún evento físico tiene una causa fuera del dominio físico, y con el determinismo físico, el futuro está determinado enteramente por eventos precedentes (causa y efecto).

El enigma de conciliar el «libre albedrío» con un universo determinista se conoce como el problema del libre albedrío o, a veces, como el dilema del determinismo . [ 20 ] Este dilema también conduce a un dilema moral : la cuestión de cómo asignar la responsabilidad de las acciones si estas son causadas enteramente por eventos pasados. [ 21 ] [ 22 ]

Los compatibilistas sostienen que la realidad mental no es en sí misma causalmente efectiva. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] Los compatibilistas clásicos han abordado el dilema del libre albedrío argumentando que este se mantiene siempre que los humanos no estén coaccionados o obligados externamente. [ 25 ] Los compatibilistas modernos distinguen entre libertad de voluntad y libertad de acción , es decir, separan la libertad de elección de la libertad de llevarla a cabo. [ 26 ] Dado que todos los humanos experimentan una sensación de libre albedrío, algunos compatibilistas modernos creen que es necesario acomodar esta intuición. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] Los compatibilistas suelen asociar la libertad de voluntad con la capacidad de tomar decisiones racionales.

Un enfoque diferente al dilema es el de los incompatibilistas, es decir, que si el mundo es determinista, entonces nuestra sensación de que somos libres de elegir una acción es simplemente una ilusión . El libertarismo metafísico es la forma de incompatibilismo que postula que el determinismo es falso y el libre albedrío es posible (al menos algunas personas tienen libre albedrío). [ 29 ] Esta visión está asociada con construcciones no materialistas , [ 17 ] incluyendo tanto el dualismo tradicional como modelos que apoyan criterios más mínimos; como la capacidad de vetar conscientemente una acción o un deseo en competencia. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] Sin embargo, incluso con el indeterminismo físico , se han hecho argumentos en contra del libertarismo en que es difícil asignar Originación (responsabilidad por elecciones indeterministas "libres").

Aquí, el libre albedrío se trata predominantemente con respecto al determinismo físico en el sentido estricto del determinismo nomológico , aunque otras formas de determinismo también son relevantes para el libre albedrío. [ 32 ] Por ejemplo, el determinismo lógico y teológico desafía al libertarismo metafísico con ideas de destino y fatalidad , y el determinismo biológico , cultural y psicológico alimenta el desarrollo de modelos compatibilistas. Incluso pueden formarse clases separadas de compatibilismo e incompatibilismo para representarlos. [ 33 ]

A continuación se presentan los argumentos clásicos relacionados con este dilema y sus fundamentos.

Incompatibilismo

El incompatibilismo es la postura que sostiene que el libre albedrío y el determinismo son lógicamente incompatibles, y que la cuestión principal sobre si las personas tienen o no libre albedrío radica, por lo tanto, en si sus acciones están o no determinadas. Los "deterministas radicales", como d'Holbach , son aquellos incompatibilistas que aceptan el determinismo y rechazan el libre albedrío. En contraste, los " libertarios metafísicos ", como Thomas Reid , Peter van Inwagen y Robert Kane , son aquellos incompatibilistas que aceptan el libre albedrío y niegan el determinismo, sosteniendo que alguna forma de indeterminismo es verdadera. [ 34 ] Otra postura es la de los "incompatibilistas radicales", quienes sostienen que el libre albedrío es incompatible tanto con el determinismo como con el indeterminismo . [ 35 ]

Los argumentos tradicionales a favor del incompatibilismo se basan en una « bomba de intuición »: si una persona es como otras cosas mecánicas cuyo comportamiento está determinado, como un juguete de cuerda, una bola de billar, una marioneta o un robot, entonces las personas no deben tener libre albedrío. [ 34 ] [ 36 ] Este argumento ha sido rechazado por compatibilistas como Daniel Dennett, quienes sostienen que, incluso si los humanos tenemos algo en común con estas cosas, sigue siendo posible y plausible que seamos diferentes de tales objetos en aspectos importantes. [ 37 ]

Otro argumento a favor del incompatibilismo es el de la "cadena causal". El incompatibilismo es clave para la teoría idealista del libre albedrío. La mayoría de los incompatibilistas rechazan la idea de que la libertad de acción consista simplemente en un comportamiento "voluntario". Insisten, en cambio, en que para tener libre albedrío, un agente debe ser la causa "última" u "originaria" de sus acciones. Debe ser causa sui , en la expresión tradicional. Ser responsable de las propias decisiones es la primera causa de esas decisiones, donde primera causa significa que no hay una causa antecedente de esa causa. El argumento, entonces, es que si una persona tiene libre albedrío, entonces es la causa última de sus acciones. Si el determinismo es cierto, entonces todas las decisiones de una persona son causadas por eventos y hechos fuera de su control. Por lo tanto, si todo lo que alguien hace es causado por eventos y hechos fuera de su control, entonces no puede ser la causa última de sus acciones. Por consiguiente, no puede tener libre albedrío. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] Este argumento también ha sido cuestionado por filósofos compatibilistas. [ 41 ] [ 42 ]

Un tercer argumento a favor del incompatibilismo fue formulado por Carl Ginet en la década de 1960 y ha recibido mucha atención en la literatura moderna. El argumento simplificado se plantea de la siguiente manera: si el determinismo es cierto, entonces no tenemos control sobre los eventos del pasado que determinaron nuestro estado presente ni sobre las leyes de la naturaleza. Dado que no podemos tener control sobre estos asuntos, tampoco podemos tener control sobre sus consecuencias . Dado que nuestras elecciones y actos presentes, bajo el determinismo, son las consecuencias necesarias del pasado y de las leyes de la naturaleza, entonces no tenemos control sobre ellos y, por lo tanto, no tenemos libre albedrío. Esto se conoce como el argumento de la consecuencia . [ 43 ] [ 44 ] Peter van Inwagen señala que C. D. Broad tenía una versión del argumento de la consecuencia ya en la década de 1930. [ 45 ]

La dificultad de este argumento para algunos compatibilistas radica en que implica la imposibilidad de haber elegido de otra manera. Por ejemplo, si Jane es compatibilista y acaba de sentarse en el sofá, se compromete a afirmar que podría haber permanecido de pie si así lo hubiera deseado. Pero del argumento de la consecuencia se deduce que, si Jane hubiera permanecido de pie, habría generado una contradicción, violado las leyes de la naturaleza o alterado el pasado. Por lo tanto, los compatibilistas se comprometen a la existencia de "capacidades increíbles", según Ginet y van Inwagen. Una respuesta a este argumento es que ambigüedada las nociones de capacidades y necesidades, o que el libre albedrío invocado para tomar una decisión determinada es en realidad una ilusión y que la decisión ya estaba tomada, sin que nadie la "decidiera". [ 44 ] David Lewis sugiere que los compatibilistas se comprometen únicamente a la capacidad de actuar de otra manera si en el pasado se hubieran dado circunstancias diferentes . [ 46 ]

Utilizando V , F para "verdadero" y "falso" y ? para indeciso, hay exactamente nueve posiciones con respecto al determinismo/libre albedrío que consisten en dos cualesquiera de estas tres posibilidades: [ 47 ]

El incompatibilismo puede ocupar cualquiera de las nueve posiciones excepto (5), (8) o (3), que corresponde al determinismo suave . La posición (1) es determinismo duro , y la posición (2) es libertarismo . (1) añade a la tabla la afirmación de que D implica FW es falso, y (2) añade la afirmación de que FW implica D es falso. La posición (9) puede denominarse incompatibilismo duro si se interpreta ? como que ambos conceptos son de dudoso valor. El compatibilismo en sí mismo puede ocupar cualquiera de las nueve posiciones; es decir, no existe contradicción lógica entre determinismo y libre albedrío, y uno o ambos pueden ser verdaderos o falsos en principio. Pero el compatibilismo se entiende más comúnmente como la afirmación de que alguna forma de determinismo es verdadera y, sin embargo, tenemos alguna forma de libre albedrío, posición (3). [ 48 ]

El movimiento de una ficha de dominó está determinado completamente por las leyes de la física.

Alex Rosenberg realiza una extrapolación del determinismo físico, inferido a escala macroscópica por el comportamiento de un conjunto de dominós, a la actividad neuronal en el cerebro, donde «Si el cerebro no es más que un objeto físico complejo cuyos estados están tan regidos por leyes físicas como cualquier otro objeto físico, entonces lo que sucede en nuestras cabezas es tan fijo y determinado por eventos previos como lo que sucede cuando un dominó derriba a otro en una larga fila de ellos». [ 49 ] El determinismo físico es cuestionado por interpretaciones prominentes de la mecánica cuántica , y si bien no necesariamente representa el indeterminismo intrínseco en la naturaleza, los límites fundamentales de precisión en la medición son inherentes al principio de incertidumbre . [ 50 ] Pero la relevancia de dicha actividad indeterminada prospectiva para el libre albedrío es cuestionada, [ 51 ] incluso cuando se introduce la teoría del caos para magnificar los efectos de tales eventos microscópicos. [ 31 ] [ 52 ]

A continuación se examinan estas posiciones con más detalle. [ 47 ]

determinismo duro

Una taxonomía simplificada de las posturas filosóficas sobre el libre albedrío y el determinismo.

El determinismo puede dividirse en determinismo causal, lógico y teológico. [ 53 ] Correspondiente a cada uno de estos significados diferentes, surge un problema distinto para el libre albedrío. [ 54 ] El determinismo duro es la afirmación de que el determinismo es verdadero y que es incompatible con el libre albedrío , por lo que este no existe. Si bien el determinismo duro generalmente se refiere al determinismo nomológico (véase determinismo causal más adelante), puede incluir todas las formas de determinismo que requieren el futuro en su totalidad. [ 55 ] Las formas relevantes de determinismo incluyen:

Determinismo causal
La idea de que todo es causado por condiciones previas, lo que hace imposible que ocurra algo más. [ 56 ] En su forma más común, el determinismo nomológico (o científico) , los eventos futuros son necesarios por eventos pasados ​​y presentes combinados con las leyes de la naturaleza. Este determinismo se ilustra a veces con el experimento mental del demonio de Laplace . Imaginemos una entidad que conoce todos los hechos sobre el pasado y el presente, y conoce todas las leyes naturales que rigen el universo. Si las leyes de la naturaleza fueran determinadas, entonces dicha entidad podría usar este conocimiento para prever el futuro, hasta el más mínimo detalle. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] Una buena manera de conceptualizar esto es pensar en cómo los científicos conocen la velocidad y la posición de los planetas. Usando leyes conocidas de la dinámica orbital, los científicos saben dónde estará el planeta en el futuro en cualquier momento dado. Este concepto se extrapola luego para incluir todo en el universo.
Determinismo lógico
La noción de que todas las proposiciones , ya sean sobre el pasado, el presente o el futuro, son verdaderas o falsas. El problema del libre albedrío, en este contexto, es el problema de cómo las elecciones pueden ser libres, dado que lo que uno hace en el futuro ya está determinado como verdadero o falso en el presente. [ 54 ]
determinismo teológico
La idea de que el futuro ya está determinado, ya sea por una deidad creadora que lo decreta o que conoce su resultado de antemano. [ 59 ] [ 60 ] El problema del libre albedrío, en este contexto, es el problema de cómo nuestras acciones pueden ser libres si hay un ser que las ha determinado por nosotros de antemano, o si ya están fijadas en el tiempo.

Otras formas de determinismo son más relevantes para el compatibilismo, como el determinismo biológico , la idea de que todos los comportamientos, creencias y deseos están determinados por nuestra dotación genética y nuestra constitución bioquímica, esta última afectada tanto por los genes como por el ambiente, el determinismo cultural y el determinismo psicológico . [ 54 ] Las combinaciones y síntesis de tesis deterministas, como el determinismo bioambiental, son aún más comunes.

Se ha sugerido que el determinismo duro no necesita mantener el determinismo estricto, ya que algo similar, como lo que informalmente se conoce como determinismo adecuado , es quizás más relevante. [ 32 ] A pesar de esto, el determinismo duro ha perdido popularidad en la actualidad, dadas las sugerencias científicas de que el determinismo es falso. [ 29 ]

Metaphysical libertarianism

Various definitions of free will that have been proposed for Metaphysical Libertarianism (agent/substance causal,[61] centered accounts,[62] and efforts of will theory[31]), along with examples of other common free will positions (Compatibilism,[19] Hard Determinism,[63] and Hard Incompatibilism[35]). Red circles represent mental states; blue circles represent physical states; arrows describe causal interaction.

One kind of incompatibilism, metaphysical libertarianism holds onto a concept of free will that requires that the agent be able to take more than one possible course of action under a given set of circumstances.[64]

Accounts of libertarianism subdivide into non-physical theories and physical or naturalistic theories. Non-physical theories hold that the events in the brain that lead to the performance of actions do not have an entirely physical explanation, which requires that the world is not closed under physics. This includes interactionist dualism, which claims that some non-physical mind, will, or soul overrides physical causality. Physical determinism implies there is only one possible future and is therefore not compatible with libertarian free will. As consequent of incompatibilism, metaphysical libertarian explanations that do not involve dispensing with physicalism require physical indeterminism, such as probabilistic subatomic particle behavior – theory unknown to many of the early writers on free will. Incompatibilist theories can be categorised based on the type of indeterminism they require; uncaused events, non-deterministically caused events, and agent/substance-caused events.[61]

Non-causal theories

Las explicaciones no causales del libre albedrío incompatibilista no requieren que una acción libre sea causada por un agente o un evento físico. Se basan en un mundo que no es causalmente cerrado o en el indeterminismo físico. Estas explicaciones suelen afirmar que cada acción intencional requiere una elección o voluntad: una voluntad, un intento o un esfuerzo por parte del agente (como el componente cognitivo de levantar el brazo). [ 65 ] [ 66 ] Dichas acciones intencionales se interpretan como acciones libres. Sin embargo, se ha sugerido que no se puede decir que tales actos ejerzan control sobre algo en particular. Según las explicaciones no causales, la causalidad del agente no puede analizarse en términos de causalidad por estados mentales o eventos, incluyendo el deseo, la creencia o la intención de algo en particular, sino que se considera una cuestión de espontaneidad y creatividad. El ejercicio de la intención en tales acciones intencionales no es lo que determina su libertad; más bien, las acciones intencionales son autogeneradoras. La «sensación de acto» de algunas acciones intencionales no «constituye la actividad de ese evento, ni el ejercicio de control activo por parte del agente»; más bien, «podrían ser provocadas por la estimulación directa del cerebro de alguien, en ausencia de cualquier deseo o intención relevante por parte de esa persona». [ 61 ] Otra cuestión que plantea esta teoría no causal es cómo actúa un agente sobre la razón si dichas acciones intencionales son espontáneas.

Algunas explicaciones no causales implican invocar el panpsiquismo , la teoría de que una cualidad de la mente está asociada a todas las partículas y que impregna todo el universo, tanto en entidades animadas como inanimadas.

Teorías causales de eventos

Las explicaciones causales de eventos del libre albedrío incompatibilista suelen basarse en modelos fisicalistas de la mente (como los del compatibilista), pero presuponen el indeterminismo físico, en el que se dice que ciertos eventos indeterministas son causados ​​por el agente. Se han creado varias explicaciones causales de eventos del libre albedrío, a las que aquí se hace referencia como indeterminismo deliberativo , explicaciones centradas y esfuerzos de la teoría de la voluntad . [ 61 ] Las dos primeras explicaciones no requieren que el libre albedrío sea un constituyente fundamental del universo. Se recurre a la aleatoriedad ordinaria para proporcionar el "margen de maniobra" que los libertarios consideran necesario. Una primera objeción común a las explicaciones causales de eventos es que el indeterminismo podría ser destructivo y, por lo tanto, podría disminuir el control del agente en lugar de proporcionarlo (relacionado con el problema de la originación). Una segunda objeción común a estos modelos es que es cuestionable si tal indeterminismo podría agregar algún valor a la deliberación sobre lo que ya está presente en un mundo determinista.

El indeterminismo deliberativo afirma que el indeterminismo se limita a una etapa anterior del proceso de decisión. [ 67 ] [ 68 ] Esto pretende proporcionar un conjunto indeterminado de posibilidades entre las que elegir, sin arriesgarse a introducir la suerte (toma de decisiones aleatoria). El proceso de selección es determinista, aunque puede basarse en preferencias anteriores establecidas por el mismo proceso. El indeterminismo deliberativo ha sido referenciado por Daniel Dennett [ 69 ] y John Martin Fischer . [ 70 ] Una objeción obvia a esta visión es que a un agente no se le puede asignar la propiedad de sus decisiones (o preferencias utilizadas para tomar esas decisiones) en un grado mayor que el de un modelo compatibilista.

Los enfoques centrados proponen que, para cualquier decisión dada entre dos posibilidades, se considerará la fuerza de la razón para cada opción, aunque todavía existe la probabilidad de que se elija al candidato más débil. [ 62 ] [ 71 ] [ 72 ] [ 73 ] [ 74 ] [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Una objeción obvia a tal visión es que las decisiones se dejan explícitamente al azar, y no se puede asignar origen ni responsabilidad para ninguna decisión dada.

La teoría de los esfuerzos de la voluntad se relaciona con el papel de la fuerza de voluntad en la toma de decisiones. Sugiere que la indeterminación de los procesos de volición del agente podría corresponder a la indeterminación de ciertos eventos físicos  , y que, por lo tanto, los resultados de estos eventos podrían considerarse causados ​​por el agente. Se han construido modelos de volición en los que se la considera un tipo particular de proceso complejo de alto nivel con un elemento de indeterminismo físico. Un ejemplo de este enfoque es el de Robert Kane , quien plantea la hipótesis de que "en cada caso, el indeterminismo funciona como un impedimento u obstáculo para que ella logre uno de sus propósitos  ; un impedimento u obstáculo en forma de resistencia dentro de su voluntad que debe ser superada mediante el esfuerzo". [ 31 ] Según Robert Kane, dicha "responsabilidad última" es una condición necesaria para el libre albedrío. [ 77 ] Un factor importante en dicha teoría es que el agente no puede reducirse a eventos neuronales físicos, sino que se dice que los procesos mentales proporcionan una explicación igualmente válida de la determinación del resultado que sus procesos físicos (véase fisicalismo no reductivo ).

Aunque en aquel momento la mecánica cuántica (y el indeterminismo físico) se encontraban solo en las etapas iniciales de aceptación, en su libro Milagros: Un estudio preliminar , C.S. Lewis planteó la posibilidad lógica de que, si se demostrara que el mundo físico era indeterminista, esto proporcionaría un punto de partida para describir la acción de una entidad no física sobre la realidad física. [ 78 ] Los modelos físicos indeterministas (en particular, aquellos que implican indeterminación cuántica ) introducen sucesos aleatorios a nivel atómico o subatómico. Estos eventos podrían afectar la actividad cerebral y, aparentemente, permitir el libre albedrío incompatibilista si la aparente indeterminación de algunos procesos mentales (por ejemplo, las percepciones subjetivas de control en la voluntad consciente ) se corresponde con la indeterminación subyacente del constructo físico. Pero esta relación requiere un papel causal sobre las probabilidades que es cuestionable, [ 79 ] y está lejos de estar establecido que la actividad cerebral responsable de la acción humana pueda verse afectada por tales eventos. Además, estos modelos incompatibilistas dependen de la relación entre acción y voluntad consciente, tal como se estudia en la neurociencia del libre albedrío . Es evidente que la observación puede alterar el resultado de la observación misma, lo que limita nuestra capacidad para identificar la causalidad. [ 50 ] Niels Bohr , uno de los principales arquitectos de la teoría cuántica, sugirió, sin embargo, que no existe conexión entre el indeterminismo de la naturaleza y el libre albedrío. [ 51 ]

Teorías causales agente/sustancia

Las explicaciones agente/sustancia-causalidad del libre albedrío incompatibilista se basan en el dualismo de sustancias en su descripción de la mente. Se asume que el agente tiene poder para intervenir en el mundo físico. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] [ 87 ] Las explicaciones agente (sustancia)-causalidad han sido sugeridas tanto por George Berkeley [ 88 ] como por Thomas Reid . [ 89 ] Se requiere que lo que el agente causa no esté determinado causalmente por eventos previos. También se requiere que la causación de ese evento por parte del agente no esté determinada causalmente por eventos previos. Se han identificado varios problemas con esta visión. Primero, es difícil establecer la razón de cualquier elección dada por el agente, lo que sugiere que pueden ser aleatorias o determinadas por la suerte (sin una base subyacente para la decisión). Segundo, se ha cuestionado si los eventos físicos pueden ser causados ​​por una sustancia o mente externa, un problema común asociado con el dualismo interaccionista .

incompatibilismo duro

El incompatibilismo radical es la idea de que el libre albedrío no puede existir, independientemente de si el mundo es determinista o no. Derk Pereboom ha defendido el incompatibilismo radical, identificando diversas posturas en las que el libre albedrío es irrelevante para el indeterminismo/determinismo, entre ellas las siguientes:

  1. El determinismo (D) es verdadero, D no implica que carezcamos de libre albedrío (F), pero de hecho sí carecemos de F.
  2. D es verdadero, D no implica que carezcamos de F, pero de hecho no sabemos si tenemos F.
  3. D es verdadero, y tenemos F.
  4. Si D es verdadero, tenemos F, y F implica D.
  5. D no está probado, pero tenemos F.
  6. D no es cierto, tenemos F, y tendríamos F incluso si D fuera cierto.
  7. D no es cierto, no tenemos F, pero F es compatible con D.
Derk Pereboom, Vivir sin libre albedrío , [ 35 ] pág. xvi.

Pereboom llama a las posiciones 3 y 4 determinismo suave , a la posición 1 una forma de determinismo duro , a la posición 6 una forma de libertarismo clásico y a cualquier posición que incluya tener F como compatibilismo .

John Locke negó que la expresión «libre albedrío» tuviera sentido alguno (compárese con el no cognitivismo teológico , una postura similar sobre la existencia de Dios ). También sostuvo que la verdad del determinismo era irrelevante. Creía que la característica definitoria del comportamiento voluntario era la capacidad de posponer una decisión el tiempo suficiente para reflexionar o deliberar sobre las consecuencias de una elección: «la voluntad, en verdad, no significa más que un poder o capacidad para preferir o elegir». [ 90 ]

El filósofo contemporáneo Galen Strawson coincide con Locke en que la verdad o falsedad del determinismo es irrelevante para el problema. [ 91 ] Argumenta que la noción de libre albedrío conduce a una regresión infinita y, por lo tanto, carece de sentido. Según Strawson, si uno es responsable de lo que hace en una situación dada, entonces debe ser responsable de cómo es en ciertos aspectos mentales. Pero es imposible ser responsable de cómo es uno en cualquier aspecto. Esto se debe a que para ser responsable en una situación S , uno debe haber sido responsable de cómo era en S −1 . Para ser responsable de cómo era uno en S −1 , uno debe haber sido responsable de cómo era en S −2 , y así sucesivamente. En algún punto de la cadena, debe haber habido un acto de originación de una nueva cadena causal. Pero esto es imposible. El hombre no puede crearse a sí mismo ni sus estados mentales ex nihilo . Este argumento implica que el libre albedrío en sí mismo es absurdo, pero no que sea incompatible con el determinismo. Strawson denomina a su postura «pesimismo», pero puede clasificarse como incompatibilismo radical . [ 91 ]

Determinismo causal

El determinismo causal es el concepto de que los eventos dentro de un paradigma dado están ligados por la causalidad de tal manera que cualquier estado (de un objeto o evento) está completamente determinado por estados previos. El determinismo causal propone que existe una cadena ininterrumpida de sucesos previos que se remonta al origen del universo. Los deterministas causales creen que no existe nada incausado o autocausado . La forma más común de determinismo causal es el determinismo nomológico (o determinismo científico), la noción de que el pasado y el presente dictan el futuro de forma completa y necesaria mediante leyes naturales rígidas, y que cada suceso resulta inevitablemente de eventos previos. La mecánica cuántica plantea un serio desafío a esta visión.

Continúa el debate fundamental sobre si el universo físico es determinista . Si bien el método científico no permite descartar el indeterminismo en lo que respecta a las violaciones del cierre causal , sí permite identificarlo en las leyes naturales. Las interpretaciones actuales de la mecánica cuántica son tanto deterministas como indeterministas, y están sujetas a las limitaciones de la experimentación en curso. [ 92 ]

Destino y suerte

El destino o la fatalidad es un curso predeterminado de los acontecimientos. Puede concebirse como un futuro predeterminado, ya sea general o individual. Es un concepto basado en la creencia de que existe un orden natural fijo en el cosmos.

Aunque a menudo se usan indistintamente, las palabras "destino" y "fatalidad" tienen connotaciones distintas.

El destino generalmente implica que existe un curso predeterminado del que no se puede desviar y sobre el cual no se tiene control. El destino está relacionado con el determinismo , pero no afirma específicamente el determinismo físico. Incluso con el indeterminismo físico, un evento aún podría estar predestinado externamente (véase, por ejemplo, el determinismo teológico ). De igual modo, el destino está relacionado con el determinismo, pero no afirma específicamente el determinismo físico. Incluso con el indeterminismo físico, un evento aún podría estar predestinado a ocurrir.

El destino implica que existe un curso preestablecido del que no se puede desviar, pero no hace ninguna afirmación con respecto al establecimiento de ese curso (es decir, no necesariamente entra en conflicto con el libre albedrío incompatibilista ). El libre albedrío, de existir, podría ser el mecanismo mediante el cual se elige ese resultado predestinado (determinado para representar el destino). [ 93 ]

Determinismo lógico

El debate sobre el destino no implica necesariamente la existencia de poderes sobrenaturales. El determinismo lógico , o la determinación, postula que todas las proposiciones, ya sean sobre el pasado, el presente o el futuro, son verdaderas o falsas. Esto plantea un problema singular para el libre albedrío, dado que las proposiciones sobre el futuro ya poseen un valor de verdad en el presente (es decir, ya están determinadas como verdaderas o falsas), y se conoce como el problema de las contingencias futuras .

Omnisciencia

La omnisciencia es la capacidad de saber todo lo que hay que saber (incluidos todos los eventos futuros), y es una propiedad que a menudo se atribuye a una deidad creadora. La omnisciencia implica la existencia del destino. Algunos autores han afirmado que el libre albedrío no puede coexistir con la omnisciencia. Un argumento sostiene que un creador omnisciente no solo implica el destino, sino también una forma de predeterminismo de alto nivel , como el determinismo teológico estricto o la predestinación  : que ha fijado de antemano, de forma independiente, todos los eventos y resultados del universo. En tal caso, incluso si un individuo pudiera influir en su sistema físico de nivel inferior, sus decisiones al respecto no pueden ser propias, como ocurre con el libre albedrío libertario. La omnisciencia se presenta como un argumento de propiedades incompatibles para la existencia de Dios , conocido como el argumento del libre albedrío , y está estrechamente relacionada con otros argumentos similares, por ejemplo, la incompatibilidad de la omnipotencia con una deidad creadora benevolente (es decir, si una deidad supiera lo que iban a elegir, entonces sería responsable de permitirles elegirlo).

Predeterminismo

El predeterminismo es la idea de que todos los eventos están determinados de antemano. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] El predeterminismo es la filosofía que sostiene que todos los eventos de la historia , pasados, presentes y futuros, han sido decididos o son conocidos (por Dios , el destino o alguna otra fuerza), incluidas las acciones humanas. El predeterminismo se suele interpretar como que las acciones humanas no pueden interferir con (o no tienen ninguna influencia sobre) los resultados de un curso de eventos predeterminado, y que el destino de cada uno fue establecido externamente (por ejemplo, exclusivamente por una deidad creadora). El concepto de predeterminismo se suele argumentar invocando el determinismo causal , lo que implica que existe una cadena ininterrumpida de sucesos previos que se remonta al origen del universo. En el caso del predeterminismo, esta cadena de eventos ha sido preestablecida, y las acciones humanas no pueden interferir con los resultados de esta cadena preestablecida. El predeterminismo puede usarse para referirse a un determinismo causal preestablecido, en cuyo caso se clasifica como un tipo específico de determinismo . [ 94 ] [ 96 ] También puede usarse indistintamente con determinismo causal  , en el contexto de su capacidad para determinar eventos futuros. [ 94 ] [ 97 ] A pesar de esto, el predeterminismo a menudo se considera independiente del determinismo causal. [ 98 ] [ 99 ] El término predeterminismo también se usa frecuentemente en el contexto de la biología y la herencia, en cuyo caso representa una forma de determinismo biológico . [ 100 ]

El término predeterminismo sugiere no solo la determinación de todos los eventos, sino la determinación previa y deliberadamente consciente de todos ellos (por lo tanto, presumiblemente, realizada por un ser consciente). Mientras que el determinismo suele referirse a una causalidad de los eventos explicable naturalísticamente, el predeterminismo parece sugerir, por definición, a una persona o a un "alguien" que controla o planifica la causalidad de los eventos antes de que ocurran y que, por lo tanto, quizás reside más allá del universo natural y causal. La predestinación afirma que un ser supremamente poderoso ha fijado de antemano todos los eventos y resultados del universo, y es una doctrina famosa de los calvinistas en la teología cristiana . La predestinación se considera a menudo una forma de determinismo teológico estricto .

Predeterminism has therefore been compared to fatalism.[101] Fatalism is the idea that everything is fated to happen, so that humans have no control over their future.

Theological determinism

Theological determinism is a form of determinism stating that all events that happen are pre-ordained, or predestined to happen, by a monotheisticdeity, or that they are destined to occur given its omniscience. Two forms of theological determinism exist, here referenced as strong and weak theological determinism.[102]

  • The first one, strong theological determinism, is based on the concept of a creator deity dictating all events in history: "everything that happens has been predestined to happen by an omniscient, omnipotent divinity."[103]
  • The second form, weak theological determinism, is based on the concept of divine foreknowledge – "because God's omniscience is perfect, what God knows about the future will inevitably happen, which means, consequently, that the future is already fixed."[104]

There exist slight variations on the above categorisation. Some claim that theological determinism requires predestination of all events and outcomes by the divinity (that is, they do not classify the weaker version as 'theological determinism' unless libertarian free will is assumed to be denied as a consequence), or that the weaker version does not constitute 'theological determinism' at all.[55] Theological determinism can also be seen as a form of causal determinism, in which the antecedent conditions are the nature and will of God.[56] With respect to free will and the classification of theological compatibilism/incompatibilism below, "theological determinism is the thesis that God exists and has infallible knowledge of all true propositions including propositions about our future actions," more minimal criteria designed to encapsulate all forms of theological determinism.[32]

A simplified taxonomy of philosophical positions regarding free will and theological determinism[33]

There are various implications for metaphysical libertarian free will as consequent of theological determinism and its philosophical interpretation.

  • El determinismo teológico fuerte no es compatible con el libre albedrío libertario metafísico y es una forma de determinismo teológico duro (equivalente al fatalismo teológico que se describe más adelante). Afirma que el libre albedrío no existe y que Dios tiene control absoluto sobre las acciones de una persona. El determinismo teológico duro tiene implicaciones similares al determinismo duro , aunque no invalida el libre albedrío compatibilista . [ 33 ] El determinismo teológico duro es una forma de incompatibilismo teológico (véase la figura, arriba a la izquierda).
  • El determinismo teológico débil es compatible o incompatible con el libre albedrío libertario metafísico, dependiendo de la interpretación filosófica de la omnisciencia  ; y, como tal, se interpreta como una forma de determinismo teológico duro (conocido como fatalismo teológico ) o como determinismo teológico blando (terminología utilizada solo por claridad). El determinismo teológico blando afirma que los humanos tienen libre albedrío para elegir sus acciones, sosteniendo que Dios, si bien conoce sus acciones antes de que ocurran , no afecta el resultado. La providencia de Dios es "compatible" con la elección voluntaria. El determinismo teológico blando se conoce como compatibilismo teológico (véase la figura, arriba a la derecha). El rechazo del determinismo teológico (o presciencia divina ) también se clasifica como incompatibilismo teológico (véase la figura, abajo) y es relevante para una discusión más general sobre el libre albedrío. [ 33 ]

El argumento básico a favor del fatalismo teológico en el caso de un determinismo teológico débil es el siguiente:

  1. Suponer conocimiento divino o omnisciencia
  2. La presciencia infalible implica destino (se sabe con certeza lo que uno hará).
  3. El destino elimina cualquier otra posibilidad (no se puede hacer de otra manera).
  4. Afirmar la incompatibilidad con el libre albedrío libertario metafísico.

Este argumento se acepta con frecuencia como base del incompatibilismo teológico: niega el libre albedrío libertario o la presciencia divina (omnisciencia) y, por lo tanto, el determinismo teológico. Por otro lado, el compatibilismo teológico debe intentar encontrarle problemas. La versión formal del argumento se basa en varias premisas, muchas de las cuales han sido objeto de controversia. Entre las respuestas del compatibilismo teológico se incluyen:

  • Negar el valor de verdad de los contingentes futuros , aunque esto niega la presciencia y, por lo tanto, el determinismo teológico.
  • Afirmar diferencias en el conocimiento no temporal (independencia espacio-temporal), un enfoque adoptado por ejemplo por Boecio , [ 105 ] Tomás de Aquino , [ 106 ] y C.S. Lewis . [ 107 ]
  • Negar el principio de posibilidades alternativas : «Si no puedes hacer otra cosa cuando haces un acto, no actúas libremente». Por ejemplo, un observador humano podría, en principio, tener una máquina que pudiera detectar lo que sucederá en el futuro, pero la existencia de esta máquina o su uso no influye en los resultados de los acontecimientos. [ 108 ]

En la definición de compatibilismo e incompatibilismo , la literatura a menudo no distingue entre determinismo físico y formas superiores de determinismo (predeterminismo, determinismo teológico, etc.). Por lo tanto, el determinismo estricto con respecto al determinismo teológico (o "determinismo teológico estricto" mencionado anteriormente) podría clasificarse como incompatibilismo estricto con respecto al determinismo físico (si no se hiciera ninguna afirmación sobre la causalidad interna o el determinismo del universo), o incluso como compatibilismo (si no se considerara necesaria la ausencia de la restricción del determinismo para el libre albedrío), si no como determinismo estricto en sí mismo. Siguiendo el mismo principio, el libertarismo metafísico (una forma de incompatibilismo con respecto al determinismo físico) podría clasificarse como compatibilismo con respecto al determinismo teológico (si se asumiera que tales eventos de libre albedrío estaban preordenados y, por lo tanto, destinados a ocurrir, pero cuyos resultados no estaban "predestinados" ni determinados por Dios). Si se acepta el determinismo teológico estricto (si se asumiera que tales resultados están predestinados por Dios), entonces el libertarismo metafísico no es posible y requeriría una reclasificación (como incompatibilismo estricto, por ejemplo, dado que se sigue asumiendo que el universo es indeterminista  , aunque la clasificación de determinismo estricto también es técnicamente válida). [ 55 ]

Problema mente-cuerpo

René Descartes

La idea del libre albedrío es un aspecto del problema mente-cuerpo , es decir, la consideración de la relación entre la mente (por ejemplo, la conciencia, la memoria y el juicio) y el cuerpo (por ejemplo, el cerebro humano y el sistema nervioso ). Los modelos filosóficos de la mente se dividen en exposiciones físicas y no físicas.

El dualismo cartesiano sostiene que la mente es una sustancia no física, sede de la conciencia y la inteligencia, y no es idéntica a los estados físicos del cerebro o el cuerpo. Se sugiere que, aunque los dos mundos interactúan, cada uno conserva cierto grado de autonomía. Según el dualismo cartesiano, la mente externa es responsable de la acción corporal, aunque la actividad cerebral inconsciente suele ser causada por eventos externos (por ejemplo, la reacción instantánea a una quemadura). [ 109 ] El dualismo cartesiano implica que el mundo físico no es determinista  , y que la mente externa controla (al menos algunos) eventos físicos, proporcionando una interpretación del libre albedrío incompatibilista . A partir del dualismo cartesiano, una formulación a veces llamada dualismo interaccionista sugiere una interacción bidireccional, donde algunos eventos físicos causan algunos actos mentales y algunos actos mentales causan algunos eventos físicos. Una visión moderna de la posible separación de mente y cuerpo es la formulación de los "tres mundos" de Popper . [ 110 ] El dualismo cartesiano y los tres mundos de Popper son dos formas de lo que se denomina pluralismo epistemológico , es decir, la noción de que se requieren diferentes metodologías epistemológicas para lograr una descripción completa del mundo. Otras formas de dualismo pluralista epistemológico incluyen el paralelismo psicofísico y el epifenomenalismo . El pluralismo epistemológico es una perspectiva en la que el problema mente-cuerpo no se reduce a los conceptos de las ciencias naturales.

Un enfoque contrastante se denomina fisicalismo . El fisicalismo es una teoría filosófica que sostiene que todo lo que existe no es más extenso que sus propiedades físicas ; es decir, que no existen sustancias no físicas (por ejemplo, mentes físicamente independientes). El fisicalismo puede ser reductivo o no reductivo. El fisicalismo reductivo se basa en la idea de que todo en el mundo puede reducirse analíticamente a su base física o material fundamental. Por otro lado, el fisicalismo no reductivo afirma que las propiedades mentales forman una clase ontológica separada de las propiedades físicas: que los estados mentales (como los qualia ) no son ontológicamente reducibles a estados físicos. Si bien podría suponerse que los estados mentales y los estados neurológicos son de naturaleza diferente, esto no descarta la posibilidad de que los estados mentales estén correlacionados con los estados neurológicos. En una de estas construcciones, el monismo anómalo , los eventos mentales sobrevienen a los eventos físicos, describiendo la emergencia de propiedades mentales correlacionadas con propiedades físicas  , lo que implica reducibilidad causal. Por lo tanto, el fisicalismo no reductivo se suele clasificar como dualismo de propiedades en lugar de monismo , aunque otros tipos de dualismo de propiedades no se adhieren a la reducibilidad causal de los estados mentales (véase epifenomenalismo).

El incompatibilismo exige una distinción entre lo mental y lo físico, siendo un comentario sobre la incompatibilidad entre la realidad física (determinada) y la experiencia, presumiblemente distinta, de la voluntad. En segundo lugar, el libre albedrío libertario metafísico debe ejercer influencia sobre la realidad física, y cuando la mente es responsable de dicha influencia (a diferencia de la aleatoriedad del sistema ordinario), debe ser distinta del cuerpo para lograrlo. Tanto el dualismo de sustancias como el de propiedades ofrecen tal distinción, y aquellos modelos particulares que no son causalmente inertes con respecto al mundo físico proporcionan una base para ilustrar el libre albedrío incompatibilista (es decir, el dualismo interaccionista y el fisicalismo no reductivo).

Se ha señalado que las leyes de la física aún no han resuelto el problema difícil de la conciencia : [ 111 ] "Resolver el problema difícil de la conciencia implica determinar cómo los procesos fisiológicos, como el flujo de iones a través de la membrana nerviosa , nos hacen tener experiencias." [ 112 ] Según algunos, "Íntimamente relacionado con el problema difícil de la conciencia, el problema difícil del libre albedrío representa el problema central del libre albedrío consciente: ¿Afecta la voluntad consciente al mundo material?" [ 17 ] Otros, sin embargo, argumentan que " la conciencia juega un papel mucho menor en la vida humana de lo que la cultura occidental ha tendido a creer." [ 113 ]

Compatibilismo

Thomas Hobbes fue un compatibilista clásico.

Los compatibilistas sostienen que el determinismo es compatible con el libre albedrío. Creen que la libertad puede estar presente o ausente en una situación por razones que no tienen nada que ver con la metafísica. Por ejemplo, los tribunales dictan sentencias sobre si los individuos actúan bajo su libre albedrío en determinadas circunstancias sin recurrir a la metafísica. Del mismo modo, la libertad política es un concepto no metafísico. [ 114 ] Asimismo, algunos compatibilistas definen el libre albedrío como la libertad de actuar según los propios motivos sin la interferencia de otros individuos. Así, por ejemplo, Aristóteles en su Ética a Nicómaco , [ 115 ] y el estoico Crisipo. [ 116 ] En contraste, las posturas incompatibilistas se ocupan de una especie de «libre albedrío metafísicamente», que, según los compatibilistas, nunca se ha definido de forma coherente. Los compatibilistas argumentan que el determinismo no importa; aunque discrepan entre sí sobre qué es lo que importa. Para ser compatibilista, no es necesario respaldar ninguna concepción particular del libre albedrío, sino simplemente negar que el determinismo esté reñido con el libre albedrío. [ 117 ]

Aunque existen diversos impedimentos para ejercer la propia voluntad, el libre albedrío no implica libertad de acción. La libertad de elección (libertad para seleccionar la propia voluntad) es lógicamente distinta de la libertad para implementar esa elección (libertad para llevar a cabo la propia voluntad), aunque no todos los autores observan esta distinción. [ 26 ] No obstante, algunos filósofos han definido el libre albedrío como la ausencia de diversos impedimentos. Algunos «compatibilistas modernos», como Harry Frankfurt y Daniel Dennett , sostienen que el libre albedrío consiste simplemente en elegir libremente hacer lo que las restricciones permiten. En otras palabras, las elecciones de un agente coaccionado pueden seguir siendo libres si dicha coacción coincide con las intenciones y deseos personales del agente. [ 37 ] [ 118 ]

Libre albedrío como ausencia de restricción física

La mayoría de los "compatibilistas clásicos", como Thomas Hobbes , afirman que una persona actúa por voluntad propia solo cuando desea realizar la acción, y también cuando le es posible actuar de otra manera si así lo hubiera decidido . Hobbes a veces atribuye esta libertad compatibilista a cada individuo y no a una noción abstracta de voluntad , afirmando, por ejemplo, que "no se puede inferir ninguna libertad de la voluntad, el deseo o la inclinación, sino la libertad del hombre; que consiste en que no encuentra impedimento alguno para hacer lo que quiere, desea o tiene inclinación a hacer [ sic ] ". [ 119 ] Al articular esta condición crucial, David Hume escribe: "Esta libertad hipotética se considera universalmente válida para todo aquel que no sea prisionero ni esté encadenado". [ 120 ] De manera similar, Voltaire , en su Dictionnaire philosophique , afirmó que «la libertad es, pues, solo y puede ser, el poder de hacer lo que uno quiere». Preguntó: «¿Acaso querríamos tenerlo todo a merced de un millón de caprichos ciegos?». Para él, el libre albedrío o la libertad es «solo el poder de actuar; ¿qué es este poder? Es el efecto de la constitución y el estado actual de nuestros órganos».

El compatibilismo también ha sido defendido por Christian List . List distingue entre "posibilidad física" y "posibilidad agencial", y argumenta que el libre albedrío es un fenómeno de nivel superior, a la par con la agencia y la intencionalidad, en lugar de uno físico. [ 121 ]

El libre albedrío como estado psicológico

El compatibilismo suele considerar al agente libre en virtud de su razón. Algunas explicaciones del libre albedrío se centran en la causalidad interna de la mente con respecto al procesamiento cerebral de orden superior  : la interacción entre la actividad cerebral consciente e inconsciente. [ 122 ] Asimismo, algunos compatibilistas modernos en psicología han intentado revivir las luchas tradicionalmente aceptadas del libre albedrío con la formación del carácter. [ 123 ] El libre albedrío compatibilista también se ha atribuido a nuestro sentido natural de agencia , donde uno debe creer que es un agente para funcionar y desarrollar una teoría de la mente . [ 124 ] [ 125 ]

Frankfurt presenta la noción de niveles de decisión de una manera diferente. [ 118 ] Frankfurt defiende una versión del compatibilismo llamada "malla jerárquica". La idea es que un individuo puede tener deseos conflictivos en un nivel de primer orden y también tener un deseo sobre los diversos deseos de primer orden (un deseo de segundo orden) de tal manera que uno de los deseos prevalece sobre los demás. La voluntad de una persona se identifica con su deseo efectivo de primer orden, es decir, aquel sobre el que actúa, y esta voluntad es libre si era el deseo sobre el que la persona quería actuar, es decir, el deseo de segundo orden de la persona era efectivo. Así, por ejemplo, hay "adictos desenfrenados", "adictos involuntarios" y "adictos voluntarios". Los tres grupos pueden tener los deseos conflictivos de primer orden de querer tomar la droga a la que son adictos y de no querer tomarla.

El primer grupo, los adictos desenfrenados , no tienen un deseo de segundo orden de no consumir la droga. El segundo grupo, los "adictos involuntarios", tienen un deseo de segundo orden de no consumir la droga, mientras que el tercer grupo, los "adictos voluntarios", tienen un deseo de segundo orden de consumirla. Según Frankfurt, los miembros del primer grupo carecen de voluntad y, por lo tanto, ya no son personas. Los miembros del segundo grupo desean libremente no consumir la droga, pero su voluntad es vencida por la adicción. Finalmente, los miembros del tercer grupo consumen voluntariamente la droga a la que son adictos. La teoría de Frankfurt puede ramificarse a cualquier número de niveles. Los críticos de la teoría señalan que no hay certeza de que no surjan conflictos incluso en los niveles superiores de deseo y preferencia. [ 126 ] Otros argumentan que Frankfurt no ofrece una explicación adecuada de cómo se entrelazan los diversos niveles de la jerarquía. [ 127 ]

El libre albedrío como imprevisibilidad

In Elbow Room, Dennett presents an argument for a compatibilist theory of free will, which he further elaborated in the book Freedom Evolves.[128] The basic reasoning is that, if one excludes God, an infinitely powerful demon, and other such possibilities, then because of chaos and epistemic limits on the precision of our knowledge of the current state of the world, the future is ill-defined for all finite beings. The only well-defined things are "expectations". The ability to do "otherwise" only makes sense when dealing with these expectations, and not with some unknown and unknowable future.

According to Dennett, because individuals have the ability to act differently from what anyone expects, free will can exist.[128] Incompatibilists claim the problem with this idea is that we may be mere "automata responding in predictable ways to stimuli in our environment". Therefore, all of our actions are controlled by forces outside ourselves, or by random chance.[129] More sophisticated analyses of compatibilist free will have been offered, as have other critiques.[117]

In the philosophy of decision theory, a fundamental question is: From the standpoint of statistical outcomes, to what extent do the choices of a conscious being have the ability to influence the future? Newcomb's paradox and other philosophical problems pose questions about free will and predictable outcomes of choices.

The physical mind

Los modelos compatibilistas del libre albedrío suelen considerar las relaciones deterministas como algo que se puede descubrir en el mundo físico (incluido el cerebro). El naturalismo cognitivo [ 130 ] es un enfoque fisicalista para estudiar la cognición y la conciencia humanas en el que la mente es simplemente parte de la naturaleza, quizás solo una característica de muchos sistemas de retroalimentación de autoprogramación muy complejos (por ejemplo, redes neuronales y robots cognitivos ), y por lo tanto debe estudiarse mediante los métodos de la ciencia empírica, como las ciencias conductuales y cognitivas ( es decir , neurociencia y psicología cognitiva ). [ 109 ] [ 131 ] El naturalismo cognitivo enfatiza el papel de las ciencias neurológicas. La salud cerebral general, la dependencia de sustancias , la depresión y varios trastornos de la personalidad influyen claramente en la actividad mental, y su impacto en la volición también es importante. [ 122 ] Por ejemplo, un adicto puede experimentar un deseo consciente de escapar de la adicción, pero ser incapaz de hacerlo. La "voluntad" está desconectada de la libertad de actuar. Esta situación está relacionada con una producción y distribución anormal de dopamina en el cerebro. [ 132 ] La neurociencia del libre albedrío impone restricciones tanto a las concepciones compatibilistas como incompatibilistas del libre albedrío.

Los modelos compatibilistas se adhieren a modelos de la mente en los que la actividad mental (como la deliberación) puede reducirse a actividad física sin que se produzca ningún cambio en el resultado físico. Aunque el compatibilismo generalmente se alinea con el fisicalismo (o al menos es compatible con él), algunos modelos compatibilistas describen los sucesos naturales de la deliberación determinista en el cerebro en términos de la perspectiva en primera persona del agente consciente que realiza la deliberación. [ 17 ] Este enfoque se ha considerado una forma de dualismo de identidad. Se ha proporcionado una descripción de "cómo la experiencia consciente podría afectar al cerebro" en la que "la experiencia del libre albedrío consciente es la perspectiva en primera persona de los correlatos neuronales de la elección". [ 17 ]

Recientemente, Claudio Costa desarrolló una teoría neocompatibilista basada en la teoría causal de la acción, complementaria al compatibilismo clásico. Según él, las restricciones físicas, psicológicas y racionales pueden interferir en diferentes niveles de la cadena causal que conduce naturalmente a la acción. En consecuencia, pueden existir restricciones físicas al cuerpo, restricciones psicológicas a la decisión y restricciones racionales a la formación de razones (deseos más creencias) que deberían conducir a lo que llamaríamos una acción razonable. Las dos últimas se denominan habitualmente "restricciones del libre albedrío". La restricción a nivel de las razones es particularmente importante, ya que puede estar motivada por razones externas de las que el agente no es plenamente consciente. Un ejemplo fue el suicidio colectivo liderado por Jim Jones . Los suicidas no eran conscientes de que su libre albedrío había sido manipulado por razones externas, aunque carentes de fundamento. [ 133 ]

No naturalismo

Las alternativas a la física estrictamente naturalista , como el dualismo mente-cuerpo que postula una mente o alma que existe separada del cuerpo, pero que percibe, piensa, elige libremente y, como resultado, actúa independientemente sobre él, incluyen tanto la metafísica religiosa tradicional como conceptos compatibilistas más recientes y menos comunes. [ 134 ] También coherentes con la autonomía y el darwinismo , [ 135 ] permiten la libre elección personal basada en razones prácticas dentro de las leyes de la física. [ 136 ] Si bien es menos popular entre los filósofos del siglo XXI, el compatibilismo no naturalista está presente en la mayoría, si no en casi todas, las religiones. [ 137 ]

Otros puntos de vista

Algunas posturas filosóficas son difíciles de clasificar como compatibilistas o incompatibilistas, deterministas estrictas o libertarias. Por ejemplo, Nietzsche criticó las concepciones comunes del libre albedrío —argumentando que los efectos del destino son ineludibles—, al tiempo que criticaba el determinismo y el compatibilismo. Escribió sobre el "amor fati" —amar el propio destino—. Ted Honderich sostiene que "el determinismo es verdadero, mientras que el compatibilismo y el incompatibilismo son falsos", y que el verdadero problema reside en otra parte. Honderich afirma que el determinismo es verdadero porque los fenómenos cuánticos no son eventos ni cosas que puedan ubicarse en el espacio y el tiempo, sino entidades abstractas . Además, incluso si fueran eventos a nivel microscópico, no parecen tener ninguna relevancia para la naturaleza del mundo a nivel macroscópico. Sostiene que el incompatibilismo es falso porque, incluso si el indeterminismo fuera verdadero, los incompatibilistas no han proporcionado, ni pueden proporcionar, una explicación adecuada del origen. Rechaza el compatibilismo porque, al igual que el incompatibilismo, presupone una única noción fundamental de libertad. En realidad, existen dos nociones de libertad: la acción voluntaria y la originación. Ambas son necesarias para explicar la libertad de voluntad y de responsabilidad. Tanto el determinismo como el indeterminismo representan amenazas para dicha libertad. Abandonar estas nociones de libertad equivaldría a abandonar la responsabilidad moral. Por un lado, tenemos nuestras intuiciones; por otro, los hechos científicos. El «nuevo» problema reside en cómo resolver este conflicto. [ 138 ]

El libre albedrío como ilusión

Baruch Spinoza pensaba que no existe el libre albedrío.
«La experiencia nos enseña, con la misma claridad que la razón, que los hombres se creen libres simplemente porque son conscientes de sus acciones, pero desconocen las causas que las determinan.» Baruch Spinoza , Ética [ 139 ]

David Hume planteó la posibilidad de que todo el debate sobre el libre albedrío no sea más que una cuestión meramente «verbal». Sugirió que podría explicarse mediante «una falsa sensación o experiencia aparente» (una veleidad ), que se asocia con muchas de nuestras acciones cuando las realizamos. Al reflexionar, nos damos cuenta de que siempre fueron necesarias y determinadas. [ 140 ]

Arthur Schopenhauer afirmó que los fenómenos no tienen libertad de voluntad, pero la voluntad como noúmeno no está subordinada a las leyes de la necesidad (causalidad) y, por lo tanto, es libre.

Según Arthur Schopenhauer , las acciones humanas, como fenómenos , están sujetas al principio de razón suficiente y, por lo tanto, a la necesidad. Así, argumenta, los humanos no poseen libre albedrío en el sentido convencional. Sin embargo, la voluntad [el impulso, el anhelo, el esfuerzo, el deseo y la ansia], como noúmeno subyacente al mundo fenoménico, carece en sí misma de fundamento: es decir, no está sujeta al tiempo, al espacio ni a la causalidad (las formas que rigen el mundo de las apariencias). Por lo tanto, la voluntad, en sí misma y fuera de las apariencias, es libre. Schopenhauer analizó el enigma del libre albedrío y la responsabilidad moral en El mundo como voluntad y representación , Libro 2, Sec. 23.

Pero se pasa por alto el hecho de que el individuo, la persona, no es voluntad como cosa en sí , sino fenómeno de la voluntad, está determinado como tal y ha adoptado la forma del fenómeno, el principio de razón suficiente. De ahí surge el extraño hecho de que cada uno se considera a priori completamente libre, incluso en sus acciones individuales, e imagina que puede en cualquier momento adoptar un modo de vida diferente... Pero a posteriori, a través de la experiencia, descubre con asombro que no es libre, sino sujeto a la necesidad; que, a pesar de todas sus resoluciones y reflexiones, no cambia su conducta, y que desde el principio hasta el final de su vida debe mantener el mismo carácter que él mismo condena y, por así decirlo, debe representar hasta el final el papel que se ha impuesto. [ 141 ]

Schopenhauer profundizó en el tema en el Libro IV de la misma obra y aún más en su ensayo posterior Sobre la libertad de la voluntad . En esta obra, afirmó: «Puedes hacer lo que quieras, pero en cualquier momento de tu vida solo puedes querer una cosa concreta y absolutamente nada más». [ 142 ]

El libre albedrío como "imaginación moral"

Rudolf Steiner, who collaborated in a complete edition of Arthur Schopenhauer's work,[143] wrote The Philosophy of Freedom, which focuses on the problem of free will. Steiner (1861–1925) initially divides this into the two aspects of freedom: freedom of thought and freedom of action. The controllable and uncontrollable aspects of decision making thereby are made logically separable, as pointed out in the introduction. This separation of will from action has a very long history, going back at least as far as Stoicism and the teachings of Chrysippus (279–206 BCE), who separated external antecedent causes from the internal disposition receiving this cause.[144]

Steiner then argues that inner freedom is achieved when we integrate our sensory impressions, which reflect the outer appearance of the world, with our thoughts, which lend coherence to these impressions and thereby disclose to us an understandable world. Acknowledging the many influences on our choices, he nevertheless points out that they do not preclude freedom unless we fail to recognise them. Steiner argues that outer freedom is attained by permeating our deeds with moral imagination. "Moral" in this case refers to action that is willed, while "imagination" refers to the mental capacity to envision conditions that do not already hold. Both of these functions are necessarily conditions for freedom. Steiner aims to show that these two aspects of inner and outer freedom are integral to one another, and that true freedom is only achieved when they are united.[145]

For Steiner, will is free only when motive (purpose) and mobile (driving force, cause) coincide.[146]

Free will as a pragmatically useful concept

William James' views were ambivalent. While he believed in free will on "ethical grounds", he did not believe that there was evidence for it on scientific grounds, nor did his own introspections support it.[147] Ultimately he believed that the problem of free will was a metaphysical issue and, therefore, could not be settled by science. Moreover, he did not accept incompatibilism as formulated below; he did not believe that the indeterminism of human actions was a prerequisite of moral responsibility. In his work Pragmatism, he wrote that "instinct and utility between them can safely be trusted to carry on the social business of punishment and praise" regardless of metaphysical theories.[148] He did believe that indeterminism is important as a "doctrine of relief" – it allows for the view that, although the world may be in many respects a bad place, it may, through individuals' actions, become a better one. Determinism, he argued, undermines meliorism – the idea that progress is a real concept leading to improvement in the world.[148]

Free will and views of causality

In 1739, David Hume in his A Treatise of Human Nature approached free will via the notion of causality. It was his position that causality was a mental construct used to explain the repeated association of events, and that one must examine more closely the relation between things regularly succeeding one another (descriptions of regularity in nature) and things that result in other things (things that cause or necessitate other things).[149] According to Hume, 'causation' is on weak grounds: "Once we realise that 'A must bring about B' is tantamount merely to 'Due to their constant conjunction, we are psychologically certain that B will follow A,' then we are left with a very weak notion of necessity."[150]

This empiricist view was often denied by trying to prove the so-called apriority of causal law (i.e. that it precedes all experience and is rooted in the construction of the perceivable world):

  • Kant's proof in Critique of Pure Reason (which referenced time and time ordering of causes and effects)[151]
  • Schopenhauer's proof from The Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (which referenced the so-called intellectuality of representations, that is, in other words, objects and qualia perceived with senses)[152]

In the 1780s Immanuel Kant suggested at a minimum our decision processes with moral implications lie outside the reach of everyday causality, and lie outside the rules governing material objects.[153] "There is a sharp difference between moral judgments and judgments of fact... Moral judgments... must be a priori judgments."[154]

Freeman introduces what he calls "circular causality" to "allow for the contribution of self-organizing dynamics", the "formation of macroscopic population dynamics that shapes the patterns of activity of the contributing individuals", applicable to "interactions between neurons and neural masses... and between the behaving animal and its environment".[155] In this view, mind and neurological functions are tightly coupled in a situation where feedback between collective actions (mind) and individual subsystems (for example, neurons and their synapses) jointly decide upon the behaviour of both.

Free will according to Thomas Aquinas

Thirteenth century philosopher Thomas Aquinas viewed humans as pre-programmed (by virtue of being human) to seek certain goals, but able to choose between routes to achieve these goals (our Aristotelian telos). His view has been associated with both compatibilism and libertarianism.[156][157]

In facing choices, he argued that humans are governed by intellect, will, and passions. The will is "the primary mover of all the powers of the soul... and it is also the efficient cause of motion in the body."[158] Choice falls into five stages: (i) intellectual consideration of whether an objective is desirable, (ii) intellectual consideration of means of attaining the objective, (iii) will arrives at an intent to pursue the objective, (iv) will and intellect jointly decide upon choice of means (v) will elects execution.[159] Free will enters as follows: Free will is an "appetitive power", that is, not a cognitive power of intellect (the term "appetite" from Aquinas's definition "includes all forms of internal inclination").[160] He states that judgment "concludes and terminates counsel. Now counsel is terminated, first, by the judgment of reason; secondly, by the acceptation of the appetite [that is, the free-will]."[161]

A compatibilist interpretation of Aquinas's view is defended thus: "Free-will is the cause of its own movement, because by his free-will man moves himself to act. But it does not of necessity belong to liberty that what is free should be the first cause of itself, as neither for one thing to be cause of another need it be the first cause. God, therefore, is the first cause, Who moves causes both natural and voluntary. And just as by moving natural causes He does not prevent their acts being natural, so by moving voluntary causes He does not deprive their actions of being voluntary: but rather is He the cause of this very thing in them; for He operates in each thing according to its own nature."[162][163]

Free will as a pseudo-problem

Historically, most of the philosophical effort invested in resolving the dilemma has taken the form of close examination of definitions and ambiguities in the concepts designated by "free", "freedom", "will", "choice" and so forth. Defining 'free will' often revolves around the meaning of phrases like "ability to do otherwise" or "alternative possibilities". This emphasis upon words has led some philosophers to claim the problem is merely verbal and thus a pseudo-problem.[164] In response, others point out the complexity of decision making and the importance of nuances in the terminology.[165]

Eastern philosophy

Buddhist philosophy

Buddhism accepts both freedom and determinism (or something similar to it), but despite its focus on human agency, it rejects the western concept of a total agent from external sources.[166] According to the Buddha, "There is free action, there is retribution, but I see no agent that passes out from one set of momentary elements into another one, except the [connection] of those elements."[166] Buddhists believe in neither absolute free will, nor determinism. It preaches a middle doctrine, named pratītyasamutpāda in Sanskrit, often translated as "dependent origination", "dependent arising" or "conditioned genesis". It teaches that every volition is a conditioned action as a result of ignorance. In part, it states that free will is inherently conditioned and not "free" to begin with. It is also part of the theory of karma in Buddhism. The concept of karma in Buddhism is different from the notion of karma in Hinduism. In Buddhism, the idea of karma is much less deterministic. The Buddhist notion of karma is primarily focused on the cause and effect of moral actions in this life, while in Hinduism the concept of karma is more often connected with determining one's destiny in future lives.

In Buddhism it is taught that the idea of absolute freedom of choice (that is that any human being could be completely free to make any choice) is unwise, because it denies the reality of one's physical needs and circumstances. Equally incorrect is the idea that humans have no choice in life or that their lives are pre-determined. To deny freedom would be to deny the efforts of Buddhists to make moral progress (through our capacity to freely choose compassionate action). Pubbekatahetuvada, the belief that all happiness and suffering arise from previous actions, is considered a wrong view according to Buddhist doctrines. Because Buddhists also reject agenthood, the traditional compatibilist strategies are closed to them as well. Instead, the Buddhist philosophical strategy is to examine the metaphysics of causality. Ancient India had many heated arguments about the nature of causality with Jains, Nyayists, Samkhyists, Cārvākans, and Buddhists all taking slightly different lines. In many ways, the Buddhist position is closer to a theory of "conditionality" (idappaccayatā) than a theory of "causality", especially as it is expounded by Nagarjuna in the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā.[166]

Hindu philosophy

The six orthodox (astika) schools of thought in Hindu philosophy do not agree with each other entirely on the question of free will. For the Samkhya, for instance, matter is without any freedom, and soul lacks any ability to control the unfolding of matter. The only real freedom (kaivalya) consists in realizing the ultimate separateness of matter and self.[167] For the Yoga school, only Ishvara is truly free, and its freedom is also distinct from all feelings, thoughts, actions, or wills, and is thus not at all a freedom of will. The metaphysics of the Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools strongly suggest a belief in determinism, but do not seem to make explicit claims about determinism or free will.[168]

Quotations from Swami Vivekananda, a Vedantist, offer a perspective on free will in the Hindu tradition:

"The will is not free, it is a phenomenon bound by cause and effect, but there is something behind the will which is free."[169]

"To acquire freedom we have to get beyond the limitations of this universe; it cannot be found here."[170]

Within Vedanta, Madhvacharya argues that souls do not have any free will as Lord Vishnu prescribes all their actions.[171]

Scientific approaches

Quantum physics

Modern science is a mixture of deterministic and stochastic theories.[172] Current physical theories cannot resolve the question of whether determinism is true of the world, being very far from a potential theory of everything, and open to many different interpretations.[173][174]

Assuming that an indeterministic interpretation of quantum mechanics is correct, one may still object that such indeterminism is for all practical purposes confined to microscopic phenomena.[175] A more significant question is whether the indeterminism of quantum mechanics allows for the traditional idea of free will (based on a perception of free will). If a person's action is, however, only a result of complete quantum randomness, mental processes as experienced have no influence on the probabilistic outcomes (such as volition).[31] According to many interpretations, indeterminism enables free will to exist,[176] while others assert the opposite (because the action was not controllable by the physical being who claims to possess the free will).[177]

Genetics

Like physicists, biologists have frequently addressed questions related to free will. One of the most heated debates in biology is that of "nature versus nurture", concerning the relative importance of genetics and biology as compared to culture and environment in human behavior.[178] The view of many researchers is that many human behaviors can be explained in terms of humans' brains, genes, and evolutionary histories.[179][180][181] This point of view raises the fear that such attribution makes it impossible to hold others responsible for their actions. Steven Pinker's view is that fear of determinism in the context of "genetics" and "evolution" is a mistake, that it is "a confusion of explanation with exculpation". Responsibility does not require that behavior be uncaused, as long as behavior responds to praise and blame.[182] Moreover, it is not certain that environmental determination is any less threatening to free will than genetic determination.[183]

Neuroscience and neurophilosophy

It has become possible to study the living brain, and researchers can now watch the brain's decision-making process at work. A seminal experiment in this field was conducted by Benjamin Libet in the 1980s, in which he asked each subject to choose a random moment to flick their wrist while he measured the associated activity in their brain; in particular, the build-up of electrical signal called the readiness potential (after German Bereitschaftspotential, which was discovered by Kornhuber & Deecke in 1965.[184]). Although it was well known that the readiness potential reliably preceded the physical action, Libet asked whether it could be recorded before the conscious intention to move. To determine when subjects felt the intention to move, he asked them to watch the second hand of a clock. After making a movement, the volunteer reported the time on the clock when they first felt the conscious intention to move; this became known as Libet's W time.[185]

Libet found that the unconscious brain activity of the readiness potential leading up to subjects' movements began approximately half a second before the subject was aware of a conscious intention to move.[185][186]

These studies of the timing between actions and the conscious decision bear upon the role of the brain in understanding free will. A subject's declaration of intention to move a finger appears after the brain has begun to implement the action, suggesting to some that unconsciously the brain has made the decision before the conscious mental act to do so. Some believe the implication is that free will was not involved in the decision and is an illusion. The first of these experiments reported the brain registered activity related to the move about 0.2 s before movement onset.[187] However, these authors also found that awareness of action was anticipatory to activity in the muscle underlying the movement; the entire process resulting in action involves more steps than just the onset of brain activity. The bearing of these results upon notions of free will appears complex.[188][189]

Some argue that placing the question of free will in the context of motor control is too narrow. The objection is that the time scales involved in motor control are very short, and motor control involves a great deal of unconscious action, with much physical movement entirely unconscious. On that basis "...free will cannot be squeezed into time frames of 150–350 ms; free will is a longer term phenomenon" and free will is a higher level activity that "cannot be captured in a description of neural activity or of muscle activation..."[190] The bearing of timing experiments upon free will is still under discussion.

More studies have since been conducted, including some that try to:

  • support Libet's original findings
  • suggest that the cancelling or "veto" of an action may first arise subconsciously as well
  • explain the underlying brain structures involved
  • suggest models that explain the relationship between conscious intention and action

Benjamin Libet's results are quoted[191] in favor of epiphenomenalism, but he believes subjects still have a "conscious veto", since the readiness potential does not invariably lead to an action. In Freedom Evolves, Daniel Dennett argues that a no-free-will conclusion is based on dubious assumptions about the location of consciousness, as well as questioning the accuracy and interpretation of Libet's results. Kornhuber and Deecke underlined that absence of conscious will during the early Bereitschaftspotential (termed BP1) is not a proof of the non-existence of free will, as also unconscious agendas may be free and non-deterministic. According to their suggestion, man has relative freedom, i.e. freedom in degrees, that can be increased or decreased through deliberate choices that involve both conscious and unconscious (panencephalic) processes.[192]

Others have argued that data such as the Bereitschaftspotential undermine epiphenomenalism for the same reason, that such experiments rely on a subject reporting the point in time at which a conscious experience occurs, thus relying on the subject to be able to consciously perform an action. That ability would seem to be at odds with early epiphenomenalism, which according to Huxley is the broad claim that consciousness is "completely without any power... as the steam-whistle which accompanies the work of a locomotive engine is without influence upon its machinery".[193]

Adrian G. Guggisberg and Annaïs Mottaz have also challenged those findings.[194]

A study by Aaron Schurger and colleagues published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences[195] challenged assumptions about the causal nature of the readiness potential itself (and the "pre-movement buildup" of neural activity in general), casting doubt on conclusions drawn from studies such as Libet's[185] and Fried's.[196]

Studies by neurosurgeon Rickard L Sjöberg of patients in whom the brain region that gives rise to the readiness potential (the SMA and pre SMA) has been resected, demonstrate profound effects on the ability to execute voluntary actions but not on the subjective sense of wanting or deciding to do so, undermining one popular interpretation of the Libet experiment.[197][198]

A study that compared deliberate and arbitrary decisions, found that the early signs of decision are absent for the deliberate ones.[199]

For example, people with Tourette syndrome and related tic disorders make involuntary movements and utterances (called tics) despite the fact that they would prefer not to do so when it is socially inappropriate. Tics are described as semi-voluntary or unvoluntary,[200] because they are not strictly involuntary: they may be experienced as a voluntary response to an unwanted, premonitory urge. Tics are experienced as irresistible and must eventually be expressed.[200] People with Tourette syndrome are sometimes able to suppress their tics for limited periods, but doing so often results in an explosion of tics afterward. The control exerted (from seconds to hours at a time) may merely postpone and exacerbate the ultimate expression of the tic.[201]

In alien hand syndrome, the affected individual's limb will produce unintentional movements without the will of the person. The affected limb effectively demonstrates 'a will of its own.' The sense of agency does not emerge in conjunction with the overt appearance of the purposeful act even though the sense of ownership in relationship to the body part is maintained. This phenomenon corresponds with an impairment in the premotor mechanism manifested temporally by the appearance of the readiness potential recordable on the scalp several hundred milliseconds before the overt appearance of a spontaneous willed movement. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging with specialized multivariate analyses to study the temporal dimension in the activation of the cortical network associated with voluntary movement in human subjects, an anterior-to-posterior sequential activation process beginning in the supplementary motor area on the medial surface of the frontal lobe and progressing to the primary motor cortex and then to parietal cortex has been observed.[202] The sense of agency thus appears to normally emerge in conjunction with this orderly sequential network activation incorporating premotor association cortices together with primary motor cortex. In particular, the supplementary motor complex on the medial surface of the frontal lobe appears to activate prior to primary motor cortex presumably in associated with a preparatory pre-movement process. In a recent study using functional magnetic resonance imaging, alien movements were characterized by a relatively isolated activation of the primary motor cortex contralateral to the alien hand, while voluntary movements of the same body part included the natural activation of motor association cortex associated with the premotor process.[203] The clinical definition requires "feeling that one limb is foreign or has a will of its own, together with observable involuntary motor activity" (emphasis in original).[204] This syndrome is often a result of damage to the corpus callosum, either when it is severed to treat intractable epilepsy or due to a stroke. The standard neurological explanation is that the felt will reported by the speaking left hemisphere does not correspond with the actions performed by the non-speaking right hemisphere, thus suggesting that the two hemispheres may have independent senses of will.[205][206]

In addition, one of the most important ("first rank") diagnostic symptoms of schizophrenia is the patient's delusion of being controlled by an external force.[207] People with schizophrenia will sometimes report that, although they are acting in the world, they do not recall initiating the particular actions they performed. This is sometimes likened to being a robot controlled by someone else. Although the neural mechanisms of schizophrenia are not yet clear, one influential hypothesis is that there is a breakdown in brain systems that compare motor commands with the feedback received from the body (known as proprioception), leading to attendant hallucinations and delusions of control.[208]

Experimental psychology

Experimental psychology's contributions to the free will debate have come primarily through social psychologist Daniel Wegner's work on conscious will. In his book, The Illusion of Conscious Will,[209] Wegner summarizes what he believes is empirical evidence supporting the view that human perception of conscious control is an illusion. Wegner summarizes some empirical evidence that may suggest that the perception of conscious control is open to modification (or even manipulation). Wegner observes that one event is inferred to have caused a second event when two requirements are met:

  1. The first event immediately precedes the second event, and
  2. The first event is consistent with having caused the second event.

For example, if a person hears an explosion and sees a tree fall down that person is likely to infer that the explosion caused the tree to fall over. However, if the explosion occurs after the tree falls down (that is, the first requirement is not met), or rather than an explosion, the person hears the ring of a telephone (that is, the second requirement is not met), then that person is not likely to infer that either noise caused the tree to fall down.

Wegner has applied this principle to the inferences people make about their own conscious will. People typically experience a thought that is consistent with a behavior, and then they observe themselves performing this behavior. As a result, people infer that their thoughts must have caused the observed behavior. However, Wegner has been able to manipulate people's thoughts and behaviors so as to conform to or violate the two requirements for causal inference.[209][210] Through such work, Wegner has been able to show that people often experience conscious will over behaviors that they have not, in fact, caused – and conversely, that people can be led to experience a lack of will over behaviors they did cause. For instance, priming subjects with information about an effect increases the probability that a person falsely believes is the cause.[211] The implication for such work is that the perception of conscious will (which he says might be more accurately labelled as 'the emotion of authorship') is not tethered to the execution of actual behaviors, but is inferred from various cues through an intricate mental process, authorship processing. Although many interpret this work as a blow against the argument for free will, both psychologists[212][213] and philosophers[214][215] have criticized Wegner's theories.

Emily Pronin has argued that the subjective experience of free will is supported by the introspection illusion. This is the tendency for people to trust the reliability of their own introspections while distrusting the introspections of other people. The theory implies that people will more readily attribute free will to themselves rather than others. This prediction has been confirmed by three of Pronin and Kugler's experiments. When college students were asked about personal decisions in their own and their roommate's lives, they regarded their own choices as less predictable. Staff at a restaurant described their co-workers' lives as more determined (having fewer future possibilities) than their own lives. When weighing up the influence of different factors on behavior, students gave desires and intentions the strongest weight for their own behavior, but rated personality traits as most predictive of other people.[216]

Caveats have, however, been identified in studying a subject's awareness of mental events, in that the process of introspection itself may alter the experience.[217]

Regardless of the validity of belief in free will, it may be beneficial to understand where the idea comes from. One contribution is randomness.[218] While it is established that randomness is not the only factor in the perception of the free will, it has been shown that randomness can be mistaken as free will due to its indeterminacy. This misconception applies both when considering oneself and others. Another contribution is choice.[219] It has been demonstrated that people's belief in free will increases if presented with a simple level of choice. The specificity of the amount of choice is important, as too little or too great a degree of choice may negatively influence belief. It is also likely that the associative relationship between level of choice and perception of free will is influentially bidirectional. It is also possible that one's desire for control, or other basic motivational patterns, act as a third variable.

Believing in free will

Since at least 1959,[220] free will belief in individuals has been analysed with respect to traits in social behaviour. In general, the concept of free will researched to date in this context has been that of the incompatibilist form of free will, or more specifically, the libertarian form, that is freedom from determinism.

What people believe

Whether people naturally adhere to an incompatibilist model of free will has been questioned in research. Eddy Nahmias has found that incompatibilism is not intuitive – it was not adhered to, in that determinism does not negate belief in moral responsibility (based on an empirical study of people's responses to moral dilemmas under a deterministic model of reality).[221] Edward Cokely has found that incompatibilism is intuitive – it was naturally adhered to, in that determinism does indeed negate belief in moral responsibility in general.[222] Joshua Knobe and Shaun Nichols have proposed that incompatibilism may or may not be intuitive, and that it is dependent to some large degree upon the circumstances; whether or not the crime incites an emotional response – for example if it involves harming another human being.[223] They found that belief in free will is a cultural universal, and that the majority of participants said that (a) our universe is indeterministic and (b) moral responsibility is not compatible with determinism.[224]

Studies indicate that peoples' belief in free will is inconsistent. Emily Pronin and Matthew Kugler found that people believe they have more free will than others.[225]

Studies also reveal a correlation between the likelihood of accepting a deterministic model of mind and personality type. For example, Adam Feltz and Edward Cokely found that people of an extrovert personality type are more likely to dissociate belief in determinism from belief in moral responsibility.[226]

Roy Baumeister and colleagues reviewed literature on the psychological effects of a belief (or disbelief) in free will and found that most people tend to believe in a sort of "naive compatibilistic free will".[227][228]

The researchers also found that people consider acts more "free" when they involve a person opposing external forces, planning, or making random actions.[229] Notably, the last behaviour, "random" actions, may not be possible; when participants attempt to perform tasks in a random manner (such as generating random numbers), their behaviour betrays many patterns.[230][231]

Among philosophers

A recent 2020 survey has shown that compatibilism is quite a popular stance among those who specialize in philosophy (59.2%). Belief in libertarianism amounted to 18.8%, while a lack of belief in free will equaled 11.2%.[232]

Among evolutionary biologists

79 percent of evolutionary biologists said that they believe in free will according to a survey conducted in 2007, 14 percent chose no free will, and 7 percent did not answer the question.[233]

Effects of the belief itself

Baumeister and colleagues found that provoking disbelief in free will seems to cause various negative effects. The authors concluded, in their paper, that it is belief in determinism that causes those negative effects.[227] Kathleen Vohs has found that those whose belief in free will had been eroded were more likely to cheat.[234] In a study conducted by Roy Baumeister, after participants read an article arguing against free will, they were more likely to lie about their performance on a test where they would be rewarded with cash.[235] Provoking a rejection of free will has also been associated with increased aggression and less helpful behaviour.[235] However, although these initial studies suggested that believing in free will is associated with more morally praiseworthy behavior, more recent studies (including direct, multi-site replications) with substantially larger sample sizes have reported contradictory findings (typically, no association between belief in free will and moral behavior), casting doubt over the original findings.[236][237][238][239][240]

An alternative explanation builds on the idea that subjects tend to confuse determinism with fatalism... What happens then when agents' self-efficacy is undermined? It is not that their basic desires and drives are defeated. It is rather, I suggest, that they become skeptical that they can control those desires; and in the face of that skepticism, they fail to apply the effort that is needed even to try. If they were tempted to behave badly, then coming to believe in fatalism makes them less likely to resist that temptation.

Moreover, whether or not these experimental findings are a result of actual manipulations in belief in free will is a matter of debate.[241] First of all, free will can at least refer to either libertarian (indeterministic) free will or compatibilistic (deterministic) free will. Having participants read articles that simply "disprove free will" is unlikely to increase their understanding of determinism, or the compatibilistic free will that it still permits.[241] In other words, experimental manipulations purporting to "provoke disbelief in free will" may instead cause a belief in fatalism, which may provide an alternative explanation for previous experimental findings.[241][242] To test the effects of belief in determinism, it has been argued that future studies would need to provide articles that do not simply "attack free will", but instead focus on explaining determinism and compatibilism.[241][243]

Baumeister and colleagues also note that volunteers disbelieving in free will are less capable of counterfactual thinking.[227] This is worrying because counterfactual thinking ("If I had done something different...") is an important part of learning from one's choices, including those that harmed others.[244] Again, this cannot be taken to mean that belief in determinism is to blame; these are the results we would expect from increasing people's belief in fatalism.[241]

Along similar lines, Tyler Stillman has found that belief in free will predicts better job performance.[245]

In theology

Christianity

Augustine's view of free will and predestination would go on to have a profound impact on Christian theology.

The notions of free will and predestination are heavily debated among Christians. Free will in the Christian sense is the ability to choose between good or evil. Among Catholics, there are those holding to Thomism, adopted from what Thomas Aquinas put forth in the Summa Theologica. There are also some holding to Molinism which was put forth by Jesuit priest Luis de Molina. Among Protestants there is Arminianism, held primarily by the Methodist Churches, and formulated by Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius; and there is also Calvinism held by most in the Reformed tradition which was formulated by the French Reformed theologian, John Calvin. John Calvin was heavily influenced by Augustine of Hippo views on predestination put forth in his work On the Predestination of the Saints.Martin Luther seems to have held views on predestination similar to Calvinism in his On the Bondage of the Will, thus rejecting free will. In condemnation of Calvin and Luther views, the Roman Catholic Council of Trent declared that "the free will of man, moved and excited by God, can by its consent co-operate with God, Who excites and invites its action; and that it can thereby dispose and prepare itself to obtain the grace of justification. The will can resist grace if it chooses. It is not like a lifeless thing, which remains purely passive. Weakened and diminished by Adam's fall, free will is yet not destroyed in the race (Sess. VI, cap. i and v)." John Wesley, the father of the Methodist tradition, taught that humans, enabled by prevenient grace, have free will through which they can choose God and to do good works, with the goal of Christian perfection.[246] Upholding synergism (the belief that God and man cooperate in salvation), Methodism teaches that "Our Lord Jesus Christ did so die for all men as to make salvation attainable by every man that cometh into the world. If men are not saved that fault is entirely their own, lying solely in their own unwillingness to obtain the salvation offered to them. (John 1:9; I Thess. 5:9; Titus 2:11-12)."[247]

Paul the Apostle discusses Predestination in some of his Epistles.

"For whom He foreknew, He also predestined to become conformed to the image of His Son, that He might be the first-born among many brethren; and whom He predestined, these He also called; and whom He called, these He also justified; and whom He justified, these He also glorified." —Romans 8:29–30

"He predestined us to adoption as sons through Jesus Christ to Himself, according to the kind intention of His will." —Ephesians 1:5

There are also mentions of moral freedom in what are now termed as 'Deuterocanonical' works which the Orthodox and Catholic Churches use. In Sirach 15 the text states:

"Do not say: "It was God's doing that I fell away," for what he hates he does not do. Do not say: "He himself has led me astray," for he has no need of the wicked. Abominable wickedness the Lord hates and he does not let it happen to those who fear him. God in the beginning created human beings and made them subject to their own free choice. If you choose, you can keep the commandments; loyalty is doing the will of God. Set before you are fire and water; to whatever you choose, stretch out your hand. Before everyone are life and death, whichever they choose will be given them. Immense is the wisdom of the Lord; mighty in power, he sees all things. The eyes of God behold his works, and he understands every human deed. He never commands anyone to sin, nor shows leniency toward deceivers." - Ben Sira 15:11-20 NABRE

The exact meaning of these verses has been debated by Christian theologians throughout history.

Judaism

Bas relief of Maimonides in the U.S. House of Representatives

In Jewish thought the concept of "Free will" (Hebrew: בחירה חפשית, romanized: bechirah chofshit; בחירה, bechirah) is foundational. The most succinct statement is by Maimonides, in a two part treatment, where human free will is specified as part of the universe's Godly design:

  1. Maimonides's reasoned[248] that human beings must have free will (at least in the context of choosing to do good or evil), as without this, the demands of the prophets would have been meaningless, there would be no need for the Torah and Mitzvot ("commandments"), and justice could not be administered.
  2. At the same time, Maimonides – and other thinkers – recognizes[249] the paradox that will arise given (i) that Judaism simultaneously recognizes God's omniscience, and further (ii) the nature of Divine providence as understood in Judaism. (In fact the problem may be seen to overlap several others in Jewish Philosophy.)

Islam

In Islam the theological issue is not usually how to reconcile free will with God's foreknowledge, but with God's jabr, or divine commanding power. al-Ash'ari developed an "acquisition" or "dual-agency" form of compatibilism, in which human free will and divine jabr were both asserted, and which became a cornerstone of the dominant Ash'ari position.[250][251] In Shia Islam, Ash'aris understanding of a higher balance toward predestination is challenged by most theologians.[252] Free will, according to Islamic doctrine is the main factor for man's accountability in his/her actions throughout life. Actions taken by people exercising free will are counted on the Day of Judgement because they are their own; however, the free will happens with the permission of God.[253]

In contrast, the Mu'tazila, known as the rationalist school of Islam, has a position that is opposite to the Ash'arite and other Islamic theology in its view of free will and divine justice.[254] Because the Mu'tazila have a doctrine that emphasizes God's justice ('Adl).[255][256] The Mu'tazila believe that humans themselves create their will and actions, so human actions and movements are not destiny that are solely driven by God and do not necessarily require God's permission. For the Mu'tazila, humans themselves create their actions and behavior consciously through free will which is formulated and carried out by the brain and nervous system.[257][258] Thus, this condition guarantees God's justice when judging every human being in the Day of Judgement.[259]

Others

The philosopher Søren Kierkegaard claimed that divine omnipotence cannot be separated from divine goodness.[260] As a truly omnipotent and good being, God could create beings with true freedom over God. Furthermore, God would voluntarily do so because "the greatest good... which can be done for a being, greater than anything else that one can do for it, is to be truly free."[261]Alvin Plantinga's free-will defense is a contemporary expansion of this theme, adding how God, free will, and evil are consistent.[262]

Some philosophers follow William of Ockham in holding that necessity and possibility are defined with respect to a given point in time and a given matrix of empirical circumstances, and so something that is merely possible from the perspective of one observer may be necessary from the perspective of an omniscient.[263] Some philosophers follow Philo of Alexandria, a philosopher known for his anthropocentrism, in holding that free will is a feature of a human's soul, and thus that non-human animals lack free will.[264]

See also

References

Citations

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  2. Michael McKenna and Derk Pereboom, Free Will: A Contemporary Introduction, Routledge, 2016.
  3. Timothy O’Connor and Christopher Franklin, "Free Will", in Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2022 Edition).
  4. Kadri Vihvelin, "Arguments for Incompatibilism", in Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2022 Edition).
  5. Baumeister, Roy F.; Monroe, Andrew E. (2014). Recent Research on Free Will. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Vol. 50. pp. 1–52. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-800284-1.00001-1. ISBN 9780128002841.
  6. 12Bobzien, Susanne (1998). Determinism and freedom in Stoic philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-823794-5. Retrieved 2015-12-09. ...Aristotle and Epictetus: In the latter authors it was the fact that nothing hindered us from doing or choosing something that made us have control over them. In Alexander's account, the terms are understood differently: what makes us have control over things is the fact that we are causally undetermined in our decision and thus can freely decide between doing/choosing or not doing/choosing them.
  7. An argument by Rudolf Carnap described by: C. James Goodwin (2009). Research In Psychology: Methods and Design (6th ed.). Wiley. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-470-52278-3.
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  12. Hence the notion of contingency appeared as the very opposition of necessity, so that wherever a thing is considered dependent or relies upon another thing, it is contingent and thus not necessary.
  13. Thomas Nagel (1989). "Freedom". The View From Nowhere. Oxford University Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-19-505644-0. Nothing that might be a solution has yet been described. This is not a case where there are several possible candidate solutions and we don't know which is correct. It is a case where nothing believable has (to my knowledge) been proposed.
  14. John R Searle (2013). "The problem of free will". Freedom and Neurobiology: Reflections on Free Will, Language, and Political Power. Columbia University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-231-51055-4. The persistence of the traditional free will problem in philosophy seems to me something of a scandal. After all these centuries...it does not seem to me that we have made very much progress.
  15. Gregg D Caruso (2012). Free Will and Consciousness: A Determinist Account of the Illusion of Free Will. Lexington Books. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-7391-7136-3. One of the strongest supports for the free choice thesis is the unmistakable intuition of virtually every human being that he is free to make the choices he does and that the deliberations leading to those choices are also free flowing..
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  • This article incorporates material from the Citizendium article "Free will", which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL.

Bibliography

  • Hawking, Stephen, and Mlodinow, Leonard, The Grand Design, New York, Bantam Books, 2010.
  • Horst, Steven (2011), Laws, Mind, and Free Will. (MIT Press) ISBN 0-262-01525-0
  • Sri Aurobindo about freedom and free will(PDF)
  • Cave, Stephen (June 2016). "There's No Such Thing as Free Will". The Atlantic.

Further reading

  • Dennett, Daniel C. (2003). Freedom Evolves. New York: Viking Press ISBN 0-670-03186-0
  • Epstein J.M. (1999). Agent Based Models and Generative Social Science. Complexity, IV (5).
  • Gazzaniga, M. & Steven, M.S. (2004) Free Will in the 21st Century: A Discussion of Neuroscience and Law, in Garland, B. (ed.) Neuroscience and the Law: Brain, Mind and the Scales of Justice, New York: Dana Press, ISBN 1-932594-04-3, pp. 51–70.
  • Gleick, James, "The Fate of Free Will" (review of Kevin J. Mitchell, Free Agents: How Evolution Gave Us Free Will, Princeton University Press, 2023, 333 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXXI, no. 1 (18 January 2024), pp. 27–28, 30. "Agency is what distinguishes us from machines. For biological creatures, reason and purpose come from acting in the world and experiencing the consequences. Artificial intelligences – disembodied, strangers to blood, sweat, and tears – have no occasion for that." (p. 30.)
  • Goodenough, O.R. (2004). "Responsibility and punishment". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 359 (1451): 1805–09. doi:10.1098/rstb.2004.1548. PMC 1693460. PMID 15590621.
  • Harnad, Stevan (1982). "Consciousness: An Afterthought". Cognition and Brain Theory. 5: 29–47.
  • Harnad, Stevan (2001). "No Easy Way Out". The Sciences. 41 (2): 36–42. doi:10.1002/j.2326-1951.2001.tb03561.x.
  • Harnad, Stevan (2009) The Explanatory Gap #PhilPapers
  • Harris, Sam. 2012. Free Will. Free Press. ISBN 978-1-4516-8340-0
  • Hofstadter, Douglas. (2007) I Am A Strange Loop. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-03078-1
  • Kane, Robert (1998). The Significance of Free Will. New York: Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-512656-4
  • Lawhead, William F. (2005). The Philosophical Journey: An Interactive Approach. McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages ISBN 0-07-296355-7.
  • Libet, Benjamin; Anthony Freeman; and Keith Sutherland, eds. (1999). The Volitional Brain: Towards a Neuroscience of Free Will. Exeter, UK: Imprint Academic. Collected essays by scientists and philosophers.
  • Muhm, Myriam (2004). Abolito il libero arbitrio – Colloquio con Wolf Singer. L'Espresso 19.08.2004 larchivio.org
  • Nowak A., Vallacher R.R., Tesser A., Borkowski W. (2000). Society of Self: The emergence of collective properties in self-structure. Psychological Review. 107
  • Riskin, Jessica, "Turtles All the Way Up" (review of Robert M. Sapolsky, Determined: A Science of Life Without Free Will, Penguin Press, 2023, 511 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXXII, no. 2 (13 February 2025), pp. 23–25. The reviewer, Riskin, writes: "Science can't prove there's no free will [Sapolsky's thesis is that there is no free will] because the question of free will is not a scientific question but a philosophical one. To misrepresent it as a scientific question is a prime example of scientism – of extending the claims of science beyond its bounds." (p. 25.)
  • Sapolsky, Robert M. (2023). Determined: A Science of Life Without Free Will. New York: Penguin Press. ISBN 978-0-5255-6097-5.
  • Schopenhauer, Arthur (1839). On the Freedom of the Will., Oxford: Basil Blackwell ISBN 0-631-14552-4.
  • Stapp, Henry P. (2017). Quantum theory and free will : how mental intentions translate into bodily actions. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-58301-3. OCLC 991595874.
  • Tosun, Ender (2020). Free Will Under the Light of the Quran, ISBN 978-605-63198-2-2
  • Van Inwagen, Peter (1986). An Essay on Free Will. New York: Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-824924-1.
  • Velmans, Max (2003) How Could Conscious Experiences Affect Brains? Exeter: Imprint Academic ISBN 0-907845-39-8.
  • Dick Swaab, Wij Zijn Ons Brein, Publishing Centre, 2010. ISBN 978-90-254-3522-6
  • Wegner, Daniel Merton (2002). The Illusion of Conscious Will(PDF). MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-23222-7. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2018-12-12. Retrieved 2018-12-12.
  • Williams, Clifford (1980). Free Will and Determinism: A Dialogue. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company
  • John Baer, James C. Kaufman, Roy F. Baumeister (2008). Are We Free? Psychology and Free Will. Oxford University Press, New York ISBN 0-19-518963-9
  • George Musser, "Is the Cosmos Random? (Einstein's assertion that God does not play dice with the universe has been misinterpreted)", Scientific American, vol. 313, no. 3 (September 2015), pp. 88–93.