Kurdos

Los kurdos o pueblo kurdo ( en kurdo : کورد , kurdo ) son un grupo étnico iraní ^{[36] [37] [38]} originario de la región montañosa de Kurdistán en Asia occidental , que se extiende por el sureste de Turquía , el noroeste de Irán , el norte de Irak y el norte de Siria . ^[39] Hay enclaves de kurdos en Anatolia central , Jorasán y el Cáucaso , así como importantes comunidades de diáspora kurda en las ciudades del oeste de Turquía (en particular Estambul ) y Europa occidental (principalmente en Alemania ). Se estima que la población kurda está entre 30 y 45 millones. ^{[2] [40]}

Los kurdos hablan las lenguas kurdas y las lenguas zaza-gorani , que pertenecen a la rama iraní occidental de las lenguas iraníes . ^{[41] [42]}

Los kurdos no constituyen una mayoría en ningún país, lo que los convierte en un pueblo sin Estado . ^[43] Después de la Primera Guerra Mundial y la derrota del Imperio Otomano , los aliados occidentales victoriosos previeron un estado kurdo en el Tratado de Sèvres de 1920. Sin embargo, esa promesa se rompió tres años después, cuando el Tratado de Lausana estableció los límites de la Turquía moderna y no hizo tal disposición, dejando a los kurdos con un estatus de minoría en todos los nuevos países de Turquía , Irak y Siria . ^[44] La historia reciente de los kurdos incluye numerosos genocidios y rebeliones , junto con conflictos armados en curso en el Kurdistán turco , iraní , sirio e iraquí . Los kurdos en Irak y Siria tienen regiones autónomas, mientras que los movimientos kurdos continúan buscando mayores derechos culturales , autonomía e independencia en todo el Kurdistán ^{[ cuando se define como? ]} .

Los orígenes exactos del nombre Kurd no están claros. ^[45] El topónimo subyacente está registrado en asirio como Qardu y en sumerio de la Edad del Bronce Medio como Kar-da . ^[46] El Qardu asirio se refiere a un área en la cuenca superior del Tigris , y presumiblemente se refleja en forma corrupta en el árabe clásico Ǧūdī ( جودي ), readoptado en kurdo como Cûdî . ^[47] El nombre continuaría como el primer elemento en el topónimo Corduene , mencionado por Jenofonte como la tribu que se opuso a la retirada de los Diez Mil a través de las montañas al norte de Mesopotamia en el siglo IV a. C.

Sin embargo, existen opiniones disidentes que no derivan el nombre de los kurdos de Qardu y Corduene , sino que optan por la derivación de Cyrtii ( Cyrtaei ). ^[48]

Independientemente de sus posibles raíces en la toponimia antigua, el etnónimo kurdo podría derivar de un término kwrt- usado en persa medio como sustantivo común para referirse a " nómadas " o "habitantes de tiendas de campaña", que podría aplicarse como atributo a cualquier grupo iraní con ese estilo de vida. ^[49]

El término adquirió la característica de un etnónimo después de la conquista musulmana de Persia , ya que fue adoptado en árabe y gradualmente se asoció con una amalgama de tribus y grupos iraníes e iranizados en la región. ^{[50] [51]}

En el siglo XVI, Sharafkhan Bidlisi afirma que hay cuatro divisiones de kurdos: kurmanj , lur , kalhor y guran , cada una de las cuales habla un dialecto o variación lingüística diferente. Paul (2008) señala que el uso del término kurdo en el siglo XVI registrado por Bidlisi, independientemente de la agrupación lingüística, aún podría reflejar una incipiente identidad étnica "kurda" del noroeste de Irán que une a los kurmanj , kalhur y guran . ^[52]

El kurdo (kurdo: Kurdî o کوردی) es un conjunto de dialectos relacionados hablados por los kurdos. ^[52] Se habla principalmente en aquellas partes de Irán , Irak , Siria y Turquía que comprenden el Kurdistán . ^[53] El kurdo tiene estatus oficial en Irak como lengua nacional junto con el árabe , es reconocido en Irán como lengua regional y en Armenia como lengua minoritaria. Los kurdos son reconocidos como un pueblo con una lengua distinta por geógrafos árabes como Al-Masudi desde el siglo X. ^[54]

Muchos kurdos son bilingües o multilingües y hablan el idioma de su respectiva nación de origen, como el árabe, el persa y el turco, como segunda lengua junto con su lengua materna, el kurdo, mientras que quienes pertenecen a comunidades de la diáspora suelen hablar tres o más idiomas. Los kurdos turquificados y arabizados suelen hablar poco o nada de kurdo.

Según Mackenzie, hay pocas características lingüísticas que todos los dialectos kurdos tienen en común y que no se encuentran al mismo tiempo en otras lenguas iraníes . ^[55]

Los dialectos kurdos según Mackenzie se clasifican en: ^[56]

• Grupo del norte ( grupo dialectal kurmanji )
• Grupo central (parte del grupo dialectal sorani )
• Grupo del sur (parte del grupo dialectal Xwarin ) que incluye a Laki

Los zaza y los gorani son kurdos étnicos, ^[57] pero las lenguas zaza-gorani no están clasificadas como kurdas. ^[58]

Se estima que el número de kurdos que viven en el suroeste de Asia es de entre 30 y 45 millones, y uno o dos millones más viven en la diáspora kurda . Los kurdos representan entre el 18 y el 25% de la población en Turquía , ^{[1] [59]} entre el 15 y el 20% en Irak , ^[1] el 10% en Irán y ^[1] el 9% en Siria . ^{[1] [60]} Los kurdos forman mayorías regionales en estos cuatro países, a saber, en el Kurdistán turco , el Kurdistán iraquí , el Kurdistán iraní y el Kurdistán sirio . Los kurdos son el cuarto grupo étnico más grande de Asia occidental después de los árabes , los persas y los turcos .

El número total de kurdos en 1991 se estimó en 22,5 millones, de los cuales el 48% vivía en Turquía, el 24% en Irán, el 18% en Irak y el 4% en Siria. ^[61]

La emigración reciente representa una población cercana a 1,5 millones en los países occidentales, aproximadamente la mitad de ellos en Alemania .

Un caso especial son las poblaciones kurdas en el Transcáucaso y Asia Central , desplazadas allí en su mayoría en la época del Imperio ruso , que experimentaron desarrollos independientes durante más de un siglo y han desarrollado una identidad étnica por derecho propio. ^[62] La población de este grupo se estimó en cerca de 0,4 millones en 1990. ^[63]

La mayoría de los kurdos son musulmanes sunitas que siguen la escuela Shafi'i , mientras que una minoría significativa sigue la escuela Hanafi ^[64] y también el Alevismo . Además, muchos kurdos Shafi'i siguen una de las dos órdenes sufíes Naqshbandi y Qadiriyya . ^[65]

Además del Islam sunita, el alevismo y el Islam chiita también tienen millones de seguidores kurdos. ^[66]

El yazidismo es una religión étnica monoteísta con raíces en una rama occidental de una religión iraní prezoroástrica. ^{[67] [68] [69] [70]} Se basa en la creencia de un solo Dios que creó el mundo y lo confió al cuidado de siete Seres Santos. ^{[71] [72]} El líder de esta heptada es Tawûsê Melek , que está simbolizado con un pavo real . ^{[71] [73]} Sus seguidores suman entre 700.000 y 1 millón en todo el mundo ^[74] y son indígenas de las regiones kurdas de Irak , Siria y Turquía , con algunas comunidades significativas y más recientes en Rusia , Georgia y Armenia establecidas por refugiados que huyen de la persecución de los musulmanes en el Imperio Otomano . ^[72] El yazidismo comparte con el alevismo kurdo y el yarsanismo muchas cualidades similares que se remontan a la era preislámica. ^{[75] [76] [77]}

El yarsanismo (también conocido como Ahl-I-Haqq, Ahl-e-Hagh o Kakai) es también una de las religiones asociadas con el Kurdistán.

Aunque la mayoría de los textos sagrados de los yarsan se encuentran en el Gorani y todos los lugares sagrados de los yarsan se encuentran en el Kurdistán , también se encuentran seguidores de esta religión en otras regiones. Por ejemplo, mientras que hay más de 300.000 yarsan en el Kurdistán iraquí, hay más de 2 millones de yarsan en Irán. ^[78] Sin embargo, los yarsan carecen de derechos políticos en ambos países.

La religión iraní del zoroastrismo ha tenido una gran influencia en la cultura iraní, de la que forman parte los kurdos, y ha mantenido cierto efecto desde la desaparición de la religión en la Edad Media. El filósofo iraní Sohrevardi se basó en gran medida en las enseñanzas zoroástricas. ^[79] Atribuida a las enseñanzas del profeta Zoroastro , el Ser Supremo de la fe es Ahura Mazda . Las características principales, como el mesianismo , la Regla de Oro , el cielo y el infierno y el libre albedrío influyeron en otros sistemas religiosos, incluido el judaísmo del Segundo Templo , el gnosticismo , el cristianismo y el islam . ^[80]

En 2016 se inauguró en Sulaymaniyah el primer templo oficial del fuego zoroástrico del Kurdistán iraquí . Los asistentes celebraron la ocasión encendiendo un fuego ritual y tocando el tambor de marco o 'daf'. ^[81] Awat Tayib, el jefe de los seguidores del zoroastrismo en la región del Kurdistán, afirmó que muchos estaban volviendo al zoroastrismo, pero algunos lo mantenían en secreto por miedo a las represalias de los islamistas. ^[81]

Aunque históricamente ha habido varios relatos de cristianos kurdos , la mayoría de las veces estos se daban en forma de individuos y no como comunidades. Sin embargo, en los siglos XIX y XX varios diarios de viaje hablan de tribus cristianas kurdas, así como de tribus musulmanas kurdas que tenían poblaciones cristianas sustanciales viviendo entre ellas. Un número significativo de estas supuestamente eran originalmente armenias o asirias , ^[82] y se ha registrado que se han conservado un pequeño número de tradiciones cristianas. Se han encontrado varias oraciones cristianas en kurdo de siglos anteriores. ^[83] En los últimos años, algunos kurdos de origen musulmán se han convertido al cristianismo . ^{[84] [85] [86]}

Los primeros fragmentos de la Biblia se publicaron en kurdo en 1856, en el dialecto kurmanji. Los evangelios fueron traducidos por Stepan, un empleado armenio de la Sociedad Bíblica Americana , y se publicaron en 1857. Entre los cristianos kurdos históricos más destacados se encuentran los hermanos Zakare e Ivane Mkhargrdzeli. ^{[87] [88] [89]}

"La tierra de Karda" se menciona en una tablilla de arcilla sumeria que data del tercer milenio a. C. Esta tierra estaba habitada por "la gente de Su", que vivía en las regiones meridionales del lago Van ; la conexión filológica entre "kurdo" y "Karda" es incierta, pero se considera que la relación es posible. ^[90] Otras tablillas de arcilla sumerias se refieren a la gente que vivía en la tierra de Karda como los Qarduchi (Karduchi, Karduchoi) y los Qurti. ^[91] Karda/Qardu está etimológicamente relacionado con el término asirio Urartu y el término hebreo Ararat. ^[92] Sin embargo, algunos eruditos modernos no creen que los Qarduchi estén relacionados con los kurdos. ^{[93] [94]}

Los qarti o qartas, que originalmente se asentaron en las montañas al norte de Mesopotamia , son considerados como un probable antepasado de los kurdos. Los acádios fueron atacados por nómadas que llegaban a través del territorio qartas a finales del tercer milenio a. C. y los distinguieron como los guti , hablantes de una lengua preiránica aislada . Conquistaron Mesopotamia en 2150 a. C. y gobernaron con 21 reyes hasta que fueron derrotados por el rey sumerio Utu-hengal . ^[95]

Muchos kurdos se consideran descendientes de los medos , un antiguo pueblo iraní, ^[96] e incluso utilizan un calendario que data del 612 a. C., cuando la capital asiria de Nínive fue conquistada por los medos. ^[97] La ​​supuesta ascendencia meda se refleja en las palabras del himno nacional kurdo : "Somos los hijos de los medos y Kai Khosrow ". ^[98] Sin embargo, MacKenzie y Asatrian cuestionan la relación de la lengua meda con el kurdo. ^{[99] [100]} Las lenguas kurdas , por otro lado, forman un subgrupo de las lenguas iraníes del noroeste como el medo . ^{[52] [101]} Algunos investigadores consideran a los independientes Kardouchoi como los antepasados ​​de los kurdos, ^[102] mientras que otros prefieren a los cyrtianos . ^[103] El término kurdo , sin embargo, se encuentra por primera vez en fuentes árabes del siglo VII. ^[104] Los libros de la era islámica temprana, incluidos los que contienen leyendas como el Shahnameh y el Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan del persa medio , y otras fuentes islámicas tempranas proporcionan una atestación temprana del nombre kurdo . ^[105] Los kurdos tienen orígenes étnicamente diversos. ^{[106] [107]}

Durante la era sasánida , en Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan , una breve obra en prosa escrita en persa medio, se describe a Ardashir I luchando contra los kurdos y su líder, Madig . Después de sufrir inicialmente una dura derrota, Ardashir I tuvo éxito en subyugar a los kurdos. ^[108] En una carta que Ardashir I recibió de su enemigo, Ardavan V , que también aparece en la misma obra, se hace referencia a él como kurdo.

Has mordido más de lo que puedes masticar
y te has acarreado la muerte.
¡Oh, hijo de un kurdo, criado en las tiendas de los kurdos!
¿Quién te dio permiso para ponerte una corona en la cabeza? ^[109]

El uso del término kurdo durante este período probablemente era un término social que designaba a los nómadas del noroeste de Irán, más que a un grupo étnico concreto. ^{[109] [110]}

De manera similar, en el año 360 d. C., el rey sasánida Sapor II marchó sobre la provincia romana de Zabdicene para conquistar su ciudad principal, Bezabde, la actual Cizre . La encontró fuertemente fortificada y custodiada por tres legiones y un gran cuerpo de arqueros kurdos. ^[111] Después de un asedio largo y reñido, Sapor II abrió una brecha en las murallas, conquistó la ciudad y masacró a todos sus defensores. Después hizo reparar la ciudad, que estaba estratégicamente ubicada, abastecerla y guarnecerla con sus mejores tropas. ^[111]

Los Qadishaye, poblados por Kavad en Singara , eran probablemente kurdos ^[112] y adoraban al mártir Abd al-Masih. ^[113] Se rebelaron contra los sasánidas y atacaron todo el territorio persa. Más tarde, junto con árabes y armenios, se unieron a los sasánidas en su guerra contra los bizantinos. ^[114]

También hay un texto del siglo VII escrito por un autor no identificado sobre el legendario mártir cristiano Mar Qardagh . Vivió en el siglo IV, durante el reinado de Shapur II, y durante sus viajes se dice que se encontró con Mar Abdisho , un diácono y mártir, quien, después de haber sido interrogado sobre sus orígenes por Mar Qardagh y sus Marzobans , declaró que sus padres eran originariamente de un pueblo asirio llamado Hazza, pero fueron expulsados ​​y posteriormente se establecieron en Tamanon, un pueblo en la tierra de los kurdos , identificado como ubicado en la región del Monte Judi . ^[115]

Las primeras fuentes siríacas utilizan los términos Hurdanaye, Kurdanaye, Kurdaye para referirse a los kurdos. Según Miguel el Sirio , Hurdanaye se separó de los árabes Tayaye y buscó refugio con el emperador bizantino Teófilo . También menciona a las tropas persas que lucharon contra Musa, jefe de Hurdanaye, en la región de Qardu en 841. Según Barhebreaus , un rey se apareció a los Kurdanaye y se rebelaron contra los árabes en 829. Miguel el Sirio los consideraba paganos , seguidores del Mahdi y adeptos del Magianismo . Su Mahdi se llamaba a sí mismo Cristo y el Espíritu Santo . ^[116]

A principios de la Edad Media , los kurdos aparecen esporádicamente en fuentes árabes, aunque el término todavía no se usaba para un pueblo específico; en cambio, se refería a una amalgama de tribus nómadas iraníes occidentales, que eran distintas de los persas . Sin embargo, en la Alta Edad Media , la identidad étnica kurda se materializó gradualmente, ya que se pueden encontrar pruebas claras de la identidad étnica kurda y la solidaridad en textos de los siglos XII y XIII, ^[117] aunque, el término también se seguía utilizando en el sentido social. ^[118] Desde el siglo X, los textos árabes, incluidas las obras de al-Masudi , se han referido a los kurdos como un grupo lingüístico distinto. ^[119] Desde el siglo XI en adelante, el término kurdo se define explícitamente como un etnónimo y esto no sugiere sinonimia con la categoría etnográfica nómada. ^[120] Al-Tabari escribió que en 639, Hormuzan , un general sasánida originario de una familia noble, luchó contra los invasores islámicos en Juzestán y pidió a los kurdos que lo ayudaran en la batalla. ^[121] Sin embargo, fueron derrotados y sometidos al dominio islámico.

En 838, un líder kurdo con base en Mosul, llamado Mir Jafar , se rebeló contra el califa Al-Mu'tasim , quien envió al comandante Itakh para combatirlo. Itakh ganó esta guerra y ejecutó a muchos de los kurdos. ^{[122] [123]} Finalmente, los árabes conquistaron las regiones kurdas y gradualmente convirtieron a la mayoría de los kurdos al Islam, a menudo incorporándolos al ejército, como los hamdánidas , cuyos miembros de la familia dinástica también se casaban con frecuencia con kurdos. ^{[124] [125]}

En 934 se fundó la dinastía daylamita buyid , que conquistó la mayor parte de lo que hoy son Irán e Irak. Durante el gobierno de esta dinastía, el jefe y gobernante kurdo Badr ibn Hasanwaih se estableció como uno de los emires más importantes de la época. ^[126]

Entre los siglos X y XII se fundaron varios principados y dinastías kurdos que gobernaron el Kurdistán y las zonas vecinas:

• Los Shaddadids (951–1174) ^{[127] [128] [129] [130]} gobernaron partes de Armenia y Arran .
• Los Rawadid (955–1221) Eran de origen árabe, más tarde kurdizados ^[130] y gobernaron Azerbaiyán .
• Los hasanwayhids (959–1015) ^[129] gobernaron el oeste de Irán y la Alta Mesopotamia.
• Los marwánidas (990–1096) ^{[131] [129] [130]} gobernaron Anatolia oriental.
• Los annazis (990-1117) ^{[132] [129]} gobernaron el oeste de Irán y la Alta Mesopotamia (sucedieron a los hasanwayhids).
• Los hazaraspidas (1148-1424) ^[133] gobernaron el suroeste de Irán.
• Los ayubíes (1171-1341) ^[134] gobernaron Egipto , Siria , la Alta Mesopotamia, Hiyaz , Yemen y partes del sureste de Anatolia.

Debido a la invasión turca de Anatolia y Armenia, las dinastías kurdas del siglo XI se desmoronaron y se incorporaron a la dinastía seléucida. A partir de entonces, los kurdos serían utilizados en gran número en los ejércitos de los zengids . ^[135] La dinastía ayubí fue fundada por el gobernante kurdo Saladino , ^{[136] [137] [138] [139]} como sucesores de los zengids, los ayubíes se establecieron en 1171. Saladino dirigió a los musulmanes para recuperar la ciudad de Jerusalén de los cruzados en la batalla de Hattin ; también enfrentándose frecuentemente con los Asesinos . La dinastía ayubí duró hasta 1341 cuando el sultanato ayubí cayó ante las invasiones mongolas .

La dinastía safávida , establecida en 1501, también estableció su dominio sobre los territorios habitados por los kurdos. La línea paterna de esta familia en realidad tenía raíces kurdas, ^[142] remontándose a Firuz-Shah Zarrin-Kolah , un dignatario que se mudó de Kurdistán a Ardabil en el siglo XI. ^{[143] [144]} La batalla de Chaldiran en 1514 que culminó en lo que hoy es la provincia de Azerbaiyán Occidental de Irán , marcó el inicio de las guerras otomanas-persas entre los safávidas iraníes (y las sucesivas dinastías iraníes) y los otomanos . Durante los siguientes 300 años, muchos de los kurdos se encontraron viviendo en territorios que frecuentemente cambiaban de manos entre la Turquía otomana e Irán durante la prolongada serie de guerras otomanas-persas.

El rey safávida Ismail I (1501-1524) sofocó una rebelión yazidí que duró de 1506 a 1510. Un siglo después, tuvo lugar la batalla de Dimdim , que duró un año y en la que el rey safávida Abbas I (1588-1629) logró sofocar la rebelión liderada por el gobernante kurdo Amir Khan Lepzerin. A partir de entonces, muchos kurdos fueron deportados a Jorasán , no solo para debilitarlos, sino también para proteger la frontera oriental de las tribus afganas y turcomanas invasoras . ^[145] Abbas I y sus sucesores también llevaron a cabo otros movimientos forzados y deportaciones de otros grupos, sobre todo de los armenios , los georgianos y los circasianos , que fueron trasladados en masa hacia y desde otros distritos dentro del imperio persa. ^{[146] [147] [148] [149] [150]}

Los kurdos de Jorasán, que suman alrededor de 700.000, todavía usan el dialecto kurdo kurmanji . ^{[151] [152]} Varios nobles kurdos sirvieron a los safávidas y alcanzaron prominencia, como el jeque Ali Khan Zanganeh , que sirvió como gran visir del sah safávida Suleiman I (r. 1666-1694) de 1669 a 1689. Debido a sus esfuerzos por reformar la economía iraní en declive, se le ha llamado el " Amir Kabir safávida " en la historiografía moderna. ^[153] Su hijo, Shahqoli Khan Zanganeh , también sirvió como gran visir de 1707 a 1716. Otro estadista kurdo, Ganj Ali Khan , era amigo cercano de Abbas I, y sirvió como gobernador en varias provincias y era conocido por su servicio leal.

Tras la caída de los safávidas, Irán quedó bajo el control del Imperio afsharí , gobernado por Nader Shah en su apogeo. Tras la muerte de Nader, Irán se sumió en una guerra civil, con múltiples líderes intentando hacerse con el control del país. Finalmente, fue Karim Khan , un general laki de la tribu Zand , quien llegaría al poder. ^[154]

El país florecería durante el reinado de Karim Khan; se produciría un fuerte resurgimiento de las artes y se fortalecerían los lazos internacionales. ^[155] Karim Khan fue retratado como un gobernante que realmente se preocupaba por sus súbditos, por lo que ganó el título de Vakil e-Ra'aayaa (que significa Representante del Pueblo en persa ). ^[155] Aunque no fue tan poderoso en su alcance geopolítico y militar como los safávidas y afsáridas anteriores o incluso los primeros qajars, logró reafirmar la hegemonía iraní sobre sus territorios integrales en el Cáucaso y presidió una era de relativa paz, prosperidad y tranquilidad. En el Iraq otomano , después de la guerra otomano-persa (1775-1776) , Karim Khan logró apoderarse de Basora durante varios años. ^{[156] [157]}

Tras la muerte de Karim Khan, la dinastía decayó en favor de los rivales Qajar debido a las luchas internas entre los incompetentes descendientes del Khan. No fue hasta Lotf Ali Khan , 10 años después, que la dinastía volvió a estar dirigida por un gobernante hábil. Sin embargo, para entonces, los Qajar ya habían progresado mucho, habiendo tomado varios territorios Zand. Lotf Ali Khan tuvo múltiples éxitos antes de sucumbir finalmente a la facción rival. Irán y todos sus territorios kurdos pasarían a formar parte de la dinastía Qajar .

Se cree que las tribus kurdas presentes en Baluchistán y algunas de las de Fars son restos de quienes ayudaron y acompañaron a Lotf Ali Khan y Karim Khan, respectivamente. ^[158]

Cuando el sultán Selim I , tras derrotar al sha Ismail I en 1514 , se anexionó Armenia occidental y Kurdistán, confió la organización de los territorios conquistados a Idris , el historiador, que era kurdo de Bitlis . Dividió el territorio en sanjaks o distritos y, sin intentar interferir en el principio de herencia, instaló a los jefes locales como gobernadores. También repobló la rica región pastoral entre Erzerum y Erivan , que había quedado devastada desde el paso de Tamerlán , con kurdos de los distritos de Hakkari y Bohtan. Durante los siglos siguientes, desde la Paz de Amasya hasta la primera mitad del siglo XIX, varias regiones de las amplias tierras kurdas también serían disputadas entre los otomanos y las vecinas dinastías iraníes rivales sucesivas (safávidas, afsáridas , qajars ) en las frecuentes guerras otomano-persas .

Las políticas centralistas otomanas de principios del siglo XIX tenían como objetivo quitarle poder a los principados y localidades, lo que afectaba directamente a los emires kurdos. Bedirhan Bey fue el último emir del Emirato de Cizre Bohtan después de iniciar un levantamiento en 1847 contra los otomanos para proteger las estructuras actuales de los principados kurdos. Aunque su levantamiento no se clasifica como nacionalista, sus hijos desempeñaron un papel importante en el surgimiento y desarrollo del nacionalismo kurdo durante el siglo siguiente. ^[159]

El primer movimiento nacionalista kurdo moderno surgió en 1880 con un levantamiento liderado por un terrateniente kurdo y jefe de la poderosa familia Shemdinan, el jeque Ubeydullah , que exigió autonomía política o independencia total para los kurdos, así como el reconocimiento de un estado del Kurdistán sin interferencia de las autoridades turcas o persas. ^[160] El levantamiento contra la Persia Qajar y el Imperio Otomano fue finalmente reprimido por los otomanos y Ubeydullah, junto con otros notables, fueron exiliados a Estambul.

El nacionalismo kurdo surgió después de la Primera Guerra Mundial con la disolución del Imperio Otomano , que históricamente había integrado (pero no asimilado) a los kurdos con éxito, mediante el uso de la represión forzada de los movimientos de independencia kurdos. Las revueltas ocurrieron esporádicamente, pero solo en 1880 con el levantamiento liderado por el jeque Ubeydullah , los kurdos como grupo étnico o nación hicieron demandas. El sultán otomano Abdul Hamid II ( r.  1876-1909 ) respondió con una campaña de integración al cooptar a oponentes kurdos prominentes para fortalecer el poder otomano con ofertas de puestos prestigiosos en su gobierno. Esta estrategia parece haber sido exitosa, dada la lealtad mostrada por los regimientos kurdos de Hamidiye durante la Primera Guerra Mundial. ^[161]

El movimiento etnonacionalista kurdo que surgió después de la Primera Guerra Mundial y el fin del Imperio Otomano en 1922 representó en gran medida una reacción a los cambios que se estaban produciendo en la Turquía dominante, principalmente a la secularización radical , la centralización de la autoridad y al nacionalismo turco desenfrenado en la nueva República Turca. ^[162]

Jakob Künzler , director de un hospital misionero en Urfa , documentó la limpieza étnica a gran escala de armenios y kurdos por parte de los Jóvenes Turcos . ^[163] Ha dado un relato detallado de la deportación de kurdos de Erzurum y Bitlis en el invierno de 1916. Los kurdos eran percibidos como elementos subversivos que tomarían el lado ruso en la guerra. Para eliminar esta amenaza, los Jóvenes Turcos se embarcaron en una deportación a gran escala de kurdos de las regiones de Djabachdjur , Palu , Musch , Erzurum y Bitlis . Alrededor de 300.000 kurdos fueron obligados a trasladarse al sur a Urfa y luego al oeste a Aintab y Marasch . En el verano de 1917, los kurdos fueron trasladados a Konya en Anatolia central . Con estas medidas, los dirigentes de los Jóvenes Turcos pretendían debilitar la influencia política de los kurdos deportándolos de sus tierras ancestrales y dispersándolos en pequeñas comunidades de exiliados. Al final de la Primera Guerra Mundial, hasta 700.000 kurdos habían sido deportados por la fuerza y ​​casi la mitad de los desplazados habían perecido. ^[164]

Algunos de los grupos kurdos buscaron la autodeterminación y la confirmación de la autonomía kurda en el Tratado de Sèvres de 1920 , pero tras la Primera Guerra Mundial , Kemal Atatürk impidió tal resultado. Los kurdos respaldados por el Reino Unido declararon la independencia en 1927 y establecieron la República de Ararat . Turquía reprimió las revueltas kurdas en 1925, 1930 y 1937-1938, mientras que Irán en la década de 1920 reprimió a Simko Shikak en el lago Urmia y a Jaafar Sultan de la región de Hewraman, que controlaba la región entre Marivan y el norte de Halabja . Una breve República kurda de Mahabad patrocinada por los soviéticos (de enero a diciembre de 1946) existió en un área del actual Irán.

Entre 1922 y 1924 existió en Irak el Reino del Kurdistán . Cuando los administradores baasistas frustraron las ambiciones nacionalistas kurdas en Irak , estalló la guerra en los años 60. En 1970, los kurdos rechazaron un autogobierno territorial limitado dentro de Irak y exigieron zonas más extensas, incluida la región de Kirkuk , rica en petróleo .

Durante los decenios de 1920 y 1930 se produjeron varias revueltas kurdas a gran escala en el Kurdistán. A raíz de estas rebeliones, la zona del Kurdistán turco quedó bajo la ley marcial y muchos de los kurdos fueron desplazados. El gobierno turco también fomentó el reasentamiento de albaneses de Kosovo y asirios en la región para cambiar la composición de la población. Estos acontecimientos y medidas provocaron una desconfianza mutua duradera entre Ankara y los kurdos. ^[165]

Se dice que oficiales kurdos del ejército iraquí [...] se acercaron a las autoridades del ejército soviético poco después de su llegada a Irán en 1941 y se ofrecieron a formar una fuerza de voluntarios kurdos para luchar junto al Ejército Rojo. Esta oferta fue rechazada. ^[166]

Durante el gobierno relativamente abierto de la década de 1950 en Turquía, los kurdos obtuvieron cargos políticos y comenzaron a trabajar dentro del marco de la República Turca para promover sus intereses, pero este movimiento hacia la integración se detuvo con el golpe de estado turco de 1960. [ ^161] La década de 1970 vio una evolución en el nacionalismo kurdo a medida que el pensamiento político marxista influyó en algunos de la nueva generación de nacionalistas kurdos opuestos a las autoridades feudales locales que habían sido una fuente tradicional de oposición a la autoridad; en 1978, los estudiantes kurdos formarían la organización separatista militante PKK , también conocida como el Partido de los Trabajadores del Kurdistán en inglés. El Partido de los Trabajadores del Kurdistán abandonó más tarde el marxismo-leninismo . ^[167]

Los kurdos son considerados a menudo como "el grupo étnico más grande sin un estado ", ^{[168] [169] [170] [171] [172] [173]} Algunos investigadores, como Martin van Bruinessen , ^[174] que parecen estar de acuerdo con la posición oficial turca, sostienen que si bien puede existir cierto nivel de heterogeneidad cultural, social, política e ideológica kurda, la comunidad kurda ha prosperado durante siglos como una parte generalmente pacífica y bien integrada de la sociedad turca, y las hostilidades estallaron solo en los últimos años. ^{[175] [176] [177]} Michael Radu , que trabajó para el Instituto de Investigación de Política Exterior de Pensilvania de los Estados Unidos , señala que las demandas de un estado kurdo provienen principalmente de nacionalistas kurdos , activistas occidentales de derechos humanos e izquierdistas europeos. ^[175]

According to CIA Factbook, Kurds formed approximately 18% of the population in Turkey (approximately 14 million) in 2008. One Western source estimates that up to 25% of the Turkish population is Kurdish (approximately 18–19 million people).^[59] Kurdish sources claim there are as many as 20 or 25 million Kurds in Turkey.^[178] In 1980, Ethnologue estimated the number of Kurdish-speakers in Turkey at around five million,^[179] when the country's population stood at 44 million.^[180] Kurds form the largest minority group in Turkey, and they have posed the most serious and persistent challenge to the official image of a homogeneous society. To deny an existence of Kurds, the Turkish Government used several terms. "Mountain Turks" was a term was initially used by Abdullah Alpdoğan [tr]. In 1961, in a foreword to the book Doğu İlleri ve Varto Tarihi of Mehmet Şerif Fırat, the Turkish president Cemal Gürsel declared it of utmost importance to prove the Turkishness of the Kurds.^[181] Eastern Turk was another euphemism for Kurds from 1980 onwards.^[182] Nowadays the Kurds, in Turkey, are still known under the name Easterner (Doğulu).

Several large scale Kurdish revolts in 1925, 1930 and 1938 were suppressed by the Turkish government and more than one million Kurds were forcibly relocated between 1925 and 1938. The use of Kurdish language, dress, folklore, and names were banned and the Kurdish-inhabited areas remained under martial law until 1946.^[183] The Ararat revolt, which reached its apex in 1930, was only suppressed after a massive military campaign including destruction of many villages and their populations.^[184] By the 1970s, Kurdish leftist organizations such as Kurdistan Socialist Party-Turkey (KSP-T) emerged in Turkey which were against violence and supported civil activities and participation in elections. In 1977, Mehdi Zana a supporter of KSP-T won the mayoralty of Diyarbakir in the local elections. At about the same time, generational fissures gave birth to two new organizations: the National Liberation of Kurdistan and the Kurdistan Workers Party.^[185]

The words "Kurds", "Kurdistan", or "Kurdish" were officially banned by the Turkish government.^[186] Following the military coup of 1980, the Kurdish language was officially prohibited in public and private life.^[187] Many people who spoke, published, or sang in Kurdish were arrested and imprisoned.^[188] The Kurds are still not allowed to get a primary education in their mother tongue and they do not have a right to self-determination, even though Turkey has signed the ICCPR. There is ongoing discrimination against and "otherization" of Kurds in society.^[189]

The Kurdistan Workers' Party or PKK (Kurdish: Partiya Karkerên Kurdistanê) is Kurdish militant organization which has waged an armed struggle against the Turkish state for cultural and political rights and self-determination for the Kurds. Turkey's military allies the US, the EU, and NATO label the PKK as a terrorist organization while the UN,^[190] Switzerland,^[191] and Russia^[192] have refused to add the PKK to their terrorist list.^[193] Some of them have even supported the PKK.^[194]

Between 1984 and 1999, the PKK and the Turkish military engaged in open war, and much of the countryside in the southeast was depopulated, as Kurdish civilians moved from villages to bigger cities such as Diyarbakır, Van, and Şırnak, as well as to the cities of western Turkey and even to western Europe. The causes of the depopulation included mainly the Turkish state's military operations, state's political actions, Turkish deep state actions, the poverty of the southeast and PKK atrocities against Kurdish clans which were against them.^[195] Turkish state actions have included torture, rape,^[196][197] forced inscription, forced evacuation, destruction of villages, illegal arrests and executions of Kurdish civilians.^[198][199]

Since the 1970s, the European Court of Human Rights has condemned Turkey for the thousands of human rights abuses.^[199][200] The judgments are related to executions of Kurdish civilians,^[201] torturing,^[202] forced displacements^[203] systematic destruction of villages,^[204] arbitrary arrests^[205] murdered and disappeared Kurdish journalists.^[206]

Leyla Zana, the first Kurdish female MP from Diyarbakir, caused an uproar in Turkish Parliament after adding the following sentence in Kurdish to her parliamentary oath during the swearing-in ceremony in 1994: "I take this oath for the brotherhood of the Turkish and Kurdish peoples."^[207]

In March 1994, the Turkish Parliament voted to lift the immunity of Zana and five other Kurdish DEP members: Hatip Dicle, Ahmet Turk, Sirri Sakik, Orhan Dogan and Selim Sadak. Zana, Dicle, Sadak and Dogan were sentenced to 15 years in jail by the Supreme Court in October 1995. Zana was awarded the Sakharov Prize for human rights by the European Parliament in 1995. She was released in 2004 amid warnings from European institutions that the continued imprisonment of the four Kurdish MPs would affect Turkey's bid to join the EU.^[208][209] The 2009 local elections resulted in 5.7% for Kurdish political party DTP.^[210]

Officially protected death squads are accused of the disappearance of 3,200 Kurds and Assyrians in 1993 and 1994 in the so-called "mystery killings". Kurdish politicians, human-rights activists, journalists, teachers and other members of intelligentsia were among the victims. Virtually none of the perpetrators were investigated nor punished. Turkish government also encouraged Islamic extremist group Kurdish Hezbollah to assassinate suspected PKK members and often ordinary Kurds.^[211] Azimet Köylüoğlu, the state minister of human rights, revealed the extent of security forces' excesses in autumn 1994: While acts of terrorism in other regions are done by the PKK; in Tunceli it is state terrorism. In Tunceli, it is the state that is evacuating and burning villages. In the southeast there are two million people left homeless.^[212]

The Kurdish region of Iran has been a part of the country since ancient times. Nearly all Kurdistan was part of Persian Empire until its Western part was lost during wars against the Ottoman Empire.^[213] Following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 Tehran had demanded all lost territories including Turkish Kurdistan, Mosul, and even Diyarbakır, but demands were quickly rejected by Western powers.^[214] This area has been divided by modern Turkey, Syria and Iraq.^[215] Today, the Kurds inhabit mostly northwestern territories known as Iranian Kurdistan but also the northeastern region of Khorasan, and constitute approximately 7–10%^[216] of Iran's overall population (6.5–7.9 million), compared to 10.6% (2 million) in 1956 and 8% (800,000) in 1850.^[217]

Unlike in other Kurdish-populated countries, there are strong ethnolinguistical and cultural ties between Kurds, Persians and others as Iranian peoples.^[216] Some modern Iranian dynasties like the Safavids and Zands are considered to be partly of Kurdish origin. Kurdish literature in all of its forms (Kurmanji, Sorani, and Gorani) has been developed within historical Iranian boundaries under strong influence of the Persian language.^[215] The Kurds sharing much of their history with the rest of Iran is seen as reason for why Kurdish leaders in Iran do not want a separate Kurdish state.^{[216][218][219]}

The government of Iran has never employed the same level of brutality against its own Kurds like Turkey or Iraq, but it has always been implacably opposed to any suggestion of Kurdish separatism.^[216] During and shortly after the First World War the government of Iran was ineffective and had very little control over events in the country and several Kurdish tribal chiefs gained local political power, even established large confederations.^[218] At the same time waves of nationalism from the disintegrating Ottoman Empire partly influenced some Kurdish chiefs in border regions to pose as Kurdish nationalist leaders.^[218] Prior to this, identity in both countries largely relied upon religion i.e. Shia Islam in the particular case of Iran.^[219][220] In 19th-century Iran, Shia–Sunni animosity and the describing of Sunni Kurds as an Ottoman fifth column was quite frequent.^[221]

During the late 1910s and early 1920s, tribal revolt led by Kurdish chieftain Simko Shikak struck north western Iran. Although elements of Kurdish nationalism were present in this movement, historians agree these were hardly articulate enough to justify a claim that recognition of Kurdish identity was a major issue in Simko's movement, and he had to rely heavily on conventional tribal motives.^[218] Government forces and non-Kurds were not the only ones to suffer in the attacks, the Kurdish population was also robbed and assaulted.^[218][222] Rebels do not appear to have felt any sense of unity or solidarity with fellow Kurds.^[218] Kurdish insurgency and seasonal migrations in the late 1920s, along with long-running tensions between Tehran and Ankara, resulted in border clashes and even military penetrations in both Iranian and Turkish territory.^[214] Two regional powers have used Kurdish tribes as tool for own political benefits: Turkey has provided military help and refuge for anti-Iranian Turcophone Shikak rebels in 1918–1922,^[223] while Iran did the same during Ararat rebellion against Turkey in 1930. Reza Shah's military victory over Kurdish and Turkic tribal leaders initiated a repressive era toward non-Iranian minorities.^[222] Government's forced detribalization and sedentarization in 1920s and 1930s resulted with many other tribal revolts in Iranian regions of Azerbaijan, Luristan and Kurdistan.^[224] In particular case of the Kurds, this repressive policies partly contributed to developing nationalism among some tribes.^[218]

As a response to growing Pan-Turkism and Pan-Arabism in region which were seen as potential threats to the territorial integrity of Iran, Pan-Iranist ideology has been developed in the early 1920s.^[220] Some of such groups and journals openly advocated Iranian support to the Kurdish rebellion against Turkey.^[225] Secular Pahlavi dynasty has endorsed Iranian ethnic nationalism^[220] which saw the Kurds as integral part of the Iranian nation.^[219] Mohammad Reza Pahlavi has personally praised the Kurds as "pure Iranians" or "one of the most noble Iranian peoples". Another significant ideology during this period was Marxism which arose among Kurds under influence of USSR. It culminated in the Iran crisis of 1946 which included a separatist attempt of KDP-I and communist groups^[226] to establish the Soviet puppet government^{[227][228][229]} called Republic of Mahabad. It arose along with Azerbaijan People's Government, another Soviet puppet state.^[216][230] The state itself encompassed a very small territory, including Mahabad and the adjacent cities, unable to incorporate the southern Iranian Kurdistan which fell inside the Anglo-American zone, and unable to attract the tribes outside Mahabad itself to the nationalist cause.^[216] As a result, when the Soviets withdrew from Iran in December 1946, government forces were able to enter Mahabad unopposed.^[216]

Several nationalist and Marxist insurgencies continued for decades (1967, 1979, 1989–96) led by KDP-I and Komalah, but those two organization have never advocated a separate Kurdish state or greater Kurdistan as did the PKK in Turkey.^{[218][231][232][233]} Still, many of dissident leaders, among others Qazi Muhammad and Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, were executed or assassinated.^[216] During Iran–Iraq War, Tehran has provided support for Iraqi-based Kurdish groups like KDP or PUK, along with asylum for 1.4 million Iraqi refugees, mostly Kurds. Kurdish Marxist groups have been marginalized in Iran since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In 2004 new insurrection started by PJAK, separatist organization affiliated with the Turkey-based PKK^[234] and designated as terrorist by Iran, Turkey and the United States.^[234] Some analysts claim PJAK do not pose any serious threat to the government of Iran.^[235] Cease-fire has been established in September 2011 following the Iranian offensive on PJAK bases, but several clashes between PJAK and IRGC took place after it.^[176] Since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, accusations of "discrimination" by Western organizations and of "foreign involvement" by Iranian side have become very frequent.^[176]

Kurds have been well integrated in Iranian political life during reign of various governments.^[218] Kurdish liberal political Karim Sanjabi has served as minister of education under Mohammad Mossadegh in 1952. During the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi some members of parliament and high army officers were Kurds, and there was even a Kurdish Cabinet Minister.^[218] During the reign of the Pahlavis Kurds received many favours from the authorities, for instance to keep their land after the land reforms of 1962.^[218] In the early 2000s, presence of thirty Kurdish deputies in the 290-strong parliament has also helped to undermine claims of discrimination.^[236] Some of the more influential Kurdish politicians during recent years include former first vice president Mohammad Reza Rahimi and Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf, Mayor of Tehran and second-placed presidential candidate in 2013. Kurdish language is today used more than at any other time since the Revolution, including in several newspapers and among schoolchildren.^[236] Many Iranian Kurds show no interest in Kurdish nationalism,^[216] particularly Kurds of the Shia faith who sometimes even vigorously reject idea of autonomy, preferring direct rule from Tehran.^[216][231] The issue of Kurdish nationalism and Iranian national identity is generally only questioned in the peripheral Kurdish dominated regions where the Sunni faith is prevalent.^[237]

Kurds constitute approximately 17% of Iraq's population. They are the majority in at least three provinces in northern Iraq which are together known as Iraqi Kurdistan. Kurds also have a presence in Kirkuk, Mosul, Khanaqin, and Baghdad. Around 300,000 Kurds live in the Iraqi capital Baghdad, 50,000 in the city of Mosul and around 100,000 elsewhere in southern Iraq.^[238]

Kurds led by Mustafa Barzani were engaged in heavy fighting against successive Iraqi regimes from 1960 to 1975. In March 1970, Iraq announced a peace plan providing for Kurdish autonomy. The plan was to be implemented in four years.^[239] However, at the same time, the Iraqi regime started an Arabization program in the oil-rich regions of Kirkuk and Khanaqin.^[240] The peace agreement did not last long, and in 1974, the Iraqi government began a new offensive against the Kurds. Moreover, in March 1975, Iraq and Iran signed the Algiers Accord, according to which Iran cut supplies to Iraqi Kurds. Iraq started another wave of Arabization by moving Arabs to the oil fields in Kurdistan, particularly those around Kirkuk.^[241] Between 1975 and 1978, 200,000 Kurds were deported to other parts of Iraq.^[242]

During the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s, the regime implemented anti-Kurdish policies and a de facto civil war broke out. Iraq was widely condemned by the international community, but was never seriously punished for oppressive measures such as the mass murder of hundreds of thousands of civilians, the wholesale destruction of thousands of villages and the deportation of thousands of Kurds to southern and central Iraq.

The genocidal campaign, conducted between 1986 and 1989 and culminating in 1988, carried out by the Iraqi government against the Kurdish population was called Anfal ("Spoils of War"). The Anfal campaign led to destruction of over two thousand villages and killing of 182,000 Kurdish civilians.^[243] The campaign included the use of ground offensives, aerial bombing, systematic destruction of settlements, mass deportation, firing squads, and chemical attacks, including the most infamous attack on the Kurdish town of Halabja in 1988 that killed 5000 civilians instantly.

After the collapse of the Kurdish uprising in March 1991, Iraqi troops recaptured most of the Kurdish areas and 1.5 million Kurds abandoned their homes and fled to the Turkish and Iranian borders. It is estimated that close to 20,000 Kurds succumbed to death due to exhaustion, lack of food, exposure to cold and disease. On 5 April 1991, UN Security Council passed resolution 688 which condemned the repression of Iraqi Kurdish civilians and demanded that Iraq end its repressive measures and allow immediate access to international humanitarian organizations.^[244] This was the first international document (since the League of Nations arbitration of Mosul in 1926) to mention Kurds by name. In mid-April, the Coalition established safe havens inside Iraqi borders and prohibited Iraqi planes from flying north of 36th parallel.^{[107]: 373, 375} In October 1991, Kurdish guerrillas captured Erbil and Sulaimaniyah after a series of clashes with Iraqi troops. In late October, Iraqi government retaliated by imposing a food and fuel embargo on the Kurds and stopping to pay civil servants in the Kurdish region. The embargo, however, backfired and Kurds held parliamentary elections in May 1992 and established Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG).^[245]

The Kurdish population welcomed the American troops in 2003 by holding celebrations and dancing in the streets.^{[246][247][248][249]} The area controlled by Peshmerga was expanded, and Kurds now have effective control in Kirkuk and parts of Mosul. The authority of the KRG and legality of its laws and regulations were recognized in the articles 113 and 137 of the new Iraqi Constitution ratified in 2005.^[250] By the beginning of 2006, the two Kurdish administrations of Erbil and Sulaimaniya were unified. On 14 August 2007, Yazidis were targeted in a series of bombings that became the deadliest suicide attack since the Iraq War began, killing 796 civilians, wounding 1,562.^[251]

Kurds account for 9% of Syria's population, a total of around 1.6 million people.^[252] This makes them the largest ethnic minority in the country. They are mostly concentrated in the northeast and the north, but there are also significant Kurdish populations in Aleppo and Damascus. Kurds often speak Kurdish in public, unless all those present do not. According to Amnesty International, Kurdish human rights activists are mistreated and persecuted.^[253] No political parties are allowed for any group, Kurdish or otherwise.

Techniques used to suppress the ethnic identity of Kurds in Syria include various bans on the use of the Kurdish language, refusal to register children with Kurdish names, the replacement of Kurdish place names with new names in Arabic, the prohibition of businesses that do not have Arabic names, the prohibition of Kurdish private schools, and the prohibition of books and other materials written in Kurdish.^[254][255] Having been denied the right to Syrian nationality, around 300,000 Kurds have been deprived of any social rights, in violation of international law.^[256][257] As a consequence, these Kurds are in effect trapped within Syria. In March 2011, in part to avoid further demonstrations and unrest from spreading across Syria, the Syrian government promised to tackle the issue and grant Syrian citizenship to approximately 300,000 Kurds who had been previously denied the right.^[258]

On 12 March 2004, beginning at a stadium in Qamishli (a largely Kurdish city in northeastern Syria), clashes between Kurds and Syrians broke out and continued over a number of days. At least thirty people were killed and more than 160 injured. The unrest spread to other Kurdish towns along the northern border with Turkey, and then to Damascus and Aleppo.^[259][260]

As a result of Syrian civil war, since July 2012, Kurds were able to take control of large parts of Syrian Kurdistan from Andiwar in extreme northeast to Jindires in extreme northwest Syria. The Syrian Kurds started the Rojava Revolution in 2013.

Kurdish-inhabited Afrin Canton has been occupied by Turkish Armed Forces and Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army since the Turkish military operation in Afrin in early 2018. Between 150,000 and 200,000 people were displaced due to the Turkish intervention.^[261]

In October 2019, Turkey and the Syrian Interim Government began an offensive into Kurdish-populated areas in Syria, prompting about 100,000 civilians to flee from the area fearing that Turkey would commit an ethnic cleansing.^[262][263]

Between the 1930s and 1980s, Armenia was a part of the Soviet Union, within which Kurds, like other ethnic groups, had the status of a protected minority. Armenian Kurds were permitted their own state-sponsored newspaper, radio broadcasts and cultural events. During the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, many non-Yazidi Kurds were forced to leave their homes since both the Azeri and non-Yazidi Kurds were Muslim.

In 1920, two Kurdish-inhabited areas of Jewanshir (capital Kalbajar) and eastern Zangazur (capital Lachin) were combined to form the Kurdistan Okrug (or "Red Kurdistan"). The period of existence of the Kurdish administrative unit was brief and did not last beyond 1929. Kurds subsequently faced many repressive measures, including deportations, imposed by the Soviet government. As a result of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, many Kurdish areas have been destroyed and more than 150,000 Kurds have been deported since 1988 by separatist Armenian forces.^[264]

According to a report by the Council of Europe, approximately 1.3 million Kurds live in Western Europe. The earliest immigrants were Kurds from Turkey, who settled in Germany, Austria, the Benelux countries, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and France during the 1960s. Successive periods of political and social turmoil in the region during the 1980s and 1990s brought new waves of Kurdish refugees, mostly from Iran and Iraq under Saddam Hussein, came to Europe.^[151] In recent years, many Kurdish asylum seekers from both Iran and Iraq have settled in the United Kingdom (especially in the town of Dewsbury and in some northern areas of London), which has sometimes caused media controversy over their right to remain.^[265] There have been tensions between Kurds and the established Muslim community in Dewsbury,^[266][267] which is home to very traditional mosques such as the Markazi. Since the beginning of the turmoil in Syria many of the refugees of the Syrian Civil War are Syrian Kurds and as a result many of the current Syrian asylum seekers in Germany are of Kurdish descent.^[268][269]

There was substantial immigration of ethnic Kurds in Canada and the United States, who are mainly political refugees and immigrants seeking economic opportunity. According to a 2011 Statistics Canada household survey, there were 11,685 people of Kurdish ethnic background living in Canada,^[270] and according to the 2011 Census, 10,325 Canadians spoke Kurdish languages.^[271] In the United States, Kurdish immigrants started to settle in large numbers in Nashville in 1976,^[272] which is now home to the largest Kurdish community in the United States and is nicknamed Little Kurdistan.^[273] Kurdish population in Nashville is estimated to be around 11,000.^[274] The total number of ethnic Kurds residing in the United States is estimated by the US Census Bureau to be 20,591.^[25] Other sources claim that there are 20,000 ethnic Kurds in the United States.^[275]

Kurdish culture is a legacy from the various ancient peoples who shaped modern Kurds and their society. As most other Middle Eastern populations, a high degree of mutual influences between the Kurds and their neighbouring peoples are apparent. Therefore, in Kurdish culture elements of various other cultures are to be seen. However, on the whole, Kurdish culture is closest to that of other Iranian peoples, in particular those who historically had the closest geographical proximity to the Kurds, such as the Persians and Lurs. Kurds, for instance, also celebrate Newroz (21 March) as New Year's Day.^[276]

A madrasa system was used before the modern era.^[277][278] Mele are Islamic clerics and instructors.^[279]

In general, Kurdish women's rights and equality have improved in the 20th and 21st centuries due to progressive movements within Kurdish society. However, despite the progress, Kurdish and international women's rights organizations still report problems related to gender equality, forced marriages, honor killings and in Iraqi Kurdistan also female genital mutilation (FGM).^[280]

The Kurds possess a rich tradition of folklore, which, until recent times, was largely transmitted by speech or song, from one generation to the next. Although some of the Kurdish writers' stories were well known throughout Kurdistan; most of the stories told and sung were only written down in the 20th and 21st centuries. Many of these are, allegedly, centuries old.

Widely varying in purpose and style, among the Kurdish folklore one will find stories about nature, anthropomorphic animals, love, heroes and villains, mythological creatures and everyday life. A number of these mythological figures can be found in other cultures, like the Simurgh and Kaveh the Blacksmith in the broader Iranian Mythology, and stories of Shahmaran throughout Anatolia. Additionally, stories can be purely entertaining, or have an educational or religious aspect.^[281]

Perhaps the most widely reoccurring element is the fox, which, through cunning and shrewdness triumphs over less intelligent species, yet often also meets his demise.^[281] Another common theme in Kurdish folklore is the origin of a tribe.

Storytellers would perform in front of an audience, sometimes consisting of an entire village. People from outside the region would travel to attend their narratives, and the storytellers themselves would visit other villages to spread their tales. These would thrive especially during winter, where entertainment was hard to find as evenings had to be spent inside.^[281]

Coinciding with the heterogeneous Kurdish groupings, although certain stories and elements were commonly found throughout Kurdistan, others were unique to a specific area; depending on the region, religion or dialect. The Kurdish Jews of Zakho are perhaps the best example of this; their gifted storytellers are known to have been greatly respected throughout the region, thanks to a unique oral tradition.^[282] Other examples are the mythology of the Yezidis,^[283] and the stories of the Dersim Kurds, which had a substantial Armenian influence.^[284]

During the criminalization of the Kurdish language after the coup d'état of 1980, dengbêj (singers) and çîrokbêj (tellers) were silenced, and many of the stories had become endangered. In 1991, the language was decriminalized, yet the now highly available radios and TV's had as an effect a diminished interest in traditional storytelling.^[285] However, a number of writers have made great strides in the preservation of these tales.

Kurdish weaving is renowned throughout the world, with fine specimens of both rugs and bags. The most famous Kurdish rugs are those from the Bijar region, in the Kurdistan Province. Because of the unique way in which the Bijar rugs are woven, they are very stout and durable, hence their appellation as the 'Iron Rugs of Persia'. Exhibiting a wide variety, the Bijar rugs have patterns ranging from floral designs, medallions and animals to other ornaments. They generally have two wefts, and are very colorful in design.^[286] With an increased interest in these rugs in the last century, and a lesser need for them to be as sturdy as they were, new Bijar rugs are more refined and delicate in design.

Another well-known Kurdish rug is the Senneh rug, which is regarded as the most sophisticated of the Kurdish rugs. They are especially known for their great knot density and high-quality mountain wool.^[286] They lend their name from the region of Sanandaj. Throughout other Kurdish regions like Kermanshah, Siirt, Malatya and Bitlis rugs were also woven to great extent.^[287]

Kurdish bags are mainly known from the works of one large tribe: the Jaffs, living in the border area between Iran and Iraq. These Jaff bags share the same characteristics of Kurdish rugs; very colorful, stout in design, often with medallion patterns. They were especially popular in the West during the 1920s and 1930s.^[288]

Outside of weaving and clothing, there are many other Kurdish handicrafts, which were traditionally often crafted by nomadic Kurdish tribes. These are especially well known in Iran, most notably the crafts from the Kermanshah and Sanandaj regions. Among these crafts are chess boards, talismans, jewelry, ornaments, weaponry, instruments etc.^{[citation needed]}

Kurdish blades include a distinct jambiya, with its characteristic I-shaped hilt, and oblong blade. Generally, these possess double-edged blades, reinforced with a central ridge, a wooden, leather or silver decorated scabbard, and a horn hilt, furthermore they are often still worn decoratively by older men. Swords were made as well. Most of these blades in circulation stem from the 19th century.

Another distinct form of art from Sanandaj is 'Oroosi', a type of window where stylized wooden pieces are locked into each other, rather than being glued together. These are further decorated with coloured glass, this stems from an old belief that if light passes through a combination of seven colours it helps keep the atmosphere clean.

Among Kurdish Jews a common practice was the making of talismans, which were believed to combat illnesses and protect the wearer from malevolent spirits.

Adorning the body with tattoos (deq in Kurdish) is widespread among the Kurds; even though permanent tattoos are not permissible in Sunni Islam. Therefore, these traditional tattoos are thought to derive from pre-Islamic times.^[289]

Tattoo ink is made by mixing soot with (breast) milk and the poisonous liquid from the gall bladder of an animal. The design is drawn on the skin using a thin twig and is injected under the skin using a needle. These have a wide variety of meanings and purposes, among which are protection against evil or illnesses; beauty enhancement; and the showing of tribal affiliations. Religious symbolism is also common among both traditional and modern Kurdish tattoos. Tattoos are more prevalent among women than among men, and were generally worn on feet, the chin, foreheads and other places of the body.^[289][290]

The popularity of permanent, traditional tattoos has greatly diminished among newer generation of Kurds. However, modern tattoos are becoming more prevalent; and temporary tattoos are still being worn on special occasions (such as henna, the night before a wedding) and as tribute to the cultural heritage.^[289]

Traditionally, there are three types of Kurdish classical performers: storytellers (çîrokbêj), minstrels (stranbêj), and bards (dengbêj). No specific music was associated with the Kurdish princely courts. Instead, music performed in night gatherings (şevbihêrk) is considered classical. Several musical forms are found in this genre. Many songs are epic in nature, such as the popular Lawiks, heroic ballads recounting the tales of Kurdish heroes such as Saladin. Heyrans are love ballads usually expressing the melancholy of separation and unfulfilled love. One of the first Kurdish female singers to sing heyrans is Chopy Fatah, while Lawje is a form of religious music and Payizoks are songs performed during the autumn. Love songs, dance music, wedding and other celebratory songs (dîlok/narînk), erotic poetry, and work songs are also popular.^{[citation needed]}

Throughout the Middle East, there are many prominent Kurdish artists. Most famous are Ibrahim Tatlises, Nizamettin Arıç, Ahmet Kaya and the Kamkars. In Europe, well-known artists are Darin Zanyar, Sivan Perwer, and Azad.

The main themes of Kurdish cinema are the poverty and hardship which ordinary Kurds have to endure. The first films featuring Kurdish culture were actually shot in Armenia. Zare, released in 1927, produced by Hamo Beknazarian, details the story of Zare and her love for the shepherd Seydo, and the difficulties the two experience by the hand of the village elder.^[291] In 1948 and 1959, two documentaries were made concerning the Yezidi Kurds in Armenia. These were joint Armenian-Kurdish productions; with H. Koçaryan and Heciye Cindi teaming up for The Kurds of Soviet Armenia,^[292] and Ereb Samilov and C. Jamharyan for Kurds of Armenia.^[292]

The first critically acclaimed and famous Kurdish films were produced by Yılmaz Güney. Initially a popular, award-winning actor in Turkey with the nickname Çirkin Kral (the Ugly King, after his rough looks), he spent the later part of his career producing socio-critical and politically loaded films. Sürü (1979), Yol (1982) and Duvar (1983) are his best-known works, of which the second won Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival of 1982,^[293] the most prestigious award in the world of cinema.

Another prominent Kurdish film director is Bahman Qubadi. His first feature film was A Time for Drunken Horses, released in 2000. It was critically acclaimed, and went on to win multiple awards. Other movies of his would follow this example,^[294] making him one of the best known film producers of Iran of today. Recently, he released Rhinos Season, starring Behrouz Vossoughi, Monica Bellucci and Yilmaz Erdogan, detailing the tumultuous life of a Kurdish poet.

Other prominent Kurdish film directors that are critically acclaimed include Mahsun Kırmızıgül, Hiner Saleem and the aforementioned Yilmaz Erdogan. There's also been a number of films set or filmed in Kurdistan made by non-Kurdish film directors, such as The Wind Will Carry Us, Triage, The Exorcist, and The Market: A Tale of Trade.

The most popular sport among the Kurds is football. Because the Kurds have no independent state, they have no representative team in FIFA or the AFC; however a team representing Iraqi Kurdistan has been active in the Viva World Cup since 2008. They became runners-up in 2009 and 2010, before ultimately becoming champion in 2012.

On a national level, the Kurdish clubs of Iraq have achieved success in recent years as well, winning the Iraqi Premier League four times in the last five years. Prominent clubs are Erbil SC, Duhok SC, Sulaymaniyah FC and Zakho FC.

In Turkey, a Kurd named Celal Ibrahim was one of the founders of Galatasaray S.K. in 1905, as well as one of the original players. The most prominent Kurdish-Turkish club is Diyarbakirspor. In the diaspora, the most successful Kurdish club is Dalkurd FF and the most famous player is Eren Derdiyok.^[295]

Another prominent sport is wrestling. In Iranian Wrestling, there are three styles originating from Kurdish regions:

• Zhir-o-Bal (a style similar to Greco-Roman wrestling), practised in Kurdistan, Kermanshah and Ilam;^[296]
• Zouran-Patouleh, practised in Kurdistan;^[296]
• Zouran-Machkeh, practised in Kurdistan as well.^[296]

Furthermore, the most accredited of the traditional Iranian wrestling styles, the Bachoukheh, derives its name from a local Khorasani Kurdish costume in which it is practised.^[296]

Kurdish medalists in the 2012 Summer Olympics were Nur Tatar,^[297] Kianoush Rostami and Yezidi Misha Aloyan;^[298] who won medals in taekwondo, weightlifting and boxing, respectively.

The traditional Kurdish village has simple houses, made of mud. In most cases with flat, wooden roofs, and, if the village is built on the slope of a mountain, the roof on one house makes for the garden of the house one level higher. However, houses with a beehive-like roof, not unlike those in Harran, are also present.

Over the centuries many Kurdish architectural marvels have been erected, with varying styles. Kurdistan boasts many examples from ancient Iranian, Roman, Greek and Semitic origin, most famous of these include Bisotun and Taq-e Bostan in Kermanshah, Takht-e Soleyman near Takab, Mount Nemrud near Adiyaman and the citadels of Erbil and Diyarbakir.

The first genuinely Kurdish examples extant were built in the 11th century. Those earliest examples consist of the Marwanid Dicle Bridge in Diyarbakir, the Shadaddid Minuchir Mosque in Ani,^[299] and the Hisn al Akrad near Homs.^[300]

In the 12th and 13th centuries the Ayyubid dynasty constructed many buildings throughout the Middle East, being influenced by their predecessors, the Fatimids, and their rivals, the Crusaders, whilst also developing their own techniques.^[301] Furthermore, women of the Ayyubid family took a prominent role in the patronage of new constructions.^[302] The Ayyubids' most famous works are the Halil-ur-Rahman Mosque that surrounds the Pool of Sacred Fish in Urfa, the Citadel of Cairo^[303] and most parts of the Citadel of Aleppo.^[304] Another important piece of Kurdish architectural heritage from the late 12th/early 13th centuries is the Yezidi pilgrimage site Lalish, with its trademark conical roofs.

In later periods too, Kurdish rulers and their corresponding dynasties and emirates would leave their mark upon the land in the form mosques, castles and bridges, some of which have decayed, or have been (partly) destroyed in an attempt to erase the Kurdish cultural heritage, such as the White Castle of the Bohtan Emirate. Well-known examples are Hosap Castle of the 17th century,^[305] Sherwana Castle of the early 18th century, and the Ellwen Bridge of Khanaqin of the 19th century.

Most famous is the Ishak Pasha Palace of Dogubeyazit, a structure with heavy influences from both Anatolian and Iranian architectural traditions. Construction of the Palace began in 1685, led by Colak Abdi Pasha, a Kurdish bey of the Ottoman Empire, but the building would not be completed until 1784, by his grandson, Ishak Pasha.^[306][307] Containing almost 100 rooms, including a mosque, dining rooms, dungeons and being heavily decorated by hewn-out ornaments, this Palace has the reputation as being one of the finest pieces of architecture of the Ottoman Period, and of Anatolia.

In recent years, the KRG has been responsible for the renovation of several historical structures, such as Erbil Citadel and the Mudhafaria Minaret.^[308]

A 2005 study genetically examined three different groups of Zaza and Kurmanji speakers in Turkey and Kurmanji speakers in Georgia. In the study, mtDNA HV1 sequences, eleven Y chromosome bi-allelic markers and 9 Y-STR loci were analyzed to investigate lineage relationship among Kurdish groups. When both mtDNA and Y chromosome data are compared with those of the European, Caucasian, West Asian and Central Asian groups, it has been determined that the Kurdish groups are most closely related to West Asians and the furthest to Central Asians. Among the European and Caucasian groups, Kurds were found to be closer to Europeans than Caucasians when considering mtDNA, and the opposite was true for Y chromosome. This indicates a difference in maternal and paternal origins of Kurdish groups. According to the study, Kurdish groups in Georgia went through a genetic bottleneck while migrating to the Caucasus. It has also been revealed that these groups were not influenced by other Caucasian groups in terms of ancestry. Another phenomenon found in the research was that Zazas are closer to Kurdish groups rather than peoples of Northern Iran, where ancestral Zaza language hypothesized to be spoken before its spread to Anatolia.^[309]

11 different Y-DNA haplogroups have been identified in Kurmanji-speaking Kurds in Turkey. Haplogroup I-M170 was the most prevalent with 16.1% of the samples belonging to it, followed by haplogroups J-M172 (13.8%), R1a1 (12.7%), K (12.7%), E (11.5%) and F (11.5%). P1 (8%), P (5.7%), R1 (4.6%), G (2.3%) and C (1.1%) haplogroups were also present in lower proportions. Y-DNA haplogroup diversity were determined to be much lower among Georgian Kurds, as 5 haplogroups were discovered in total, where the dominant haplogroups were P1 (44%) and J-M172 (32%). The lowest Y-DNA haplogroup diversity was observed in Turkmenistan Kurds with only 4 haplogroups in total; F (41%) and R1 (29%) were dominant in this population.^[310][309]

• Kurdistan Region (1992 to date) – Autonomous region in Iraq
• Democratic Federation of Northern Syria (2013 to date) – Autonomy of Syria

• 
  Mercier. Kurde (Asie) by Auguste Wahlen, 1843
• 
  Kurdish warriors by Amadeo Preziosi
• 
  Armenian, Turkish and Kurdish females in their traditional clothes, 1873
• 
  Zakho Kurds by Albert Kahn, 1910s
• 
  Kurdish Cavalry in the passes of the Caucasus mountains (The New York Times, January 24, 1915)
• 
  A Kurdish chief
• 
  A Kurdish woman from Piranshahr, Iran, Antoin Sevruguin
• 
  A Kurdish woman and a child from Bisaran, Eastern Kurdistan, 2017
• 
  A group of Kurdish men with traditional clothing, Hawraman
• 
  A Kurdish man wearing traditional clothes, Erbil
• 
  A Kurdish woman fighter from Rojava

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