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El descenso a los infiernos

El descenso de Cristo a los infiernos , Petites Heures , manuscrito iluminado del siglo XIV encargado por Juan, duque de Berry. Christ leading Adam by the hand, depicted in the ...

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El descenso de Cristo a los infiernos , Petites Heures , manuscrito iluminado del siglo XIV encargado por Juan, duque de Berry.
Christ leading Adam by the hand, depicted in the Vaux Passional, c.1504
Before his resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ grants salvation to souls by the Harrowing of Hell. Fresco, by Fra Angelico, c.1430s.

In Christian theology, the Harrowing of Hell (Latin: Descensus Christi ad Inferos; Ancient Greek: Ἡ εἰς ᾍδου κάθοδος τοῦ Χριστοῦ – "the descent of Christ into Hell" or "Hades")[a] is the period of time between the Crucifixion of Jesus and his resurrection. In triumphant descent, Christ brought salvation to the souls held captive there since the beginning of the world.[1]

Christ's descent into the world of the dead is referred to in the Apostles' Creed and the Athanasian Creed (Quicumque vult), which state that he "descended into the underworld" (descendit ad inferos), although neither mention that he liberated the dead. His descent to the underworld is alluded to in the New Testament in 1 Peter 4:6, which states that the "good tidings were proclaimed to the dead".[2] The Catechism of the Catholic Church notes Ephesians 4:9, which states that "[Christ] descended into the lower parts of the earth", as also supporting this interpretation.[3] These passages in the New Testament have given rise to differing interpretations.[4] The Harrowing of Hell is commemorated in the liturgical calendar on Holy Saturday.[5]

According to The Catholic Encyclopedia, the story first appears clearly in the Gospel of Nicodemus in the section called the Acts of Pilate, which also appears separately at earlier dates within the Acts of Peter and Paul.[6] The descent into Hell had been related in Old English poems (e.g. Christ and Satan) connected with the names of Cædmon and Cynewulf. It is subsequently repeated in Ælfric of Eynsham's homilies c.1000 AD, which is the first known inclusion of the word harrowing. Middle English dramatic literature contains the fullest and most dramatic development of the subject.[1]

As a subject in Christian art, it is also known as the Anastasis (Greek for "resurrection"), considered a creation of Byzantine culture and first appearing in the West in the early 8th century.[7]

Background

The Old Testament view of the afterlife was that all people when they died, whether righteous or unrighteous, went to Sheol, a dark, still place.[8] Several works from the Second Temple period elaborate the concept of Sheol, dividing it into sections based on the righteousness or unrighteousness of those who have died.[9]

The New Testament maintains a distinction between Sheol, the common "place of the dead", and the eternal destiny of those condemned at the Final Judgment, variously described as Gehenna, "the outer darkness", or a lake of eternal fire.[10]

Terminology

The Greek wording in the Apostles' Creed is κατελθόντα εἰς τὰ κατώτατα (katelthonta eis ta katōtata), and in Latin is descendit ad inferos. The Greek τὰ κατώτατα (ta katōtata, 'the lowest') and the Latin inferos ('those below') may also be translated as "underworld", "netherworld", or "abode of the dead".

The realm into which Jesus descended is called Hell, in long-established English usage, but is also called Sheol or Limbo by some Christian theologians to distinguish it from the Hell of the damned.[11] In Classical mythology, Hades is the underworld inhabited by departed souls, and the god Pluto is its ruler. Some New Testament translations use the term "Hades" to refer to the abode or state of the dead to represent a neutral place where the dead awaited the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus.

The word harrow originally comes from the Old Englishhergian 'to harry or despoil', and is seen in the homilies of Ælfric of Eynsham, c.1000.[b] The term Harrowing of Hell refers not merely to the idea that Jesus descended into Hell, as in the Creed, but to the rich tradition that developed later, asserting that he triumphed over inferos, releasing Hell's captives, particularly Adam and Eve, and the righteous men and women of the Old Testament period.

Scripture

Christ's Descent into Limbo by Andrea Mantegna and studio, c. 1470

The Harrowing of Hell is mentioned or suggested by several verses in the New Testament:[13][c]

  • Matthew 12:40: "For just as Jonah was three days and three nights in the belly of the sea monster, so for three days and three nights the Son of Man will be in the heart of the earth."
  • Matthew 27:50–54: "And Jesus cried out again with a loud voice, and yielded up His spirit. Then, behold, the veil of the temple was torn in two from top to bottom; and the earth quaked, and the rocks were split, and the graves were opened; and many bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep were raised; and coming out of the graves after His resurrection, they went into the holy city and appeared to many. So when the centurion and those with him, who were guarding Jesus, saw the earthquake and the things that had happened, they feared greatly, saying, 'Truly this was the Son of God!'"
  • Acts 2:24: "But God raised him up, having freed him from death, because it was impossible for him to be held in its power."
  • Acts 2:31: "Foreseeing this, David spoke of the resurrection of the Messiah, saying, 'He was not abandoned to Hades, nor did his flesh experience corruption'."
  • Ephesians 4:8-9: " When he ascended on high, he took many captives and gave gifts to his people. In saying, 'he ascended', what does it mean but that he had also descended into the lower regions, the earth?"
  • Colossians 1:18: "He is the head of the body, the church; he is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead, so that he might come to have first place in everything."
  • 1 Peter 3:18–19: "For Christ also suffered for sins once for all, the righteous for the unrighteous, in order to bring you to God. He was put to death in the flesh, but made alive in the spirit, in which also he went and made a proclamation to the spirits in prison, ..."
  • 1 Peter 4:6: "For this is the reason the gospel was proclaimed even to the dead, so that, though they had been judged in the flesh as everyone is judged, they might live in the spirit as God does."

Theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar sees parallels with Mark 3:24: "If a kingdom is divided against itself, that kingdom cannot stand. And if a house is divided against itself, that house will not be able to stand. And if Satan has risen up against himself and is divided, he cannot stand, but his end has come. But no one can enter a strong man’s house and plunder his property without first tying up the strong man; then indeed the house can be plundered."

Early Christian teaching

Descent into Hell, with Hellmouth, engraving by Michael Burghers (1647/48–1727)

The Harrowing of Hell was taught by theologians of the early church: St Melito of Sardis (died c. 180) in his Homily on the Passover and more explicitly in his Homily for Holy Saturday,Tertullian (A Treatise on the Soul, 55, though he himself disagrees with the idea), Hippolytus (Treatise on Christ and Anti-Christ), Origen (Against Celsus, 2:43), and, later, Ambrose (died 397) all wrote of the Harrowing of Hell. The early heretic Marcion and his followers also discussed the Harrowing of Hell, as mentioned by Tertullian, Irenaeus, and Epiphanius. The 6th-century sect called the Christolytes, as recorded by John of Damascus, believed that Jesus left his soul and body in Hell, and only rose with his divinity to Heaven.[14]

The Gospel of Matthew relates that immediately after Christ died, the earth shook, there was darkness, the veil in the Second Temple was torn in two, and many people rose from the dead, and after the resurrection (Matthew 27:53) walked about in Jerusalem and were seen by many people there. Balthasar says this is a "visionary and imaginistic" description of Jesus vanquishing death itself.[15]

According to the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus, the Harrowing of Hell was foreshadowed by Christ's raising of Lazarus from the dead prior to his own crucifixion.

Christ's Descent into Limbo, woodcut by Albrecht Dürer, c. 1510
Russian icon of John the Baptist foretelling the descent of Christ to the righteous in Hades (17th century, Solovetsky Monastery)

En los Hechos de Pilato —generalmente incorporados al Evangelio medieval de Nicodemo, ampliamente leído—, textos construidos a partir de un original que podría datar del siglo III d. C., con numerosas mejoras e interpolaciones, los capítulos 17 al 27 se denominan Decensus Christi ad Inferos . Contienen un diálogo dramático entre Hades y el príncipe Satanás, y la entrada del Rey de la Gloria, imaginado como proveniente del Tártaro .

Interpretaciones de la doctrina

Ortodoxia

En El descenso de los dioses al Hades , fresco del pareclesio de la iglesia de Chora , Estambul , c. 1315, la resurrección de Adán y Eva se representa como parte del icono de la Resurrección, como siempre ocurre en Oriente.

La homilía pascual de Juan Crisóstomo también trata sobre el descenso de Cristo a los infiernos y se suele leer durante la Vigilia Pascual , el servicio culminante de la celebración ortodoxa de la Pascua .

En la Iglesia Ortodoxa Oriental , el Descenso de Cristo a los Infiernos se celebra anualmente el Sábado Santo durante la Divina Liturgia Vespertina de San Basilio , según la tradición del rito bizantino . Al comienzo de la ceremonia, los ornamentos de la iglesia y las vestiduras del clero son de colores sobrios propios de la Cuaresma (generalmente morado o negro). Justo antes de la lectura del Evangelio , los colores litúrgicos cambian a blanco, el diácono realiza una incensación y el sacerdote esparce hojas de laurel alrededor de la iglesia, simbolizando las puertas rotas del infierno. Esto se realiza en celebración del descenso de Cristo a los Infiernos que tiene lugar en ese momento y en anticipación de la inminente resurrección de Cristo.

Icono

El descenso de Cristo a los infiernos, de Markos Bathas , siglo XVI.

El descenso de Cristo a los infiernos es generalmente más común y prominente en la iconografía ortodoxa que en la tradición occidental. Es el icono tradicional del Sábado Santo y se utiliza durante la Pascua y los domingos a lo largo del año.

El icono ortodoxo tradicional de la Resurrección de Jesús , parcialmente inspirado en los Hechos apócrifos de Pilato (siglo IV), no representa simplemente el acto físico de Cristo saliendo del sepulcro , sino que revela lo que los cristianos ortodoxos creen que es la realidad espiritual de lo que su muerte y resurrección lograron. El icono representa a Jesús, revestido de blanco y oro para simbolizar su majestad divina, de pie sobre las puertas de bronce del Hades (también llamadas las "Puertas de la Muerte"), que están rotas y han caído en forma de cruz, ilustrando la creencia de que, con su muerte en la cruz, Jesús "venció a la muerte con su muerte" (véase el troparión pascual ). Él sostiene a Adán y Eva y los saca del Hades. Tradicionalmente, no se le muestra sujetándolos de las manos, sino de las muñecas, para ilustrar la enseñanza teológica de que la humanidad no podía liberarse por sí misma de su pecado original , sino que esto solo podía ocurrir por la obra ( energía ) de Dios. Jesús está rodeado de diversas figuras justas del Antiguo Testamento ( Abraham , David , etc.); la parte inferior del icono representa el Hades como un abismo de oscuridad, a menudo con trozos de candados y cadenas rotas esparcidos. Con bastante frecuencia, se muestran una o dos figuras en la oscuridad, atadas con cadenas, que generalmente se identifican como personificaciones de la Muerte o del diablo .

catolicismo

Cristo guía a los patriarcas del infierno al paraíso , por Bartolomeo Bertejo, español, c. 1480: Matusalén , Salomón y la reina de Saba , y Adán y Eva encabezan la procesión de los justos detrás de Cristo.

Existe una homilía antigua sobre el tema, de autoría desconocida, generalmente titulada El descenso del Señor a los infiernos, que es la segunda lectura del Oficio de Lecturas del Sábado Santo en la Iglesia Católica Romana . [ 16 ] [ 17 ]

El Catecismo de la Iglesia Católica afirma: «Con la expresión “Descendió a los infiernos”, el Credo de los Apóstoles confiesa que Jesús murió realmente y, mediante su muerte por nosotros, venció a la muerte y al diablo “que tiene el poder de la muerte” ( Hebreos 2:14 ). En su alma humana unida a su persona divina, Cristo, ya muerto, descendió al reino de los muertos. Abrió las puertas del Cielo a los justos que le precedieron». [ 18 ]

As the Catechism says, the word "Hell"—from the Norse, Hel; in Latin, infernus, infernum, inferni; in Greek, ᾍδης (Hades); in Hebrew, שאול (Sheol)—is used in Scripture and the Apostles' Creed to refer to the abode of all the dead, whether righteous or evil, unless or until they are admitted to Heaven (CCC 633). This abode of the dead is the "Hell" into which the Creed says Christ descended. His death freed from exclusion from Heaven the just who had gone before him: "It is precisely these holy souls who awaited their Savior in Abraham's bosom whom Christ the Lord delivered when he descended into Hell", the Catechism states (CCC 633), echoing the words of the Roman Catechism, 1, 6, 3.

Conceptualization of the abode of the dead as a place, though possible and customary, is not obligatory (Church documents, such as catechisms, speak of a "state or place"). Some maintain that Christ did not go to the place of the damned, which is what is generally understood today by the word "Hell". For instance, Thomas Aquinas taught that Christ did not descend into the "Hell of the lost" in his essence, but only by the effect of his death, through which "he put them to shame for their unbelief and wickedness: but to them who were detained in Purgatory he gave hope of attaining to glory: while upon the holy Fathers detained in Hell solely on account of original sin, he shed the light of glory everlasting."[19]

While some maintain that Christ merely descended into the "limbo of the fathers", others, notably theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar (inspired by the visions of Adrienne von Speyr), maintain that it was more than this and that the descent involved suffering by Jesus.[20] Some maintain that this is a matter on which differences and theological speculation are permissible without transgressing the limits of orthodoxy.[20]

Lutheranism

Martin Luther, in a sermon delivered in Torgau in 1533, stated that Christ descended into Hell.

The Formula of Concord (a Lutheran confession) states, "we believe simply that the entire person, God and human being, descended to Hell after his burial, conquered the devil, destroyed the power of Hell, and took from the devil all his power" (Solid Declaration, Art. IX).

Many attempts were made following Luther's death to systematize his theology of the descensus, whether Christ descended in victory or humiliation. For Luther, however, the defeat or "humiliation" of Christ is never fully separable from His victorious glorification. Luther himself, when pressed to elaborate on the question of whether Christ descended to Hell in humiliation or victory responded, "It is enough to preach the article to the laypeople as they have learned to know it in the past from the stained glass and other sources."[21]

Anglicanism

"Anglican orthodoxy, without protest, has allowed high authorities to teach that there is an intermediate state, Hades, including both Gehenna and Paradise, but with an impassable gulf between the two."[10] The traditional language of the Apostles' Creed affirms that Jesus "descended into hell"; the contemporary language rite of the Book of Common Prayer (1979) says that Jesus "descended to the dead" (BCP, pp. 53, 96).[13]

Calvinism

John Calvin expressed his concern that many Christians "have never earnestly considered what it is or means that we have been redeemed from God's judgment. Yet this is our wisdom: duly to feel how much our salvation cost the Son of God."

Calvin's conclusion is that "If any persons have scruples about admitting this article into the Creed, it will soon be made plain how important it is to the sum of our redemption: if it is left out, much of the benefit of Christ’s death will be lost."[22] Calvin strongly opposed the notion that Christ freed prisoners, as opposed to traveling to Hell as part of completing his sufferings.[23]

The Reformed interpret the phrase "he descended into Hell" as referring to Christ's pain and humiliation prior to his death, and that this humiliation had a spiritual dimension as part of God's judgement upon the sin which he bore on behalf of Christians. The doctrine of Christ's humiliation is also meant to assure believers that Christ has redeemed them from the pain and suffering of God's judgment on sin.[24]

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

The Harrowing of Hell has been a unique and important doctrine among members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints since its founding in 1830 by Joseph Smith, although members of the church usually call it by other terms, such as "Christ's visit to the spirit world". Like Christian exegetes distinguishing between Sheol and Gehenna, Latter-day Saints distinguish between the realm of departed spirits (the "spirit world") and the portion (or state) of the wicked ("spirit prison"). The portion or state of the righteous is often referred to as "paradise".

Perhaps the most notable aspect of Latter-day Saint beliefs regarding the Harrowing of Hell is their view on the purpose of it, both for the just and the wicked. Joseph F. Smith, the sixth president of the Church, explained in what is now a canonized revelation, that when Christ died, "there were gathered together in one place an innumerable company of the spirits of the just, ... rejoicing together because the day of their deliverance was at hand. They were assembled awaiting the advent of the Son of God into the spirit world, to declare their redemption from the bands of death."[25]

In the Latter-day Saint view, while Christ announced freedom from physical death to the just, he had another purpose in descending to Hell regarding the wicked. "The Lord went not in person among the wicked and the disobedient who had rejected the truth, to teach them; but behold, from among the righteous, he organized his forces ... and commissioned them to go forth and carry the light of the gospel to them that were in darkness, even to all the spirits of men; and thus was the gospel preached to the dead, ... to those who had died in their sins, without a knowledge of the truth, or in transgression, having rejected the prophets."[26] From the Latter-day Saint viewpoint, the rescue of spirits was not a one-time event but an ongoing process that still continues.[27] This concept goes hand-in-hand with the doctrine of baptism for the dead, which is based on the Latter-day Saint belief that those who choose to accept the gospel in the spirit world must still receive the saving ordinances in order to dwell in the kingdom of God.[28] These baptisms and other ordinances are performed in Latter-day Saint temples, wherein a church member is baptized vicariously, or in behalf of, those who died without being baptized by proper authority. The recipients in the spirit world then have the opportunity to accept or reject this baptism.[29]

Rejection of the doctrine

Although the Harrowing of Hell is taught by the Lutheran, Catholic, Reformed, and Orthodox traditions, a number of Christians reject the doctrine of the "harrowing of hell", claiming that "there is scant scriptural evidence for [it], and that Jesus's own words contradict it."[30]John Piper, for example, says "there is no textual [i.e. Biblical] basis for believing that Christ descended into hell", and, therefore, Piper does not recite the "he descended into hell" phrase when saying the Apostles' Creed.[31]Wayne Grudem also skips the phrase when reciting the Creed; he says that the "single argument in ... favor [of the "harrowing of hell" clause in the Creed] seems to be that it has been around so long. ... But an old mistake is still a mistake."[30] In his book Raised with Christ, Pentecostal Adrian Warnock agrees with Grudem, commenting, "Despite some translations of an ancient creed [i.e. the Apostles' Creed], which suggest that Jesus ... 'descended into hell', there is no biblical evidence to suggest that he actually did so."[32]

Augustine, in his 99th epistle, confesses that this text is replete with difficulties. This he declares is clear, beyond all doubt, that Jesus Christ descended in soul after his death into the regions below, and concludes with these words: Quis ergo nisi infidelis negaverit fuisse apud inferos Christum? ("Who, then, but an unbeliever, has denied that Christ was in hell?") In this prison souls would not be detained unless they were indebted to divine justice, nor would salvation be preached to them unless they were in a state that was capable of receiving salvation.

Christian mortalism

The above views share the traditional Christian belief in the immortality of the soul. The mortalist view of the intermediate state requires an alternative view of the Acts 2:27 and Acts 2:31, taking a view of the New Testament use of Hell as equivalent to use of Hades in the Septuagint and therefore to Sheol in the Old Testament.[33]William Tyndale and Martin Bucer of Strassburg argued that Hades in Acts 2 was merely a metaphor for the grave. Other reformers Christopher Carlisle and Walter Deloenus in London, argued for the article to be dropped from the creed.[34] The Harrowing of Hell was a major scene in traditional depictions of Christ's life avoided by John Milton due to his mortalist views.[35] Mortalist interpretations of the Acts 2 statements of Christ being in Hades are also found among later Anglicans such as E. W. Bullinger.[36]

While those holding mortalist views on the soul would agree on the "harrowing of hell" concerning souls, that there were no conscious dead for Christ to literally visit, the question of whether Christ himself was also dead, unconscious, brings different answers:

Of the three days, Christ says "I was dead" (Greek egenomen nekros ἐγενόμην νεκρὸς, Latin fui mortuus).[39]

In culture

El descenso de los dioses al Hades , un icono de Dionisio , procedente del monasterio de Ferapontov.

Drama

Los relatos más ricos y detallados del Descenso de Cristo a los Infiernos se encuentran en la literatura dramática medieval, como los cuatro grandes ciclos de obras de teatro de misterio inglesas , cada uno de los cuales dedica una escena aparte a representarlo. [ 1 ] Cristo fue retratado venciendo a Satanás y luego guiando victoriosamente a Adán y Eva, los profetas y los patriarcas. El drama cristiano más antiguo que se conserva, probablemente destinado a ser representado, es el Descenso de Cristo a los Infiernos que se encuentra en el Libro de Cerne del siglo VIII .

Este tema también se encuentra en los autos sacramentales de Cornualles y en los ciclos de York y Wakefield. Estas versiones medievales de la historia derivan de las Escrituras, pero los detalles provienen del Evangelio de Nicodemo.

Literatura

Edad media

En el Infierno de Dante , el descenso de Cristo a los infiernos se menciona en el Canto IV por el guía peregrino Virgilio . Virgilio se encontraba en el Limbo (el primer círculo del Infierno) principalmente porque no había tenido contacto con el cristianismo durante su vida, y por lo tanto describe a Cristo en términos genéricos como un "poderoso" que rescató a los antepasados ​​hebreos del cristianismo, pero lo dejó a él y a otros paganos virtuosos en el mismo círculo. Es evidente que Virgilio no comprende del todo la importancia del acontecimiento como lo hace Dante.

Una narración incompleta en inglés medio del Descenso de Cristo a los Infiernos se encuentra en el manuscrito de Auchinleck . [ 40 ]

William Langland (Willielmus de Langland; circa 1330 – circa 1386) incluye una escena del Desgarrador del Infierno en Piers Plowman (circa 1377). Este es un poema narrativo alegórico en inglés medio, escrito en verso aliterado y sin rima, dividido en secciones llamadas passus (en latín, "paso").

Although the Orfeo legend has its origin in pagan antiquity, the medieval romance of Sir Orfeo has often been interpreted as drawing parallels between the Greek hero and Jesus freeing souls from Hell,[41][42] with the explication of Orpheus' descent and return from the Underworld as an allegory for Christ's as early as the Ovide Moralisé (1340).[43]

Modern

The Catholic philologist and fantasy author J. R. R. Tolkien echoes the Harrowing of Hell theme in multiple places in The Silmarillion (1977) and The Lord of the Rings (1954–55). Identified instances include the tale "Of Beren and Lúthien" in which Beren is rescued from Sauron's dark dungeons, and Gandalf's freeing of King Théoden of Rohan from the dark insinuations of the traitorous Wormtongue.[44]

In Stephen Lawhead's novel Byzantium (1997), a young Irish monk is asked to explain Jesus Christ's life to a group of Vikings, who were particularly impressed with his "descent to the underworld" (Helreið).

In 2021, Jonathan Jackson wrote “The Harrowing of Hell: An epic poem” about the descent of Jesus to Hell after the crucifixion. It was published by Hilasterion Publishing of Tennessee and illustrated by Anastasia Chybireva-Fender.

Christ in Limbo, by a follower of Hieronymus Bosch

Parallels in Jewish literature refer to legends of Enoch and Abraham's harrowings of the Underworld, unrelated to Christian themes. These have been updated in Isaac Leib Peretz's short story "Neilah in Gehenna", in which a Jewish hazzan descends to Hell and uses his unique voice to bring about the repentance and liberation of the souls imprisoned there.

Music

Art

  • A follower of Hieronymus Bosch depicts Christ in Limbo in a vivid composition, now owned by the Indianapolis Museum of Art.[46]

Television

Véase también

  • Adán: el pecado original, la resurrección de Jesús y la tumba de Adán en el Gólgota : la teología que subyace a la iconografía ortodoxa.
  • mitología cristiana

Notas

  1. ↑ Nótese que la palabra latina es inferos , «los de abajo», no infernos , «los de las regiones inferiores». Ninguna de las dos palabras se refiere al fuego; el uso en inglés y otros idiomas de «inferno» para referirse a «gran fuego» es moderno y figurado, literalmente «infernal».
  2. ↑ Harrow es una variante de harry , un término militar que significa "realizar incursiones o ataques depredadores". [ 12 ]
  3. ↑ Las siguientes citas están tomadas de la Nueva Versión Estándar Revisada .

Referencias

  1. 1 2 3 "ENCICLOPEDIA CATÓLICA: El descenso a los infiernos" . www.newadvent.org . Vol. 7. Archivado del original el 11 de mayo de 2023. Recuperado el 11 de mayo de 2023 .
  2. ↑ Hart, David Bentley, ed. (enero de 2017). El Nuevo Testamento: una traducción . New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-18609-3OCLC 1002687102​​ 
  3. ↑ "631", Catecismo , archivado del original el 10 de abril de 2020 , consultado el 15 de marzo de 2020.
  4. ↑ D. Bruce Lockerbie (1977). El Credo de los Apóstoles: ¿De verdad lo crees ? Wheaton, Illinois: Victor Books, págs. 53–54 . Enlace obsoleto archivado el 9 de julio de 2012 en archive.today .
  5. ↑ Keene, Michael (1995). La experiencia cristiana . Nelson Thornes. pág. 112. ISBN  978-0-7487-2188-7Archivado del original el 29 de mayo de 2024. Consultado el 14 de marzo de 2018 .
  6. ^ Wilhelm Schneemelcher, R. McLachlan Wilson (1 de diciembre de 1990) Nuevo Testamento Apócrifo , vol. 1 ISBN 0-66422721-Xpágs. 501–02
  7. ↑ Ross, Leslie (1996). Arte medieval : un diccionario temático . Internet Archive. Westport, Connecticut, Estados Unidos: Greenwood Press. págs. 10–11 . ISBN   978-0-313-29329-0.
  8. ↑ Rainwater, Robert (1990). «Sheol». En Mills, Watson E. (ed.). Mercer Dictionary of the Bible . Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780865543737
  9. ↑ Longenecker, Richard N. (2003). «Cosmología». En Gowan, Donald E. (ed.). The Westminster Theological Wordbook of the Bible . Westminster John Knox Press. pág. 189 ISBN 9780664223946
  10. 1 2 Cook, Joseph (1883). Pensamiento avanzado en Europa, Asia, Australia, etc. Londres: Richard D. Dickinson. pág. 41. 
  11. ↑ Most, William G. "El descenso de Cristo a los infiernos y su resurrección" . Archivado del original el 20 de febrero de 2018. Consultado el 7 de marzo de 2013 .
  12. ↑ Simpson, John A.; Weiner, Edmund SC, eds. (1989). "harrow ('hærɘʊ), v . 2 " . Oxford English Dictionary . Vol. VI: Follow–Haswed (2.ª ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1132, col. 2. ISBN   0-19-861218-4.(Juego de 20 volúmenes: ISBN 0-19-861186-2)
  13. 1 2 "Descenso de Cristo a los Infiernos" . La Iglesia Episcopal . Archivado del original el 7 de abril de 2023. Recuperado el 11 de mayo de 2023 .
  14. ↑ Chambers, Ephraim (1728). "Christolytes" . Cyclopædia, o, Diccionario universal de artes y ciencias . Archivado del original el 29 de septiembre de 2017. Recuperado el 29 de septiembre de 2017 a través de History of Science and Technology, Bibliotecas Digitales de la Universidad de Wisconsin.
  15. ↑ von Balthasar, Hans Urs (1 de enero de 2000). Mysterium Paschale: El misterio de la Pascua . Prensa de Ignacio. ISBN 978-1-68149-348-0Archivado del original el 5 de abril de 2023. Consultado el 15 de marzo de 2023 .
  16. ↑ «De una homilía antigua para el Sábado Santo: El descenso del Señor a los infiernos» . Santa Sede. Archivado del original el 8 de agosto de 2020. Consultado el 28 de julio de 2020 .
  17. ↑ Identificación de “una homilía antigua para el Sábado Santo”, sobre el Descenso de Cristo a los Infiernos , por Roger Pearse, consultado el 19 de abril de 2025.
  18. ↑ "Catecismo de la Iglesia Católica " . págs. 636–37. Archivado del original el 20 de marzo de 2010.
  19. ↑ "Summa theologiae: El descenso de Cristo a los infiernos (Tertia Pars, Q. 52)" . www.newadvent.org . Archivado del original el 28 de julio de 2020. Consultado el 28 de julio de 2020 .
  20. 1 2 Reno, RR (15 de octubre de 2008). "¿Era Balthasar un hereje?" . First Things . Archivado del original el 29 de mayo de 2024. Recuperado el 24 de mayo de 2020 .
  21. ↑ Skaggs, Rebecca (2 de junio de 2020). 1, 2 Pedro y Judas a través de los siglos . John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-97330-1Archivado del original el 6 de abril de 2023. Consultado el 16 de enero de 2023 .
  22. ↑ "Centro de Teología y Apologética Reformada" . reformed.org . Archivado del original el 4 de marzo de 2021. Consultado el 28 de julio de 2020 .
  23. ↑ Instituciones de la religión cristiana , Libro 2, capítulo 16, secciones 8–10 Archivado el 28 de septiembre de 2020 en Wayback Machine .
  24. ↑ Allen, R. Michael (2012). Teología reformada . págs. 67–68
  25. ↑ D. y C. 138:12,15–16
  26. ↑ D. y C. 138:29–30,32
  27. ↑ D. y C. 138 ; 1 Pedro 4:6
  28. ↑ Marcos 16:16 ; Juan 3:5 ; 1 Pedro 3:21
  29. ↑ "¿Por qué los mormones realizan bautismos por los muertos?" , Preguntas frecuentes, Mormon.org , Iglesia SUD, archivado del original el 13 de febrero de 2016
  30. 1 2 Daniel Burke, ' ¿Qué hizo Jesús el Sábado Santo? Archivado el 25 de febrero de 2020 en Wayback Machine ' en The Washington Post , 2 de abril de 2012 (consultado el 14 de enero de 2013)
  31. ↑ Piper, John; Columnista, invitado de Christian Post (23 de abril de 2011). "¿Descendió Cristo alguna vez al infierno?" . The Christian Post . Archivado del original el 11 de mayo de 2023. Recuperado el 11 de mayo de 2023 .
  32. ↑ Adrian Warnock, Criado con Cristo (Wheaton: Crossway, 2010), págs. 33-34
  33. ↑Burns, Norman T. (1972). Christian Mortalism from Tyndale to Milton. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 180. ISBN 0-674-12875-3.
  34. ↑Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1979). "Descent into Hell". In Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (ed.). International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A–D. pp. 926–927. ISBN 0-8028-8161-0.
  35. ↑Hunter, William Bridges. Milton's English poetry: being entries from A Milton encyclopedia. p. 151.
  36. ↑Bullinger, E. W. "Hell". A Critical Lexicon and Concordance to the English and Greek New Testament. pp. 367–369.
  37. ↑Hagen, Kenneth (1974). A theology of Testament in the young Luther: the lectures on Hebrews. Leiden: Brill. p. 95. ISBN 90-04-03987-2. For Luther it refers to God's abandonment of Christ during the three days of his death:
  38. ↑Whittaker, H. A. (1984). Studies in the Gospels. OCLC 43138946.
  39. ↑Revelation 1:18
  40. ↑"Auchinleck manuscript". Auchinleck.nls.uk. Archived from the original on September 17, 2012. Retrieved February 24, 2013.
  41. ↑Henry, Elisabeth (1992). Orpheus with His Lute: Poetry and the Renewal of Life. Bristol Classical Press. pp. 38, 50–53, 81.et passim
  42. ↑Treharne, Elaine (2010). "Speaking of the Medieval". The Oxford Handbook of Medieval Literature in English. Oxford University Press. p. 10.
  43. ↑Friedman, John Block (2000). Orpheus in the Middle Ages. Syracuse University Press. pp. 125–126. ISBN 0-8156-2825-0.
  44. ↑Steed, Robert (2017). "The Harrowing of Hell Motif in Tolkien's Legendarium". Mallorn (58): 6–9. Archived from the original on November 30, 2023. Retrieved March 5, 2024.
  45. ↑Recording and essay with Il Giudizio Finale; Te Deum. dir Alberto Turco, Bongiovanni
  46. ↑"Christ in Limbo". Indianapolis Museum of Art. Archived from the original on March 26, 2016. Retrieved March 17, 2016.
  47. ↑"Misha Collins: Supernatural's Warrior Angel". Archived from the original on March 21, 2009. Retrieved May 11, 2023.

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