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Bautismo infantil

Bautismo de un niño en Finlandia por un pastor luterano . El bautismo infantil , también conocido como bautizo o pedobautismo , es una práctica sacramental cristiana que consist...

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Bautismo de un niño en Finlandia por un pastor luterano .

El bautismo infantil , también conocido como bautizo o pedobautismo , es una práctica sacramental cristiana que consiste en bautizar a bebés y niños pequeños . Esta práctica se lleva a cabo en la Iglesia Católica , las iglesias ortodoxas orientales y ortodoxas orientales , diversas denominaciones protestantes y también en otras denominaciones del cristianismo. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] La práctica implica bautizar a los bebés nacidos de padres creyentes como un medio para iniciarlos en la fe cristiana. Los defensores del bautismo infantil citan referencias bíblicas al bautismo de familias enteras en el Nuevo Testamento , así como las enseñanzas de Jesús sobre la acogida de los niños, como justificación para este enfoque. [ 1 ]

En contraste, el bautismo de creyentes (credobautismo) se basa en la premisa de que el bautismo debe administrarse únicamente a quienes pueden profesar personalmente su fe. Quienes apoyan esta postura argumentan que el bautismo es un acto consciente de compromiso con el cristianismo, que requiere la comprensión de su significado. Por consiguiente, sostienen que solo quienes son capaces de articular su creencia deben participar en el sacramento. Esta perspectiva es común entre anabaptistas , bautistas , pentecostales y otros grupos evangélicos . Los defensores del bautismo de creyentes argumentan que no existen referencias explícitas al bautismo infantil en el Nuevo Testamento, así como la importancia del bautismo como un compromiso personal. [ 1 ]

Edad

Las prácticas de bautismo infantil varían entre las distintas denominaciones cristianas , y suelen tener lugar durante las primeras semanas después del nacimiento, aunque algunas tradiciones lo realizan de inmediato, como en casos de muerte inminente, o lo retrasan varios meses.

  • En la tradición católica romana , se recomienda el bautismo dentro de las primeras semanas, o sin demora si el niño está en peligro de muerte, como se establece en el Código de Derecho Canónico (867 §1-§2), siendo los padres responsables de organizar el sacramento. [ 3 ]
  • La Iglesia Ortodoxa Oriental bautiza a los infantes poco después de nacer, otorgándoles la plena participación sacramental, incluida la Comunión, para afirmar su dignidad espiritual e incorporación a la iglesia. [ 4 ]
  • Lutheran churches view baptism as a sacrament of grace that forgives original sin, citing God's initiative and rejecting the concept of an "age of accountability," typically performing it without delay.[5]
  • In the Anglican tradition, baptism, or christening, has no age restriction and signifies inclusion in the covenant community, with parents pledging to raise the child in faith until personal confirmation.[6][7]
  • The Reformed tradition, grounded in covenant theology where baptism replaces circumcision, usually administers the sacrament within the first week, as noted in the Westminster Confession.[8]
  • Methodists practice baptism at any age, and for infants, it represents prevenient grace, with the congregation and parents committing to the child's spiritual upbringing.[9]

Ceremony

The exact details of the baptismal ceremony vary among Christian denominations. Many follow a prepared ceremony, called a rite or liturgy.

Reception

All traditions begin with the reception or presentation of candidates. In the Roman Catholic Rite of Baptism for Several Children, this includes the Reception of the Children and a Liturgy of the Word with Scripture readings, homily, and intercessions. Similarly, Episcopal and Lutheran rites open with the Presentation and Examination of Candidates, including questions to parents, sponsors, or godparents. This phase highlights communal recognition and prepares candidates (and their families) for baptism.[10] In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the rite opens with the "reception of the catechumens," where the celebrant prays for the candidate to become "a reason-endowed sheep in the holy flock of your Christ, an honorable member of your Church, a child of the light, and an heir of your Kingdom."[11]

Prayer and anointment

Las oraciones y las unciones simbólicas marcan la preparación espiritual. El rito católico romano incluye una Oración de Exorcismo y Unción antes del Bautismo , que enfatiza la purificación. Las tradiciones episcopal y luterana incorporan Oraciones por los Candidatos y, en el luteranismo, una Oración de la Iglesia invocando al Espíritu Santo . Si bien la unción explícita es más prominente en el catolicismo (por ejemplo, la crismación postbautismal), todos los ritos enfatizan la oración como un medio de fortalecimiento espiritual. [ 10 ] En el rito ortodoxo oriental, se realizan múltiples exorcismos y se ora para que el agua sea "el agua de la redención, el agua de la santificación, la purificación de la carne y el espíritu, la liberación de las ataduras, la remisión de los pecados, la iluminación del alma, el lavamiento de la regeneración, la renovación del espíritu, el don de la adopción como hijos, la vestidura de la incorrupción, la fuente de la vida". [ 11 ]

Bendición del agua y bautismo

La bendición del agua y el bautismo propiamente dicho son fundamentales en todos los ritos. Los católicos romanos realizan una bendición e invocación a Dios sobre el agua bautismal, mientras que los episcopalianos y luteranos incluyen una acción de gracias sobre el agua. El bautismo se administra según la fórmula trinitaria : católicos, episcopalianos y luteranos emplean la inmersión o el derramamiento "en el nombre del Padre , y del Hijo , y del Espíritu Santo ". [ 10 ] En la Iglesia Ortodoxa Oriental, el celebrante ora para que el agua sea santificada con "el poder (energeia) del Espíritu Santo", y el bautismo se realiza por triple inmersión, seguida inmediatamente de la crismación (unción con óleo sagrado). [ 11 ]

Un sacerdote vierte agua sobre la cabeza de un bebé sostenido sobre la pila bautismal en una iglesia católica ( Estados Unidos ). Ceremonia del " Rito del Bautismo para Niños ".

Ritos explicativos y sello del espíritu

Post-baptismal rituals symbolize the candidate’s new identity. Roman Catholics include Explanatory Rites: anointing with chrism (Seal of the Spirit), clothing in a white garment, presentation of a lighted candle, and the Ephphetha prayer. Episcopalians offer a Prayer for the Sevenfold Gift of the Holy Spirit, while Lutherans seal the candidate with a Prayer of the Church and present a baptismal candle.[10] Eastern Orthodox Christians, after baptism, immediately chrismate the newly baptized, praying that the newly illumined will "please you in every deed and word, and may be a child and heir of your heavenly kingdom," affirming a twofold transformation: normative membership in the Church and acquisition of the "regenerate states" (purification, sanctification, illumination, regeneration).[11] These rites signify the Holy Spirit's indwelling and the community's welcome.

Conclusion

While baptism itself does not always include Eucharist, its communal context often ties to Eucharistic worship. For example: Roman Catholics conclude with the Lord’s Prayer and a blessing, linking baptism to the broader liturgical life of the Church. Lutherans use a Baptismal Welcome, where the congregation affirms the newly baptized, often within a Eucharistic service. Episcopalians integrate baptism into the Baptismal Covenant, aligning it with congregational vows that precede shared Eucharist.[10] In the Eastern Orthodox Church, baptism, chrismation, and first communion are typically administered together, even to infants, as baptism is seen as full incorporation into the Church's life, granting immediate access to the sacraments.[11] Though not explicitly part of the baptismal rubric in all traditions, baptism is understood as initiation into a Eucharistic community.[10]

Historical development

First century

El bautismo cristiano del primer siglo involucraba principalmente a creyentes adultos, sin evidencia definitiva en el Nuevo Testamento sobre el bautismo infantil, aunque algunos sugieren que los bautismos domésticos pudieron haber incluido a los bebés. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] El consenso académico sostiene que el bautismo infantil surgió gradualmente desde finales del siglo II, se generalizó en el siglo III y se volvió universal en los siglos IV-V, coexistiendo con el bautismo de creyentes ( Hechos de los Apóstoles 2:38-41) en medio de los primeros debates. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ]

El historiador David F. Wright (2007, 2005) sugiere que las iglesias paulinas del primer siglo no practicaban el bautismo infantil. Wright describe el asunto como una "incógnita sin resolver", señalando que la evidencia indica que los hijos de cristianos bautizados generalmente no eran bautizados hasta al menos el año 55 d. C., durante el ministerio de Pablo, aunque el alcance de esta práctica sigue sin estar claro. [ 22 ] [ 23 ]

A pesar de esto, algunos teólogos defienden la presencia temprana del bautismo infantil. Joachim Jeremias (2004) y William A. Strange (1996) sostienen que el bautismo infantil se originó en la Era Apostólica, afirmando que los hijos de los conversos eran bautizados junto con sus familias. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Los defensores citan los bautismos de familias en Hechos de los Apóstoles (16:15, 33) y 1 Corintios 1:16 como evidencia potencial. Sin embargo, el Diccionario Global de Teología (2009) reconoce la ambigüedad de estos relatos, afirmando que si bien los bebés pudieron haber sido incluidos, los textos no proporcionan una confirmación explícita. [ 26 ] Jeremias argumenta que el bautismo se extendió a todos los miembros de la familia porque el concepto de "familia" del Antiguo Testamento es inherentemente inclusivo, basándose en interpretaciones de 1 Samuel 22 :16-19 y Génesis 17:23 . [ 25 ] Por lo tanto, el término "casa" ( oikos ) ha sido central en este debate. [ 27 ]

Steven Nicoletti (2015) propone que el silencio del Nuevo Testamento sobre el bautismo infantil podría afirmar su práctica, basándose en el concepto de “ presuposiciones compartidas”: supuestos comunes de la época. Argumenta que los primeros textos cristianos probablemente omitieron la mención explícita del bautismo infantil porque era ampliamente aceptado, reflejando las normas culturales donde los bebés eran incluidos naturalmente en los ritos religiosos. [ 20 ]

Otra línea de razonamiento explora paralelismos con las tradiciones judías . La analogía entre la circuncisión y el bautismo es un argumento clave para el bautismo infantil temprano. En la tradición judía , los niños eran circuncidados al octavo día , y algunos estudiosos sugieren que los primeros judeocristianos veían el bautismo de manera similar. [ 27 ] Además, el bautismo de prosélitos judíos incluía a familias enteras, incluidos los niños, como rito de purificación para los gentiles conversos al judaísmo . [ 28 ] El teólogo Kurt Aland (2004) replica que esto no era la norma para los niños nacidos en el judaísmo, quienes generalmente eran incorporados mediante la circuncisión, no el bautismo, lo que debilita el paralelismo con la práctica cristiana. [ 29 ]

Más información proviene de textos cristianos primitivos que abordan la pecaminosidad de los bebés o niños pequeños. Clemente de Roma ( 1 Clemente 14.4) afirmó: «Nadie está limpio de impureza, ni siquiera si su vida tiene apenas un día». Aunque posteriormente se usó fuera de contexto, esto se convirtió en un texto de prueba para el bautismo que abordaba el pecado original . [ 23 ] Esta visión se alinea con el Salmo 51 :5, que dice: «He aquí, en iniquidad fui formado, y en pecado me concibió mi madre», apoyando la creencia cristiana primitiva en la pecaminosidad inherente de la humanidad desde el nacimiento. [ 30 ] De manera similar, la Didaché , una orden eclesiástica que data de finales del siglo I o principios del siglo II, proporciona instrucciones para el bautismo de adultos , pero señala que los niños deben recibir enseñanza para prevenir el pecado futuro, sin abordar explícitamente su bautismo. [ 31 ] Textos cristianos de principios del siglo I, como 1 Clemente y Salmo 51:5, resaltan la pecaminosidad universal, vinculando el bautismo con la remisión de los pecados y sentando las bases para la doctrina del pecado original, justificando posteriormente el bautismo infantil. Sin embargo, no existen pruebas directas de esta práctica en este período, lo que deja su prevalencia en duda. [ 32 ]

Siglo II

La mayoría de los textos cristianos del siglo II no proporcionan evidencia explícita de la práctica del bautismo infantil. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] Sin embargo, estudiosos como Wright y Aland identifican rastros literarios que surgen a finales del siglo II. [ 33 ] [ 22 ] [ 27 ] Por ejemplo, la primera referencia clara al bautismo infantil proviene de Tertuliano , quien se opuso a él o abogó por su postergación. En Sobre el bautismo (c. 200 d. C.), lo reconoce como una costumbre establecida pero argumenta en contra de ella, sugiriendo que el bautismo debería posponerse hasta que las personas puedan profesar personalmente la fe. [ 34 ] Strange (1996) observó que la oposición de Tertuliano al bautismo infantil marcó una desviación de la práctica predominante, argumentando que la evidencia patrística sugiere que ya era una norma reconocida. [ 24 ] Además, Nuh Yilmaz (2020) señala que la visión de Tertuliano no resonó eficazmente en las iglesias del norte de África, donde el bautismo infantil continuó como la práctica general. [ 35 ] El norte de África siguió siendo la región con mayor apoyo al bautismo infantil, y según Ferguson (1999) bien pudo haber sido allí donde se originó la práctica. [ 34 ]

Tertuliano (c. 160-220 d. C.) se opuso al bautismo infantil en sus escritos, proporcionando la primera evidencia clara de su práctica en el cristianismo primitivo del norte de África.

Además, algunos defensores citan a Ireneo de Lyon , quien escribió que "los bebés, los niños pequeños, los jóvenes, los adolescentes y los ancianos" "renacen". [ 26 ] Académicos como Odd Magne Bakke (2005) y David P. Nelson (1996) interpretan esto como una referencia al bautismo, aunque Bakke aclara que "renacer" ( renascuntur ) debe entenderse como un término técnico para el bautismo. [ 36 ] [ 27 ] [ 27 ] Por el contrario, Peter Jenson (2012) y Robert L. Meyers (1988) argumentan que la afirmación carece de especificidad con respecto a los bebés. [ 37 ] [ 38 ]

Regardless, Christianity was growing in popularity and expansion during this period, structured catechesis became essential to prepare converts for faith amid persecution and heresies. This formalized approach to baptism, emphasizing instruction, according to Nelson (1996) likely reduced the practice of infant baptism, which required no prior preparation.[36]

Insights into early Christian apologists viewed infants and young children as sinless or morally innocent. Notable examples include:The Shepherd of Hermas (c. 100–150 AD) which portrays children as models of discipleship and moral purity, inherently innocent and free of evil, serving as an example for believers.[23][39]Aristides of Athens (Apology, Chapter 15, c. 125 AD) wrote that Christian children are born sinless and, if they die in infancy, are celebrated for passing from life without sin: “And when a child is born to one of them, the Christians give thanks to God; and if the child dies in infancy, they give thanks even more, for it has passed from this life sinless.”[40]Athenagoras of Athens(On the Resurrection of the Dead, c. 177 AD): stated that infants who die are not judged, as they "have done neither evil nor good."[40]Justin Martyr (First Apology, 15, c. 155 AD; Second Apology, 10, c. 153 AD) described infants and children as morally neutral, sinless until they can rationally choose to sin, emphasizing free will and the "seed of the Logos." He praised the purity of "disciples from childhood," suggesting no innate sinfulness.[41]

Third century

Clearer evidence of infant baptism emerges in the third century.[33] Yet from the third to the early fifth century, many Christian parents postponed baptizing their children.[42] This delay was due to several factors: (1) the belief that waiting maximized baptism's spiritual benefits, (2) the custom of performing baptism only when death was near, (3) and the reluctance of unbaptized parents to have their children baptized.[38]

A pesar de esto, inscripciones como las de las Catacumbas de Priscila en Roma mencionan a un infante que había recibido el bautismo antes de morir. Estas inscripciones sugieren que el bautismo infantil se practicaba con regularidad, especialmente en casos de enfermedad o muerte inminente ( bautismo de emergencia ). [ 38 ] Académicos como Jeremias y Ferguson examinaron la evidencia epigráfica relacionada con el bautismo infantil; Aland argumentó que las inscripciones del siglo III no ofrecían información nueva significativa. Para ese período, el bautismo infantil ya estaba bien documentado en las fuentes literarias existentes. [ 43 ]

Estas fuentes literarias existentes incluían: Hipólito de Roma ( Tradición Apostólica 21.3-5) dispuso: «Los niños pequeños serán bautizados primero. Si pueden hablar por sí mismos, que lo hagan; de lo contrario, sus padres o un pariente deberán responder por ellos». [ 34 ] Orígenes afirmó que el bautismo infantil era una tradición apostólica transmitida a la Iglesia, aunque sigue siendo incierto si su opinión provenía de un razonamiento teológico o de una exégesis bíblica. [ 34 ] En cualquier caso, sus escritos atestiguan que la costumbre ya estaba firmemente arraigada. [ 38 ] Cipriano de Cartago insistió además en que el bautismo no debía posponerse, ni siquiera para los infantes, afirmando que la gracia de Dios «no se da en mayor o menor medida según la edad del receptor». [ 38 ]

Siglo IV

El siglo IV marcó un punto de inflexión para el cristianismo, que pasó de ser perseguido a convertirse en una religión favorecida dentro del Imperio Romano . Este cambio dio lugar a prácticas bautismales divergentes. En algunas zonas, persistió el catecumenado , con una rigurosa instrucción prebautismal ejemplificada por figuras como Cirilo de Jerusalén y Gregorio de Nisa . Simultáneamente, el bautismo infantil cobró importancia, impulsado por la evolución de la comprensión teológica de las implicaciones del pecado original . [ 44 ]

Durante este período, la Iglesia condenó enérgicamente el pelagianismo , que cuestionaba la necesidad del bautismo para la salvación , y afirmó que el bautismo debía administrarse sin demora. Por ejemplo, decretos oficiales como el Pro Jacobitis del Concilio de Florencia advertían contra el aplazamiento del bautismo, subrayando así que los infantes (y otros) debían recibir el bautismo con prontitud para alcanzar la salvación. Estos acontecimientos, junto con textos del Concilio de Cartago y el Catecismo Romano que enseñaban que los infantes no bautizados no podían alcanzar el cielo , demuestran que a finales del siglo IV el bautismo infantil era una práctica ampliamente aceptada y normativa en la Iglesia. [ 45 ]

Varios líderes cristianos prominentes, como Tertuliano, Rufino , Gregorio de Nacianzo , Basilio de Cesarea , Ambrosio , Jerónimo , Agustín y Cirilo de Alejandría , dan testimonio de la práctica generalizada de la consagración infantil o su inscripción en el catecumenado en lugar del bautismo inmediato. Esta costumbre se observaba en los principales centros cristianos, desde Cartago y Milán hasta Constantinopla y Alejandría . En consecuencia, en el siglo IV, la consagración de los niños y su posterior instrucción en el catecumenado seguía siendo la práctica habitual, mientras que el bautismo infantil generalmente se administraba solo en casos de necesidad urgente ( bautismo de emergencia ). [ 42 ]

San Agustín de Hipona siendo bautizado en el año 387 d. C.

Según Andrew Messmer (2022), muchos líderes cristianos prominentes, aunque nacieron en familias cristianas, no fueron bautizados en la infancia, sino que recibieron el bautismo más adelante en la vida. Por ejemplo, Novaciano (200-258) fue bautizado durante una grave enfermedad, mientras que Gregorio de Nacianzo (c. 329-390) esperó hasta los treinta años. Basilio de Cesarea fue bautizado aproximadamente a los 27 años (c. 357), y Gregorio de Nisa entre los 23 y los 28 años. Ambrosio de Milán (340-397) permaneció sin bautizar hasta su repentina elección como obispo en 374, y Juan Crisóstomo (347-407) fue bautizado alrededor de los 20 años (c. 368). Jerónimo (347–420) fue bautizado a los 19 años (366), y Agustín (354–430), a pesar de la influencia de su devota madre Mónica, retrasó su bautismo hasta los 33 años (387). Este patrón refleja la práctica generalizada de retrasar el bautismo, incluso entre quienes se criaron en hogares cristianos. [ 42 ]

En cuanto a sus puntos de vista, los primeros Padres de la Iglesia mantuvieron posturas divergentes sobre el bautismo infantil, reflejando las tensiones teológicas de su época. Agustín de Hipona , en sus escritos antipelagianos , sostuvo que el bautismo era esencial para la purificación del pecado original, afirmando que solo mediante este sacramento los infantes podían incorporarse al rebaño de Cristo. Emitió graves advertencias sobre las consecuencias eternas de morir sin ser bautizados. [ 38 ] En contraste, Gregorio de Nacianzo adoptó una posición más moderada, argumentando que, dado que los infantes carecen de conciencia del pecado o de la gracia, el bautismo debía posponerse a menos que un peligro inminente amenazara sus vidas, sugiriendo los tres años como mínimo apropiado o cuando los niños pudieran participar activamente en el rito. [ 38 ] Jerónimo adoptó una postura decididamente proactiva, particularmente en su correspondencia con Laeta (403 d. C.), donde planteó el bautismo infantil como una obligación parental fundamental, implicando negligencia en aquellos que retrasaban el sacramento. Estas diferentes perspectivas ilustran la evolución teológica en torno a las prácticas bautismales en el cristianismo primitivo. [ 38 ]

According to Robin M. Jensen (2012), archaeological evidence supports the existence of diverse baptismal practices in early Christianity. The variation in baptismal font designs suggests differences in liturgical customs, while third- and fourth-century funerary inscriptions confirm that some infants received emergency baptisms - though these do not demonstrate it was a widespread norm.[38] The interpretation of iconographic evidence remains contested, as depictions of small figures undergoing baptism could represent either the baptism of Jesus or early instances of infant baptism.[38] This ambiguity in material evidence mirrors the theological diversity seen in textual sources from the period.

Fifth century

Medieval era miniature of an infant being baptized in a Baptismal font

By the late fifth century, theological debates increasingly emphasized original sin as the primary justification for infant baptism. The growing influence of Augustinian theology in Western Christianity found formal expression when the Council of Carthage (418 AD) affirmed that infants, while personally guiltless, bore the taint of Adam's original sin and consequently needed baptism for spiritual purification. This doctrinal development marked a significant shift in sacramental theology, transforming infant baptism from a discretionary practice to a theological necessity in Western Christian thought.[44]

By the early sixth century, a growing emphasis on the doctrine of repeatable penance further heightened fears that unbaptized infants would suffer eternal damnation. This period saw a shift in practice: parents began engaging in formal baptismal preparation activities on behalf of their children. Over time, these preparations gave way to a consolidated ceremony, where newborn infants were baptised, anointed (confirmation), and received communion all at once to ensure that even the youngest members of the community were promptly incorporated into the salvific rite.[44] Writings from such as John the Deacon’s letter (c. 500 AD) highlight that the Church’s teaching and practice had firmly established infant baptism as essential for salvation in response to original sin.[44] Large fonts from this period indicate that adult baptism continued alongside infant baptism well into the sixth and seventh centuries.[38] In the sixth century, 526 AD, eastern Roman emperor, Justinian I made infant baptism compulsory.[38]

Middle ages

The practice of infant baptism expanded significantly during the early Middle Ages, particularly from the sixth century onward, largely due to concerns about high infant mortality rates. This led to the frequent administration of emergency baptisms (baptism in extremis), often performed in respitesanctuaries. The sacrament became firmly established as a normative practice through the Carolingian reforms of the ninth century, and was further consolidated during the Gregorian reforms of the eleventh and twelfth centuries.[46]

Denominational teachings and practices

Roman Catholic

The Catholic Church requires a "founded hope" the child will be raised Catholic for licit baptism (Code of Canon Law 868 §1, 2° CIC). If absent, baptism is postponed (not denied) with explanation. The sacrament grants regeneration, removes original sin, and unites the child with Christ.[47] Therefore, baptism is a fundamental sacrament in the Church, marking the initiation of an individual into Christian life and the Church community. It is essential for salvation, providing spiritual rebirth and access to other sacraments.[47]

The Church requires assurance that baptized infants will be raised Catholic (Canon 868 §1, 2° CIC). Parental consent is mandatory - at least one parent/guardian must approve. Baptism cannot be administered against parental wishes except in danger of death, when it may proceed regardless of objections.[47] Additionally, baptism is seen as a one-time sacrament that marks a person's commitment to Christ and cannot be repeated. If there is serious doubt about whether someone was baptized before or if it was done correctly, the Catholic Church allows a conditional baptism to be performed. Moreover, the practice of baptizing miscarried or stillborn infants is no longer done.[48]

The Church recognizes both pouring (affusion) and immersion as valid baptismal methods, stating that the symbolic cleansing is preserved through the ritual use of water, even when full immersion isn't practiced.[48]

The Church acknowledges the importance of a personal decision in baptism, which infants cannot make. To address this, godparents are appointed to stand in for the child, committing to their Christian upbringing on behalf of the parents. The role of parents and godparents is strongly emphasized in the Church's rite of infant baptism, which was revised on the instructions of the Second Vatican Council.[49] As they grow, baptized children are expected to embrace the faith chosen for them, confirming the decision made on their behalf.[48]

Historically, such practices were developed gradually, rooted in early Christian tradition, original sin, and sacramental theology. While adult baptism was initially dominant, the practice of baptizing infants became common by the third century. Cyprian of Carthage (c. 250 AD) defended it, arguing that baptismal grace should not be denied to children.[50] In the fourth century, Augustine of Hippo linked baptism to original sin, asserting that it was necessary for salvation. His arguments shaped medieval sacramental theology, which emphasized that baptism remained valid regardless of personal faith (ex opere operato).[50] The concept of limbo (limbus infantium), a speculative idea that unbaptized infants neither enter heaven nor suffer in hell, was never official Church doctrine. Though widely held from the 12th century onward, belief in limbo had largely faded by the 20th century.[48]

In response to Protestant critiques, the Council of Trent (1545–1563) firmly upheld infant baptism as obligatory, solidifying its standard practice with support from godparents and catechesis. Today, the Church teaches that unbaptized infants are entrusted to God’s mercy, while maintaining that baptism remains essential for initiation into the faith and liberation from original sin.[50]

Eastern Churches

Baptism by immersion in the Eastern Orthodox Church (Sophia Cathedral, 2005)

The Eastern Orthodox Church practices infant baptism as a fundamental part of its sacramental theology, viewing it as the child's initiation into the Church and participation in the life of Jesus.[51] The baptism is performed through triple immersion in water, symbolizing the believer’s sharing in Christ’s death and resurrection.[51] In Orthodox theology, sacraments are considered effective by the very act of their completion (ex opere operato), meaning they impart divine grace regardless of the recipient’s personal understanding.[52]

The Orthodox Church, like the Roman Catholic Church, believes that baptism results in the forgiveness of sins, both original and actual. Through baptism, the newly baptized is "clothed with Christ" and becomes a full member of the Church.[52] The sacrament is viewed as a mystical communion with God, through which grace is given for salvation and spiritual transformation. This understanding reflects the Orthodox belief that sacraments are "Mysteries", divine means by which humanity experiences salvation and anticipates eternal life in God’s kingdom.[52]

Baptism in the Orthodox Church is immediately followed by Chrismation (Confirmation) and Holy Communion, emphasizing the unity of these three sacraments.[51] Chrismation, administered by the priest, involves anointing the baptized with Holy Myron (Chrism), sealing them with the gift of the Holy Spirit. The newly baptized, including infants, then receive the Eucharist, partaking in consecrated wine and bread as their first communion.[51] This integrated approach contrasts with many Western Christian traditions, where these sacraments are administered separately at different stages of life.

The baptism of infants is performed on the basis of the faith of the Church, rather than the personal profession of the child.[51] The commitment of parents and godparents plays a crucial role, as they pledge to raise the child in the Orthodox faith. While infants are traditionally baptized on the eighth day, mirroring the Old Testament practice of circumcision, this timing is not strictly required, and baptisms may occur at any time.[53]Orthodox theology holds that baptism is essential for salvation and the remission of original sin, making it a vital sacrament in the life of every Orthodox Christian.[54]

Protestant

Lutheran Churches

Baptism of a child in Finland by a Lutheran pastor (2015)

Lutherans uphold infant baptism by pointing to scriptural references where entire households were baptized (e.g., Acts 16:15). They argue that households in biblical times included children. According to Martin Luther, baptism is not founded on personal faith, as one can never be certain of faith. Instead, it is based on God's word and commandment. The faith involved is that of those who bring the child to baptism (fides aliena), such as parents, godparents, and the church congregation.[55]

Lutherans believe that through baptism, the child receives infused faith, mediated by the prayers of the church, parents, and godparents. Baptism purifies and renews the child. Personal faith is not a prerequisite for baptism but is nourished by it, as the individual continually adheres to God's grace and renounces sin throughout life. The Augsburg Confession (II) states that baptism is necessary for salvation. It is an assignment to Christ, a surrender into Jesus’ death and resurrection, and a gift of new life that calls the baptized to walk in faith.[55]

While baptism marks initiation into the church and incorporation into the people of God, it is viewed as the beginning of a lifelong journey. If not taken in faith, baptism remains incomplete. In the post-Reformation era, Lutheran orthodoxy reaffirmed the necessity of infant baptism. However, later movements such as Pietism and Rationalism emphasized inner experience over the sacrament, leading figures like John Wesley to argue that true rebirth occurs through personal transformation, not the outward ritual.[55]

Methodist

Presbyterian-Congregational Alliance (1770–1852)

According to Campbell (1999), Methodist churches affirm infant baptism, rooted in the seventeenth Article of Religion’s instruction to retain “the baptism of young children” (p. 107). Methodists have historically defended this practice against critics of infant baptism, grounding it in New Testament accounts of household baptisms (Acts 16:15, 33), Jesus’ embrace of children (e.g., Matthew 19:13–15), and the belief that all, including infants, require inclusion in the church’s covenantal fellowship.[56] For Methodists, infant baptism signifies “an acceptance of the prevenient grace of God and as a confession on the part of the church of its responsibility for children in general and for every child in particular.”[57][58] Methodist doctrine further emphasizes that justifying grace, essential for salvation, is received after repentance and a personal commitment to Christ as Savior.[59][60] While many Methodist denominations, such as the Free Methodist Church and Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection, practice infant baptism for families who request it, they also offer a rite of child dedication for those who prefer to delay baptism until their child can consciously profess faith.[60][61]

Presbyterian, Congregational and Reformed Churches

Presbyterian, Congregational, and Reformed churches administer infant baptism based on covenant theology, viewing baptism as "a sign and seal of the covenant of grace" and the "visible Word of God" (Fesko 2010, p. 4). They argue that baptism replaces circumcision as the covenant sign and that just as infants were circumcised under the old covenant, so now infants should be baptized under the new covenant (p. 8). Baptism is not merely a human act of profession but is "God’s visible covenant promise when accompanied by the Word" and serves as a "means of grace" (p. 6). This perspective stresses that baptism is grounded in "God’s covenant dealings with His people," not in an individual’s decision or personal faith alone (p. 3).[62][63]

Confirmation

For Catholic, Methodist Christians, and Wesleyan, Confirmation "strengthens" (the original meaning of the word "confirm")[64][65] the grace of Baptism, by conferring an increase and deepening of that grace.[66][65]

In Eastern Christianity, including the Eastern Catholic Churches, the sacrament of Confirmation is conferred immediately after baptism, and there is no renewal of baptismal promises. In the Latin Church and its Latin liturgical rites of the Catholic Church, the sacrament is to be conferred at about the age of discretion (generally taken to be about 7), unless the Episcopal Conference has decided on a different age, or there is danger of death or, in the judgment of the minister, a grave reason suggests otherwise (canon 891 of the Code of Canon Law). The renewal of baptismal promises by those receiving the sacrament in the Western Catholic Church is incidental to the rite and not essentially different from the solemn renewal of their baptismal promises that is asked of all members of this church each year at the Easter Vigil service. Only in French-speaking countries has there been a development of ceremonies, quite distinct from the sacrament of Confirmation, for young Catholics to profess their faith publicly, in line with their age.[67]

Within the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, confirmation or "the laying on of hands" is an essential part of the baptismal ordinance, and to receive baptism without confirmation is to leave the ordinance incomplete.[68] Confirmation is the conferring of the gift of the Holy Ghost as a constant companion.[69] To confirm means to "make more sure" and the ordinance of confirmation stands as a witness of the individual becoming a member of the LDS Church and not just an acceptance of Jesus.[68]

Comparison with believer's baptism

Definition of believer's baptism

Believer’s baptism emphasizes conscious faith and personal commitment as prerequisites. Advocates argue that household baptisms in Acts (e.g., Acts 16:15, 33) cited for infant baptism rely on an argument from silence, as no explicit biblical text mentions infant baptism. Historical records suggest infant baptism emerged in the late second century, lacking direct scriptural precedent.[70] Rooted in Pauline theology (Romans 6:4; Galatians 3:27), baptism symbolizes the burial of the “old self” and resurrection to new life in Christ through immersion. Groups like the Adventists view it as a public declaration of repentance and surrender to Christ’s lordship. Swiss ReformerHuldrych Zwingli emphasized baptism as a memorial act, not a sacramental means of grace.[70]

Key theological differences

Believer’s baptism prioritizes responsible baptism, requiring the baptized to become competent to know Christ. It is effective only when joined with faith and presupposes that baptized can respond for themselves to the baptismal interrogations and thus bear witness to personal faith.[71] However, infant baptism primarily rests on God’s initiative, viewing baptism as a sign of grace and covenant membership, not requiring personal faith but depending on the church’s faith.[71]

Debates regarding infant baptism

The debate over infant baptism engages ecclesiology, covenant, and faith, often sparking controversy. Tom J. Nettles et al. (2007) in Understanding Four Views on Baptism highlight two irreconcilable traditions: believer’s baptism, emphasizing personal faith, and infant baptism, prioritizing covenantal continuity. These frameworks “simply cannot be mixed” without undermining theological integrity (p. 21)[72]

Arguments for

Proponents of infant baptism base their position on a covenantal framework, equating the practice with the Old Testament rite of circumcision. In Reformed theology, baptism signifies a child’s inclusion in God’s covenant community and membership within the visible church, mirroring circumcision’s role in ancient Israel.[73]B. B. Warfield noted this continuity, arguing that God’s inclusion of children in the covenant community, established during Abraham’s time, still grants them access to church membership and sacraments.[73] Luther defended infant baptism as an act of obedience to Christ’s directive to bring children to God, grounding the practice in divine authority rather than human choice.[74]

Arguments against

Critics of infant baptism maintain that the New Testament portrays baptism reserved for individuals who consciously respond to the gospel and profess faith, rather than as a covenantal rite applied to infants.[75] They state that the absence of explicit biblical examples where baptism is administered to those incapable of understanding or articulating belief, therefore weakens its symbolic role in affirming Christian identity.[76]

As for the historical viewpoint, critics argue that infant baptism originated as a post-apostolic ecclesiastical innovation, lacking direct biblical or apostolic authorization, and dismiss it as a human tradition unsupported by divine revelation.[77]

Regarding consent, Mary McAleese, a Catholic legal scholar and former Irish president, posits in her doctoral research that infant baptism functions as “enforced membership” within the Catholic Church, raising questions about consent and lifelong obligations imposed on children. She suggests that baptized individuals should later have the opportunity to formally affirm or renounce their membership, aligning with modern principles of freedom of conscience, belief, and religion. McAleese observes that the Catholic Church has yet to fully integrate these principles into its sacramental theology.[78]

Opposing denominations

These doctrinal positions shape baptismal practices across Christian traditions, exemplified by: Anabaptists (e.g., Mennonites, Amish), Baptist Traditions (Southern, Reformed), Churches of Christ, Pentecostal/Charismatic groups (Assemblies of God, Oneness Pentecostals). Additionally, several nontrinitarian religious groups also oppose infant baptism, including Oneness Pentecostals, Christadelphians, Jehovah's Witnesses, United Church of God, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS).[79]

Specifically, the LDS Church has stated that little children are considered both born without sin[80] and incapable of committing sin.[81] They have no need of baptism until age eight,[82] when they can begin to learn to discern right from wrong, and are thus accountable to God for their own actions.[83] However, the LDS Church performs a non-saving ordinance to name and bless children, customarily performed on infants.[84]

Challenges and controversies

Injury and death

In October 2020, a Greek Orthodox priest in Cyprus was accused of harming an infant during a baptism near Limassol. Video evidence showed the priest forcefully immersing the crying baby into a metal font, causing the child's legs to repeatedly strike the container. The parents filed a complaint, alleging the priest ignored their requests for gentle handling and responded, “I am responsible for the baptism.” The mother, Ntina Shitta, reported the baby was “red and in shock” afterward, describing the event as a “ruined” milestone. The priest issued a public apology on October 19, denying intent to harm and claiming he acted to prevent the baby from slipping, expediting the ritual upon noticing distress. Church authorities launched an investigation, but no immediate charges or disciplinary actions were announced.[85]

On February 5, 2021, a six-week-old baby died in Suceava, Romania, within a Romanian Orthodox Church, after a baptism involving triple immersion in holy water, led to cardiac arrest and liquid in the lungs. A manslaughter inquiry targeted the priest involved. Archbishop Calinic of Arges called for reviewing baptism practices, favoring alternatives like sprinkling, while the Archbishop of Tomis defended the traditional ritual, rejecting change. A petition for safer baptisms gained 60,000 signatures.[86][87]

Catholic forced baptism and custody

Postremo mense

In 1747, Pope Benedict XIV issued papal bullPostremo mense, about baptizing Jewish children, building on old Church traditions. Benedict XIV said it is usually wrong to baptize a Jewish child without the parents' permission, but it is permissible if the child is dying. If a child is baptized, even improperly, the Church must take them from non-baptized Jewish parents to raise them as Christians.[88][89] These ideas matched earlier thinkers like Thomas Aquinas and were supported by later figures like Alphonsus Liguori.[90][91] The Church punished unauthorized baptisms, but the baptism's effects still stood. In 1751, Benedict issued a Probe te meminisse reinforcing these rules and setting penalties for Jewish converts who left Catholicism.[90][91]

Edgardo Mortara case (1858)

In 1858, six-year-old Jewish boy Edgardo Mortara was removed from his family in Bologna, then part of the Papal States, after a Catholic servant had baptized him as an infant during an illness, citing concern for his spiritual salvation. Under papal law, which required Catholic children to be raised in the faith, authorities declined requests from Edgardo’s parents to return him, despite appeals to figures such as Cardinal Giuseppe Milesi Ferretti and Archbishop Michele Viale-Prèla. Efforts by the family and Jewish leaders to negotiate with officials were unsuccessful. Due to the emotional strain of the separation, Edgardo’s mother, Marianna, was temporarily relocated from the home. The Church assumed custody of Edgardo, prompting widespread international criticism.[92][93]

Baptism during the Holocaust

During the Holocaust, many Jewish children in Nazi-occupied Poland were hidden and rescued by Catholic convents and monasteries. The motivations of the rescuers varied. While many nuns acted out of Christian compassion and humanitarian duty, the issue of religious conversion became controversial. Some children were baptized, sometimes as a protective measure, but this led to postwar disputes about their religious identity and custody. After the war, tensions arose between Jewish organizations and the Catholic Church over whether baptized children should be returned to the Jewish community or remain in Catholic care.[94]

Finaly Affair

Jewish boys Robert and Gérald Finaly, hidden by Catholics during WWII, were baptized. Postwar, their Catholic caretaker refused to return them to Jewish relatives, citing their baptism. Legal battles ended with their return to Jewish family in 1953.[95][96]

Other religious traditions

Yazidism

Baptism of a Yazidi child in Lalish

In Yazidism, Mor kirin ("to seal") is a baptism ritual typically performed at birth to initiate children into the faith. Holy water from the Kaniya Sipî (White Spring) at Lalish, the holiest Yazidi site.[97][98] Alternatively, one may use the slightly less holy Zimzim spring.

Individuals originating from regions near Lalish frequently translate the mor kirin ceremony as 'baptism,' due to its observable similarities with Christian baptismal rites.[97]

The rite is performed by either a male or female member of a shaikh or pir family who serves as the officiating Mijêwir (custodian) at Lalish, specifically holding the position of Micêwirê Kaniya Sipî (custodian of the White Spring) during the ceremony.[97]

The officiant pours holy water from one of Lalish's sacred springs over the child's head in three ritual motions. While the ideal age for reception is nine or ten years, practical considerations often lead to earlier administration. Although circumcision is not a religious requirement, some families observe the practice due to regional customs.[99]

According to Iraqi Yazidi tradition, individuals who die without undergoing mor kirin must be ritually washed by their shaikh, pir, or designated "Brother/Sister of the Hereafter" (Kurd.Birayê/Xuşka Axiretê). If none of these are available, another person may perform the washing in their name. For those unable to travel to Lalish, the rite may be conducted using holy water transported from the sacred springs of Lalish to their location.[97]

However, adherence to this practice varies geographically. Yazidis originating from areas near Lalish observe the custom more consistently than those from Turkey or Armenia, among whom the ritual has largely diminished in perceived necessity.[97]

While the mor kirin ceremony may reflect historical Christian influences, its origins remain speculative. Given the significance of water in pre-Islamic Iranian religions, the rite could equally stem from earlier indigenous traditions.[97]

See also

References

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  2. ↑Provance, B. S. (2010). Pocket Dictionary of Liturgy & Worship. United States: InterVarsity Press. "Infant baptism is practiced by the [Anglican Communion], [Lutheran Church], [Presbyterian & Reformed Churches], [Roman Catholic Church], and [Methodist Church] churches, often followed by a later rite of *confirmation or profession of faith (Confessional statements: Aug. Conf. 9; Heid. Cat. 74; West. Conf. 28.4; CCC 1250-52; cf. Calvin, Institutes 4.16)" (p. 26).
  3. ↑Canon Law Society of America. (2000). New commentary on the Code of Canon Law (J. A. Coriden, J. P. Beal, & T. J. Green, Eds.). Paulist Press. p. 1054.
  4. ↑Cuneo, T. (2014). Transforming the self: On the baptismal rite. Religious Studies, 50(3), 279–296. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43658441
  5. ↑Gassmann, G. (2001). Historical dictionary of Lutheranism (J. Woronoff, Series Ed.). Scarecrow Press. (pp. 34-35).
  6. ↑"Christening FAQs". The Church of England. Retrieved 28 April 2025.
  7. ↑Anglican Church in North America. (2020). To be a Christian: An Anglican catechism. Crossway. (p. 57)
  8. ↑Foster, D. A. (Ed.). (2004). The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 249.
  9. ↑Benedict, D. (2009, December 9). What is the appropriate age for baptism and for confirmation? Discipleship Ministries. https://www.umcdiscipleship.org/resources/what-is-the-appropriate-age-for-baptism-and-for-confirmation
  10. 123456Johnson, M. E. (2007). The rites of Christian initiation: Their evolution and interpretation (2nd rev. & expanded ed., pp. 402–448). Liturgical Press.
  11. 12345Cuneo, T. (2014). Transforming the self: on the baptismal rite. Religious Studies, 50(3), 279–296. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43658441
  12. ↑Lawson, K. E. (2011). Baptismal theology and practices and the spiritual nurture of children: Part I: early and medieval church. Christian Education Journal, 8(1), 130+. "Though hotly debated, it is unclear whether or not children in the church during the New Testament era were baptized. Examples shared in the Bible generally either focus on adult believers receiving baptism" (p. 131).
  13. ↑Livingstone, E. A. (Ed.). (2006). The concise Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199659623.001.0001 "Although from the first baptism was the universal means of entry into the Christian community, the NT [New Testament] contains no specific authority for its administration to infants" (Livingstone, 2006, p. 94).
  14. ↑McMaken, W. T. (2013). The Sign of the Gospel: Toward an Evangelical Doctrine of Infant Baptism After Karl Barth. United States: Fortress Press. "While some claim to find traces of infant baptism in the New Testament, the scholarly consensus is that no clear, indisputable evidence of the practice is present. On the other hand, there is likewise no clear, indisputable evidence that infant baptism did not occur in the earliest Christian communities" (p.14).
  15. ↑Douglas, J. D., Toon, P. (2023). The Concise Dictionary of the Christian Tradition: Doctrine, Liturgy, History. United States: Zondervan. "Though there are no explicit statements that babies were baptized in the apostolic period, proponents of infant baptism see it as highly probable that they wereincluded in the households which were baptized (Acts 16:15, 31)" (p. 47-48).
  16. ↑Kärkkäinen, V. (2021). An Introduction to Ecclesiology: Historical, Global, and Interreligious Perspectives. United Kingdom: IVP Academic. "In light of current scholarship, it is clear that infant baptism was a new development in relation to the New Testament and the earliest patristic theology. It emerged slowly and sporadically in various Christian locations; its legitimacy had to be demonstrated (Origen) and was sometimes outright rejected (Tertullian). This momentous shift developed gradually from the end of the second century. Not earlier than the end of the fourth and beginning of the fifth century, infant baptism established itself as the main mode of baptism. For the first five centuries of Christian history, believers' baptism and infant baptism coexisted" (p. 212).
  17. ↑Harper's Encyclopedia of Religious Education. (1990). United Kingdom: Harper & Row. "In addition, the spread of infant baptism, which began to take root in the third century, contributed to the disappearance of the catechumenate" (p. 104)
  18. ↑Johnson, M. (2018, April 26). The Development of the “Apostolic Tradition” in Early Christian Worship. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Retrieved 28 Apr. 2025, from https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-526. "Along with these specific ritual details, 3rd-century sources also show that infant baptism, including infant communion, was being practiced widely. Indeed, it was considered a normative practice in many early Christian communities."
  19. ↑Gassmann, G., Larson, D. H., Oldenburg, M. W. (2001). Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism. United States: Scarecrow Press. "...the catechumenate, fell out of use as infant baptism, attested around the year 200, became universal in the fourth and fifth centuries. Following the foundational teaching of Augustine that in baptism guilt and original sin are remitted, in 418 the Synod of Carthage decreed that infants must be baptized in order to be freed from original sin" (p. 34).
  20. 12Nicoletti, S. A. (2015, November 1). Infant baptism in the first-century presupposition pool. Tyndale Bulletin, 66(2). https://doi.org/10.53751/001c.29399
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  56. ↑Campbell, T. A. (1999). Methodist doctrine: The essentials. Abingdon Press. (pp. 73-133)
  57. ↑Methodist Review, Volume 101. G. Lane & P. B. Sandford. 1918. p. 464.
  58. ↑Manns, Peter; Meyer, Harding (1984). Luther's Ecumenical Significance: An Interconfessional Consultation. Fortress Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-8006-1747-9. When modern Methodists expound infant baptism, they think first of " prevenient grace", for which infant baptism is said to be an effective, or at least a useful, sign.
  59. ↑"God's Preparing, Accepting, and Sustaining Grace". The United Methodist Church GBGM. Archived from the original on 9 January 2008. Retrieved 2 August 2007.
  60. 12"Baptism and Dedication". Free Methodist Church. 3 December 2008. When they baptize babies, pastors should make sure that their prayers include clear requests that God will bring the children to a personal faith that "owns" what the parents are promising at a time when the children (who "belong" from day one) cannot act for themselves. And when they dedicate children, pastors should make sure that their prayers include clear gratitude to God for the fact that he is already at work in the life of that child, who already "belongs" in the Christian community. Here's what must be stressed: whether at the time of baptism (in the adult baptism tradition) or at the time of confirmation when the vows made earlier by the parents are personally "owned" (in the infant baptism tradition), it is faith in Jesus (dependent trust, not mere cognitive affirmation) that is crucial. Paul goes so far as to say that without faith and obedience, the old rite of circumcision has no value (Romans 2:25). The same is true of baptism. With either rite, clear evangelistic follow-through is crucial.
  61. ↑The Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection (Original Allegheny Conference). Salem: Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection. 2014. pp. 140–146.
  62. ↑Fesko, J. V. (2010). Word, water, and Spirit: A Reformed perspective on baptism. Reformation Heritage Books.
  63. ↑Westminster Confession, Chapter 28, Section 1 and especially section 3. Baptized people are considered part of the covenant of grace by faith unless they prove otherwise by committing apostasy.
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  65. 12"Baptism and Confirmation". The Methodist Church in Britain. 2014. Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 23 July 2017.
  66. ↑"Catechism". www.usccb.org.
  67. ↑cf. articleArchived 24 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine entitled Redonner tout son sens à l'initiation chrétienne : un défi à relever in Lumière et Vie 270 (June 2006), proposing the establishment of as many as seven such occasions.
  68. 12Craven, Rulon G. (1992). "Confirmation". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 310–311. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140.
  69. ↑Porter, Bruce Douglas (1992). "Gift of the Holy Ghost". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 543–544. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140.
  70. 12(Nettles et al., 2007, pp. 170-171)
  71. 12McMaken, W.T. (2013). The Sign of the Gospel: Toward an Evangelical Doctrine of Infant Baptism after Karl Barth. Augsburg Fortress Publishers. https://muse.jhu.edu/book/27359. (pp. 8-57).
  72. ↑Nettles, T. J., Pratt, R. L., Jr., Kolb, R., & Castelein, J. D. (2007). Understanding four views on baptism. Zondervan.
  73. 12(Nettles et al., 2007, p. 70)
  74. ↑(Nettles et al., 2007, p. 124)
  75. ↑(Nettles et al., 2007, p. 40)
  76. ↑(Nettles et al., 2007, p. 111)
  77. ↑(Nettles et al., 2007, p. 198)
  78. ↑McGarry, Patsy (22 June 2018). "Infant Baptism is enforced membership of the Catholic Church, says Mary McAleese". The Irish Times. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
  79. ↑Norman, Keith E. (1992). "Infant Baptism". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 682–683. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140.
  80. ↑Merrill, Byron R. (1992). "Original sin". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 1052–1053. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140.
  81. ↑Rudd, Calvin P. (1992). "Children: Salvation of Children". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 268–269. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140.
  82. ↑Hawkins, Carl S. (1992). "Baptism". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 92–94. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140.
  83. ↑Warner, C. Terry (1992). "Accountability". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140.
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  85. ↑Kokkinidis, Tasos (20 October 2020). "Greek Orthodox Priest is Accused of Injuring Baby During Baptism". Greek Reporter. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  86. ↑AFP (4 February 2021). "Orthodox Church under fire in Romania after baby dies following baptism". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  87. ↑McGrath, Stephen (5 February 2021). "Romania baptisms: Six-week-old baby's death sparks calls for change". BBC News. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  88. ↑Cunningham, James J. (2006). Summa Theologiae: Volume 57, Baptism and Confirmation: 3a. 66-72. Cambridge University Press. p. 112. ISBN 9780521029650.
  89. ↑Caffiero, Marina (2012). Forced Baptisms: Histories of Jews, Christians, and Converts in Papal Rome. University of California Press. p. 46. ISBN 9780520254510.
  90. 12Caffiero, Marina (2012). Forced Baptisms: Histories of Jews, Christians, and Converts in Papal Rome. University of California Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780520254510.
  91. 12Carlen, Claudia (1990). Papal Pronouncements, a Guide, 1740-1978: Benedict XIV to Paul VI. Pierian Press. p. 6. ISBN 9780876502730. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
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  93. ↑Grew, Raymond (2000). "Review of The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara, by David I. Kertzer". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 68 (1). Oxford: Oxford University Press: 189–191. doi:10.1093/jaarel/68.1.189. ISSN 1477-4585. JSTOR 1465729.
  94. ↑Bogner, N. (1999). The convent children: The rescue of Jewish children in Polish convents during the Holocaust (N. Greenwood, Trans.). Yad Vashem Studies, 27, 235–285. https://www.yadvashem.org/righteous/resources/rescue-of-jewish-children-in-polish-convents.html
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  99. ↑Parry, O. H. (Oswald Hutton) (1895). "Six months in a Syrian monastery; being the record of a visit to the head quarters of the Syrian church in Mesopotamia, with some account of the Yazidis or devil worshipers of Mosul and El Jilwah, their sacred book". London : H. Cox.

Sources

  • Aland, Kurt (2004). Did the Early Church Baptize Infants?. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59244-541-7.
  • Bakke, Odd Magne (2005). When Children Became People: The Birth of Childhood in Early Christianity. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-1530-8.

Support

  • Early Church Fathers on Baptism
  • What About Holy Baptism? by Dr. A.L. Barry (Lutheran perspective)
  • Baptism by Francis Schaeffer (Evangelical Presbyterian perspective)
  • JEREMIAH 31: INFANT BAPTISM IN THE NEW COVENANT by Dr. Richard Pratt (Evangelical Presbyterian perspective)
  • Chaney, James M. (2009). William the Baptist. Oakland, TN: Doulos Resources. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-4421-8560-9. OCLC 642906193. Archived from the original on 2 April 2011. (Reformed Presbyterian perspective)
  • Infant Baptism Catholic Answers guide, with Imprimatur
  • Early Teachings of Infant Baptism teachings on Baptism by the Church Fathers, with Imprimatur
  • Infant Baptism (by Jordan Bajis, Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America website)
  • Infant Baptism by Canon Tom Gordon (Orthodox Anglican perspective)
  • By Water and the Spirit (United Methodist perspective)
  • Infant Baptism discussed at www.CatholicBridge.com (Catholic perspective)
  • Baptism, Confirmation and the Affirmation of Baptismal Faith (Anglican Church perspective)

Opposition

  • Infant Baptism in the Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online
  • A Scriptural Critique of Infant Baptism by Pastor John MacArthur
  • The Assemblies of God on Baptism
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