Proposición 8 de California de 2008

La Proposición 8 , conocida informalmente como Prop 8 , fue una propuesta electoral de California y una enmienda constitucional estatal destinada a prohibir el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo . Fue aprobada en las elecciones estatales de California de noviembre de 2008 y posteriormente anulada por los tribunales y por la Proposición 3 , que fue aprobada por los votantes en 2024. La proposición fue creada por los opositores al matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo antes ^{[ 3 ]} del fallo de apelación de la Corte Suprema de California de mayo de 2008, In re Marriage Cases , que declaró inconstitucional la prohibición del matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo en el año 2000 ( Proposición 22 ) . La Proposición 8 fue finalmente declarada inconstitucional en 2010 por un tribunal federal por diferentes motivos, aunque el fallo no entró en vigor hasta el 26 de junio de 2013, tras la conclusión de las apelaciones.

La Proposición 8 anuló el fallo de mayo de 2008 al agregar la redacción de la Proposición 22 como una enmienda a la Constitución de California , estableciendo que "solo el matrimonio entre un hombre y una mujer es válido o reconocido en California". ^{[ 4 ]}^{[ 5 ]}^{[ 6 ]} Fue declarada constitucional por la Corte Suprema de California en Strauss v. Horton en 2009, sobre la base de que "establecía una excepción limitada [o 'estrecha'] a la cláusula de igual protección del estado"; en su disidencia, el Juez Carlos R. Moreno escribió que las excepciones a la Cláusula de Igual Protección no podían ser hechas por ninguna mayoría, ya que su propósito era proteger a las minorías contra la voluntad de una mayoría.

Las impugnaciones legales a la Propuesta 8 se presentaron rápidamente después de su aprobación. Luego de la ratificación de la Propuesta 8 por los tribunales estatales, dos parejas del mismo sexo presentaron una demanda en el Tribunal de Distrito de los Estados Unidos para el Distrito Norte de California en el caso Perry v. Schwarzenegger (más tarde Hollingsworth v. Perry ). En agosto de 2010, el Juez Presidente Vaughn Walker dictaminó que la Propuesta 8 era inconstitucional según las Cláusulas de Debido Proceso y de Igual Protección de la Decimocuarta Enmienda de los Estados Unidos , ^{[ 7 ]} ya que la Propuesta 8 pretendía eliminar nuevamente los derechos de una clase desfavorecida únicamente, sin fundamento racional . Las justificaciones de los proponentes oficiales de la Propuesta 8 fueron analizadas en más de cincuenta páginas que abarcan ochenta conclusiones de hecho . El gobierno estatal apoyó el fallo y se negó a defender la Proposición 8. ^{[ 8 ]} El fallo quedó suspendido , a la espera de la apelación de los defensores de la Proposición 8. El 7 de febrero de 2012, el Tribunal de Apelaciones del Noveno Circuito , en una decisión de 2-1, llegó a la misma conclusión que el tribunal de distrito, pero con argumentos más limitados. El tribunal dictaminó que era inconstitucional que California les quitara el derecho al matrimonio a las parejas del mismo sexo poco después de haberlo otorgado. El fallo quedó suspendido a la espera de la apelación ante la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos. ^{[ 9 ]}

El 26 de junio de 2013, la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos emitió su decisión sobre la apelación en el caso Hollingsworth v. Perry , dictaminando que los defensores de iniciativas como la Proposición 8 no tenían legitimación procesal propia para defender la ley resultante en un tribunal federal , ni ante la Corte Suprema ni (anteriormente) ante el Tribunal de Apelaciones del Noveno Circuito . Por lo tanto, la Corte Suprema anuló la decisión del Noveno Circuito y remitió el caso para que se continuara el procedimiento. La decisión dejó intacto el fallo del tribunal de distrito de 2010. ^{[ 10 ]}^{[ 11 ]}^{[ 12 ]} El 28 de junio de 2013, el Noveno Circuito, tras la remisión, desestimó la apelación por falta de jurisdicción y levantó la suspensión previa del fallo del tribunal de distrito, lo que permitió al gobernador Jerry Brown ordenar la reanudación de los matrimonios entre personas del mismo sexo. ^{[ 13 ]}

La aprobación de la Proposición 8 recibió una amplia cobertura mediática debido a su impacto en las elecciones presidenciales y legislativas simultáneas de 2008 , así como a las repercusiones preelectorales que tuvo en la reputación de California como un estado históricamente favorable a la comunidad LGBTQ y en el debate sobre el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo que se inició tras su legalización en Massachusetts mediante una decisión judicial en 2004. Una vez certificados los resultados y abolidos los matrimonios entre personas del mismo sexo, los partidarios de la Proposición 8 fueron blanco de ataques por parte de sus oponentes, quienes llevaron a cabo acciones que iban desde la divulgación de donaciones y el boicot a los negocios de los defensores, hasta amenazas de muerte y vandalismo contra iglesias.

Una propuesta electoral para derogar formalmente la Proposición 8 de la constitución de California , denominada Proposición 3 , fue aprobada por la Legislatura Estatal de California en julio de 2023. La votación para derogar formalmente la Proposición 8 fue aprobada por casi el 63% de los votantes en las elecciones de 2024. ^{[ 14 ]}

Descripción general

En 2000, el Estado de California adoptó la Proposición 22 que, como estatuto ordinario, prohibía el reconocimiento o la concesión de licencias para matrimonios entre personas del mismo sexo en el estado. Durante febrero y marzo de 2004, el alcalde de San Francisco, Gavin Newsom, ordenó la concesión de licencias para matrimonios entre personas del mismo sexo basándose en la Cláusula de Igualdad de Protección del estado , impulsado también por eventos recientes que incluyen la prohibición constitucional propuesta por George W. Bush , un posible caso legal por parte de Campaign for California Families (CCF) y un fallo de la Corte Suprema de Massachusetts que consideró inconstitucionales las prohibiciones de matrimonios entre personas del mismo sexo y las permitió a partir de mayo de 2004. Aunque solo duró un mes antes de ser revocada, esto fue apoyado por otras ciudades como San José , ^[¹⁵^] ganó atención mundial y condujo al caso In re Marriage Cases , en el que se determinó que la Proposición 22 era inconstitucional ( Tribunal Superior del Condado de San Francisco , 14 de marzo de 2005) y se confirmó en apelación ( Corte Suprema de California , 15 de mayo de 2008).

La Proposición 8 fue creada por opositores al matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo antes del fallo final en In re Marriage Cases como una iniciativa popular, y se votó en las elecciones de noviembre de 2008. Su redacción era exactamente la misma que la de la Proposición 22, que como ley ordinaria había sido invalidada en 2008, pero al reposicionarla como una enmienda constitucional estatal en lugar de una ley legislativa , pudo eludir el fallo de In re Marriage Cases . ^{[ 16 ]} La proposición no afectó las uniones de hecho en California, ^{[ 17 ]} ni (tras fallos legales posteriores) revocó los matrimonios entre personas del mismo sexo que se habían celebrado durante el período intermedio de mayo a noviembre de 2008 (es decir, después de In re Marriage Cases pero antes de la Proposición 8). ^{[ 18 ]}^{[ 19 ]}^{[ 20 ]}

La Proposición 8 entró en vigor inmediatamente el 5 de noviembre de 2008, un día después de las elecciones. Se produjeron manifestaciones y protestas en todo el estado y el país. Parejas del mismo sexo y entidades gubernamentales, incluidas parejas que se habían casado con anterioridad, presentaron numerosas demandas ante la Corte Suprema de California impugnando la validez de la proposición y su efecto sobre los matrimonios entre personas del mismo sexo previamente celebrados. En el caso Strauss contra Horton , la Corte Suprema de California confirmó la Proposición 8, pero permitió que los matrimonios entre personas del mismo sexo existentes se mantuvieran vigentes (bajo el principio de la cláusula del abuelo ). (El juez Carlos R. Moreno discrepó argumentando que ninguna mayoría podía establecer excepciones a la cláusula de igual protección, ya que su propósito era proteger a las minorías contra la voluntad de la mayoría).

Aunque fue confirmada en un tribunal estatal, la Proposición 8 fue declarada inconstitucional por los tribunales federales. En Perry v. Schwarzenegger , el juez del Tribunal de Distrito de los Estados Unidos , Vaughn Walker, anuló la Proposición 8 el 4 de agosto de 2010, dictaminando que violaba las cláusulas de Debido Proceso y de Igual Protección de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos . ^{[ 21 ]} Walker emitió una suspensión ( mandamiento judicial ) contra la aplicación de la Proposición 8 y una suspensión para determinar la suspensión de su fallo pendiente de apelación. ^{[ 22 ]}^{[ 23 ]} El Estado de California no apeló el fallo (con el que de todos modos estaba de acuerdo), dejando a los promotores de la iniciativa y a un condado para que buscaran una apelación.

En apelación, un panel del Tribunal de Apelaciones del Noveno Circuito dictaminó que el condado no tenía derecho a apelar y solicitó a la Corte Suprema de California que dictaminara si los proponentes de la Propuesta 8 tenían derecho a apelar (conocido como " legitimación procesal ") si el estado no lo hacía. La Corte Suprema de California dictaminó que sí lo tenían. El Noveno Circuito confirmó la decisión del tribunal de distrito federal el 7 de febrero de 2012, ^{[ 24 ]} pero la suspensión se mantuvo vigente mientras las apelaciones continuaban ante la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos , ^{[ 25 ]} que escuchó los argumentos orales en la apelación Hollingsworth v. Perry el 26 de marzo de 2013. ^{[ 26 ]} El 26 de junio de 2013, la Corte Suprema desestimó la apelación y dictaminó que el Noveno Circuito había cometido un error al permitir la apelación anterior, ya que, de acuerdo con el Artículo III de la Constitución y muchos casos anteriores unánimes sobre el punto, ser proponentes de una iniciativa no es suficiente por sí solo para tener legitimación procesal ante un tribunal federal o apelar una decisión ante un tribunal federal. Esto dejó como resultado la sentencia original del tribunal federal de distrito en contra de la Proposición 8, y los matrimonios entre personas del mismo sexo se reanudaron casi inmediatamente después.

Historia de la iniciativa electoral

En 2005, se creó el sitio ProtectMarriage.com como el "Sitio web oficial de la Enmienda Constitucional de Matrimonio de California" y se lanzó una campaña para aprobar una propuesta electoral que prohibiera constitucionalmente el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo. ^{[ 27 ]} En 2007, ProtectMarriage.com intentó, sin éxito, incluir la Iniciativa 1254, una propuesta electoral para prohibir constitucionalmente el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo, en la boleta electoral de California de 2008. ^{[ 28 ]}

El 29 de noviembre de 2007, se presentó oficialmente la Enmienda Constitucional de Protección del Matrimonio de California , también conocida como Límite al Matrimonio, número 07-0068 por el Fiscal General de California e Iniciativa 1298 por la Secretaría de Estado de California . Para poder incluirse en la boleta electoral, la medida requería 694,354 firmas, una cantidad equivalente al 8% de los votos emitidos en las elecciones a gobernador de California de 2006. A finales de abril de 2008, ProtectMarriage.com presentó una petición con 1,120,801 firmas, 426,447 más de las necesarias para incluir la medida en la boleta. El 2 de junio de 2008, la Secretaria de Estado de California, Debra Bowen, declaró que una muestra aleatoria de las firmas presentadas por los promotores de la medida demostró que habían reunido suficientes firmas para calificar y la certificó como la octava iniciativa para la boleta electoral de las elecciones generales del 4 de noviembre de 2008. ^{[ 29 ]}^{[ 30 ]}^{[ 31 ]}

La Proposición 8 (título de la boleta: Elimina los derechos de las parejas del mismo sexo a contraer matrimonio. Enmienda constitucional por iniciativa ; originalmente titulada "Ley de protección del matrimonio de California") ^{[ 32 ]}^{[ 33 ]} fue una proposición de la boleta de California que cambió la Constitución de California para agregar una nueva sección 7.5 al Artículo I, que dice: "Solo el matrimonio entre un hombre y una mujer es válido o reconocido en California". ^{[ 4 ]}^{[ 5 ]}^{[ 6 ]} Este cambio restringió la definición de matrimonio a parejas de distinto sexo y eliminó el derecho de las parejas del mismo sexo a contraer matrimonio, anulando así partes del fallo de In re Marriage Cases al "establecer una excepción al alcance preexistente de las cláusulas de privacidad y debido proceso " ^{[ 34 ]} de la constitución estatal.

Texto completo

La Proposición 8 constaba de dos secciones. Su texto completo era: ^{[ 35 ]}

SECCIÓN 1. Título
Esta medida se conocerá y podrá citarse como la "Ley de Protección del Matrimonio de California".
SECCIÓN 2. Se agrega el Artículo I, Sección 7.5 a la Constitución de California, con el siguiente texto:
Sec. 7.5. Solo el matrimonio entre un hombre y una mujer es válido o reconocido en California.

Desafíos legales preelectorales

Petición para retirar la propuesta de la boleta electoral.

El 16 de julio de 2008, la Corte Suprema de California denegó una petición que solicitaba la eliminación de la Proposición 8 de la boleta electoral de noviembre. La petición afirmaba que la proposición no debía figurar en la boleta electoral por tratarse de una revisión constitucional que solo la legislatura o una convención constitucional podían someter a votación. Los opositores también argumentaron que las peticiones difundidas para que la medida se incluyera en la boleta electoral resumían de forma inexacta su efecto. La corte denegó la petición sin comentarios. ^{[ 36 ]} Como regla general, es impropio que los tribunales se pronuncien sobre impugnaciones preelectorales a la validez sustantiva de una medida. ^{[ 37 ]} La cuestión de si la Proposición 8 es una enmienda constitucional o una revisión constitucional fue resuelta por la Corte Suprema de California el 26 de mayo de 2009, y determinó que no era una revisión y, por lo tanto, se mantendría. También declararon que los matrimonios entre personas del mismo sexo celebrados antes de la aprobación de la Proposición 8 seguirían siendo válidos. ^{[ 38 ]}

Desafío al título y al resumen

La medida se titulaba: «Elimina el derecho de las parejas del mismo sexo a contraer matrimonio. Enmienda constitucional por iniciativa popular». El resumen de la papeleta electoral indicaba que la medida «modifica la Constitución de California para eliminar el derecho de las parejas del mismo sexo a contraer matrimonio en California». ^{[ 39 ]}^{[ 40 ]}

Los defensores de la medida objetaron la redacción del título y el resumen de la boleta electoral por considerarlos argumentativos y perjudiciales. La demanda resultante, Jansson v. Bowen ^{[ 41 ]} , fue desestimada el 7 de agosto de 2008 por el juez del Tribunal Superior de California, Timothy M. Frawley, quien dictaminó que "el título y el resumen incluyen una recitación esencialmente textual del texto de la medida en sí" ^{[ 42 ]} y que el cambio era válido porque la medida, de hecho, eliminaba un derecho respaldado por la Corte Suprema de California.

El fiscal general de California, Jerry Brown, explicó que los cambios eran necesarios para "reflejar con mayor precisión la medida" a la luz de la decisión interviniente de la Corte Suprema de California en el caso In re Marriage Cases . ^{[ 44 ]}

El 22 de julio de 2008, los partidarios de la Proposición 8 presentaron una impugnación legal contra el título y el resumen revisados de la papeleta, alegando que el Fiscal General Brown insertó un lenguaje tan incendiario que predispondría indebidamente a los votantes en contra de la medida. ^{[ 45 ]} Los partidarios afirmaron que las investigaciones demostraban que ningún fiscal general había utilizado jamás un verbo activo como «elimina» en el título de una medida electoral en los últimos cincuenta años en que se han utilizado medidas electorales. ^{[ 45 ]} Los representantes del fiscal general presentaron doce ejemplos de medidas electorales que utilizaban la palabra «elimina» y garantizaron la neutralidad y la exactitud del lenguaje de la papeleta. ^{[ 46 ]}^{[ 47 ]}

El 8 de agosto de 2008, el Tribunal Superior de California rechazó la impugnación legal, confirmando el nuevo título y resumen, declarando: "El título y el resumen no son falsos ni engañosos porque afirman que la Proposición 8 'eliminaría el derecho de las parejas del mismo sexo a contraer matrimonio' en California". El Tribunal Superior basó su decisión en el fallo anterior de los Casos de Matrimonio en el que la Corte Suprema de California sostuvo que las parejas del mismo sexo tienen un derecho constitucional a contraer matrimonio según la Constitución de California. ^{[ 44 ]}^{[ 48 ]} Ese mismo día, los defensores de la Proposición 8 presentaron una apelación de emergencia ante el tribunal de apelaciones estatal . El Tribunal de Apelaciones denegó su petición más tarde ese mismo día y los partidarios no solicitaron una revisión por parte de la Corte Suprema de California . ^{[ 49 ]}^{[ 50 ]} La fecha límite para la acción judicial sobre la redacción de los resúmenes de las papeletas y los argumentos en el folleto para votantes fue el 11 de agosto de 2008. ^{[ 51 ]}

Si bien rechazó la impugnación del título y el resumen, el Tribunal Superior de California también determinó que la campaña del "Sí a la Proposición 8" había exagerado su argumento electoral sobre el impacto de la medida en las escuelas públicas y ordenó un cambio menor en la redacción. Los argumentos originales incluían la afirmación de que la legalización del matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo por parte de la Corte Suprema obliga a los maestros a explicar a sus alumnos, incluso desde la edad preescolar, que el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo es igual que el matrimonio entre personas de distinto sexo. El tribunal declaró que el argumento del "Sí a la Proposición 8" era falso porque la instrucción sobre el matrimonio no es obligatoria y los padres pueden retirar a sus hijos de la escuela. El tribunal indicó que el argumento electoral podría preservarse reformulándolo para que indicara que a los maestros "podrían" o "se les podría exigir" que les dijeran a los niños que no hay diferencia entre el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo y el matrimonio entre personas de distinto sexo. ^{[ 48 ]}

Campaña

Financiación y gasto de campañas

Las campañas a favor y en contra de la Proposición 8 gastaron un total de 106 millones de dólares en la campaña. ^{[ 52 ]} Sin embargo, esta no fue la propuesta electoral más costosa de California ese año; las campañas de 2008 a favor y en contra de las Proposiciones 94, 95, 96 y 97 , que trataban sobre la expansión del juego en las reservas indígenas , superaron a la Proposición 8, con un gasto combinado de 172 millones de dólares. ^{[ 52 ]}

Para el día de las elecciones, los voluntarios de ambos lados pasaron miles de horas haciendo llegar sus mensajes a los 17.3 millones de votantes registrados del estado. ^{[ 53 ]}^{[ 54 ]} Las campañas a favor y en contra de la Proposición 8 recaudaron $39.0 millones ($11.3 millones o 29.1% de fuera de California) y $44.1 millones ($13.2 millones o 30.0% de fuera de California), respectivamente, ^{[ 55 ]} de más de 64,000 personas en los 50 estados y más de 20 países extranjeros, estableciendo un nuevo récord nacional para una iniciativa de política social y más que para cualquier otra contienda en el país en gasto excepto la contienda presidencial. ^{[ 56 ]} Las contribuciones fueron mucho mayores que las de iniciativas anteriores de matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo. Entre 2004 y 2006, 22 medidas de este tipo estuvieron en las boletas electorales en todo el país, y las donaciones a todas ellas combinadas totalizaron $31.4 millones, según OpenSecrets . ^{[ 57 ]} Una portavoz de ProtectMarriage.com estimó que 36 empresas que habían contribuido previamente a Equality California fueron seleccionadas para recibir una carta solicitando donaciones similares a ProtectMarriage.com. ^{[ 58 ]}^{[ 59 ]}^{[ 60 ]}^{[ 61 ]}

La Comisión de Prácticas Políticas Justas de California multó a la Iglesia SUD en 2010 por no cumplir con las políticas de divulgación de campaña durante las dos últimas semanas previas a las elecciones, lo que ascendió a $37,000 en contribuciones no monetarias. Fueron multados con $5,538. ^{[ 62 ]}

Tanto los partidarios como los opositores de la Proposición 8 hicieron un uso significativo de tácticas en línea para sus campañas. Por ejemplo, se publicaron más de 800 videos en YouTube, la mayoría con contenido original y que se posicionaban en contra de la Proposición. Una mayor proporción de los videos a favor de la Proposición 8 eran guionizados y producidos profesionalmente. Muchos videos en contra de la Proposición 8 registraban manifestaciones posteriores a las elecciones. ^{[ 63 ]}

Defensores

Los defensores de la enmienda constitucional argumentaron que el matrimonio exclusivamente heterosexual era "una institución esencial de la sociedad", que dejar la constitución sin cambios "resultaría en que las escuelas públicas enseñaran a nuestros hijos que el matrimonio homosexual está bien", y que las personas homosexuales "no tienen derecho a redefinir el matrimonio para todos los demás". ^{[ 65 ]}

La organización ProtectMarriage.com patrocinó la iniciativa que incluyó la Proposición 8 en la boleta electoral ^{[ 66 ]} y continúa apoyando la medida. La medida también atrajo el apoyo de varias figuras políticas y organizaciones religiosas.

Figuras políticas

El candidato presidencial republicano y senador estadounidense John McCain emitió una declaración de apoyo a la enmienda constitucional propuesta. ^{[ 67 ]} El expresidente de la Cámara de Representantes, Newt Gingrich, publicó un video en apoyo. Ambos calificaron el fallo judicial que exige el reconocimiento del matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo como contrario a la voluntad del pueblo. ^{[ 68 ]} Un comité de acción política dirigido por el exgobernador de Massachusetts, Mitt Romney , quien apoyaba personalmente la propuesta, donó $10,000 a la Organización Nacional para el Matrimonio durante su campaña a favor de la propuesta. ^{[ 69 ]}

Organizaciones religiosas

La Iglesia Católica Romana , ^{[ 70 ]} así como una organización fraternal laica católica romana , los Caballeros de Colón , ^[⁷¹^] apoyaron firmemente la medida. Los obispos de la Conferencia Católica de California emitieron una declaración apoyando la propuesta, ^[⁷²^] una postura que recibió reacciones encontradas entre los miembros de la iglesia, incluido el clero. ^[⁷³^]^[⁷⁴^]

George Hugh Niederauer, como arzobispo de San Francisco, hizo campaña en 2008 a favor de la Proposición y afirmó haber sido fundamental para forjar alianzas entre católicos y mormones en apoyo de la medida. ^{[ 75 ]} Su sucesor, Salvatore Cordileone, fue considerado fundamental en la concepción de la iniciativa. Los registros de financiación de campaña muestran que él personalmente donó al menos 6000 dólares para respaldar la prohibición aprobada por los votantes ^{[ 76 ]} y fue fundamental para recaudar 1,5 millones de dólares para incluir la proposición en la boleta electoral. ^{[ 77 ]} Posteriormente, como arzobispo de San Francisco, pidió públicamente una enmienda a la Constitución de los Estados Unidos como "el único remedio legal contra el activismo judicial" tras la anulación por parte de jueces federales de varias prohibiciones estatales del matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo. También asistió y se dirigió al público en la "Marcha por el Matrimonio", una manifestación en contra del matrimonio para parejas del mismo sexo, en Washington, D.C., en junio de 2014. ^{[ 78 ]}

En las elecciones de California de 2008, los Caballeros de Colón atrajeron la atención de los medios cuando donaron más de 1,4 millones de dólares a la Proposición 8. ^{[ 79 ]} La Orden fue el mayor contribuyente financiero del esfuerzo exitoso para mantener una definición legal del matrimonio como la unión de un hombre y una mujer. ^{[ 80 ]}

La Iglesia de Jesucristo de los Santos de los Últimos Días ^{[ 81 ]}^{[ 82 ]}^{[ 83 ]} (Iglesia SUD) también apoyó públicamente la proposición. La Primera Presidencia de la iglesia anunció su apoyo a la Proposición 8 en una carta destinada a ser leída en todas las congregaciones de California. En esta carta, se animó a los miembros de la iglesia a "hacer todo lo posible para apoyar la enmienda constitucional propuesta donando sus recursos y su tiempo". ^{[ 81 ]} La iglesia produjo y transmitió a sus congregaciones un programa que describía el apoyo a la Proposición y el cronograma que proponía para lo que describía como esfuerzos de base para apoyar la Proposición. ^{[ 84 ]} Los líderes locales de la iglesia establecieron metas organizativas y monetarias para sus miembros —a veces bastante específicas— para cumplir con este llamado. ^{[ 85 ]}^{[ 86 ]} La respuesta de los miembros de la iglesia a los llamamientos de sus líderes para donar dinero y tiempo de voluntariado fue muy solidaria, ^{[ 87 ]} de tal manera que los Santos de los Últimos Días proporcionaron una fuente significativa de donaciones financieras en apoyo de la proposición, tanto dentro como fuera del estado de California. ^{[ 88 ]} Los miembros de la Iglesia SUD contribuyeron con más de 20 millones de dólares, ^{[ 89 ]} aproximadamente el 45 % de las contribuciones de fuera del estado a ProtectMarriage.com provinieron de Utah , más de tres veces más que cualquier otro estado. ^{[ 90 ]} ProtectMarriage, el proponente oficial de la Proposición 8, estima que aproximadamente la mitad de las donaciones que recibieron provinieron de fuentes mormonas, y que los miembros de la Iglesia SUD representaron entre el 80 % y el 90 % de los voluntarios para el trabajo de puerta en puerta inicial. ^{[ 91 ]}

Otras organizaciones religiosas que apoyaron la Proposición 8 incluyen la Unión de Congregaciones Judías Ortodoxas de América , ^{[ 92 ]} la Iglesia Ortodoxa Oriental , ^{[ 93 ]} un grupo de cristianos evangélicos liderado por Jim Garlow y Miles McPherson , ^{[ 94 ]} la Asociación Familiar Americana , Focus on the Family ^{[ 95 ]} y la Organización Nacional para el Matrimonio . ^{[ 96 ]} Rick Warren , pastor de la Iglesia Saddleback , también respaldó la medida. ^{[ 97 ]}

Otros

El Distrito Escolar de Preparatorias de Grossmont Union en el Condado de San Diego , California, votó públicamente una resolución que respalda la Proposición 8. La Junta Directiva votó 4-0 a favor de respaldar la enmienda a la Constitución del Estado de California. ^{[ 98 ]}

La Coalición de la Herencia Asiática realizó una manifestación en apoyo de la Proposición 8 en el centro de San Diego el 19 de octubre de 2008. ^{[ 99 ]}

Durante la campaña electoral de noviembre de 2008, el Ayuntamiento de Porterville fue el único Ayuntamiento de California que aprobó una Resolución a favor de la Proposición 8. ^{[ 100 ]}

Iglesia de la Cienciología

La filial de San Diego de la Iglesia de la Cienciología apoyó públicamente la propuesta firmando una petición en línea que solicitaba la Proposición 8. Esto llevó al galardonado director, productor y guionista Paul Haggis a pedirle a Tommy Davis que denunciara la firma. ^{[ 101 ]}

Davis respondió a Haggis y le dijo que había sido un solo miembro de la sucursal de San Diego quien firmó la petición usando el nombre de la sucursal y no una decisión de la misma. Luego, Davis afirmó que el hombre había sido "controlado". ^{[ 101 ]}

Haggis pasó diez meses intentando que la Cienciología denunciara públicamente la Proposición 8, pero la Cienciología guardó silencio y posteriormente declaró: «Davis le explicó a Haggis que la iglesia evita tomar posturas políticas explícitas». ^{[ 102 ]} Además, explicó que, al ser una organización sin ánimo de lucro exenta de impuestos, no pueden adoptar una postura política o arriesgarse a perder dicha exención. ^{[ 103 ]}

Haggis renunció a la Cienciología tras treinta y cinco años de membresía y escribió en su carta de renuncia que «el patrocinio público de la Proposición 8, que logró arrebatar los derechos civiles a los ciudadanos gais y lesbianas de California —derechos que les fueron otorgados por la Corte Suprema de nuestro estado— es una mancha en la integridad de nuestra organización y una mancha para nosotros personalmente. Nuestra asociación pública con esa legislación llena de odio nos avergüenza». ^{[ 101 ]}^{[ 104 ]}

Anuncio "Te guste o no"

En los meses previos al día de las elecciones , los partidarios de la Proposición 8 publicaron un anuncio protagonizado por el alcalde de San Francisco, Gavin Newsom, quien declaró en un discurso sobre el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo: "Esta puerta está abierta de par en par. Va a suceder, les guste o no". ^{[ 105 ]} Algunos observadores notaron que las encuestas se inclinaron a favor de la Proposición 8 tras la publicación del anuncio; esto, a su vez, generó mucha especulación sobre el papel involuntario de Newsom en la aprobación de la enmienda. ^{[ 106 ]}^{[ 107 ]}^{[ 108 ]}

Oponentes

Los opositores argumentaron que «la libertad de contraer matrimonio es fundamental para nuestra sociedad», que la constitución de California «debería garantizar la misma libertad y los mismos derechos a todos», y que la propuesta «impone un conjunto de reglas para las parejas homosexuales y otro para todos los demás». También argumentaron que «la igualdad ante la ley es una garantía constitucional fundamental» (véase la Cláusula de Igualdad de Protección ). ^{[ 65 ]}

Igualdad para Todos fue la principal organización que se opuso a la Proposición 8. ^{[ 109 ]} También dirigieron la campaña NoOnProp8.com. ^{[ 110 ]} Al igual que los partidarios de la medida, entre sus opositores también se encontraban varias figuras políticas y organizaciones religiosas. Algunas organizaciones y corporaciones no partidistas, así como los consejos editoriales de muchos de los principales periódicos del estado, también se opusieron a la medida.

Figuras políticas

El candidato presidencial demócrata y senador estadounidense Barack Obama declaró que, si bien él personalmente consideraba que el matrimonio era entre un hombre y una mujer, ^{[ 111 ]} y apoyaba las uniones civiles que confieren derechos comparables en lugar del matrimonio homosexual, ^{[ 112 ]} se oponía a los "esfuerzos divisivos y discriminatorios para enmendar la Constitución de California... la Constitución de los Estados Unidos o las de otros estados". ^{[ 113 ]} El candidato demócrata a la vicepresidencia, Joseph Biden, también se opuso a la propuesta. ^{[ 114 ]} El gobernador republicano de California, Arnold Schwarzenegger, declaró que, si bien se oponía y vetaba en dos ocasiones los proyectos de ley que reconocerían el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo en California , respetaba y acataría el fallo del tribunal y se oponía a la iniciativa y a otros intentos de enmendar la constitución del estado. ^[¹¹⁵^]^[¹¹⁶^] La presidenta de la Cámara de Representantes de EE. UU. , la representante de California ( 8.º distrito ), Nancy Pelosi ^[¹¹⁷^] junto con otros miembros de la delegación del Congreso de California y las dos senadoras de California, Dianne Feinstein y Barbara Boxer , manifestaron su oposición a la Proposición 8. ^[¹¹⁸^] También manifestaron su oposición el vicegobernador , el contralor estatal John Chiang , el exgobernador y fiscal general Jerry Brown , 42 de los 80 miembros de la asamblea estatal , la mitad de los senadores estatales y los alcaldes de San Francisco, Los Ángeles y San Diego: Gavin Newsom , Antonio Villaraigosa y Jerry Sanders , respectivamente. ^[¹¹⁹^]^[¹²⁰^]^[¹²¹^]^[¹²²^]

Organizaciones religiosas

Los seis obispos diocesanos episcopales de California emitieron conjuntamente una declaración oponiéndose a la Proposición 8 el 10 de septiembre de 2008. ^{[ 123 ]} La mayor colección de rabinos del sur de California, la Junta de Rabinos del Sur de California, votó en contra de la Proposición 8. ^{[ 124 ]} Otros grupos judíos que se opusieron a la Proposición 8 incluyen Jewish Mosaic , ^{[ 125 ]} el Comité Judío Estadounidense , la Alianza Judía Progresista , el Consejo Nacional de Mujeres Judías y la Liga Antidifamación (ADL). ^{[ 92 ]} La ADL presentó escritos de amicus curiae instando a la Corte Suprema de California , al Noveno Circuito y a la Corte Suprema a invalidar la Proposición 8. ^{[ 126 ]} Los judíos de Los Ángeles se opusieron a la Proposición 8 más que cualquier otro grupo religioso o étnico de la ciudad. El setenta y ocho por ciento de los judíos angelinos encuestados votaron en contra de la medida, mientras que solo el 8% la apoyó; el resto se negó a responder. ^{[ 127 ]} El ministerio legislativo de los unitarios universalistas se opuso a la Proposición 8 y organizó campañas telefónicas para derrotar la medida. ^{[ 128 ]} Consideraban la oposición a la proposición como una cuestión de derechos civiles y justicia social, y sus acciones en su contra como una continuación de sus trabajos previos en defensa de los derechos civiles.

Además, el Consejo de Iglesias de California instó a la "eliminación inmediata de la Proposición 8", afirmando que infringe la libertad religiosa de las iglesias que desean bendecir las uniones entre personas del mismo sexo. ^{[ 129 ]}

Otros

La Liga de Mujeres Votantes de California se opuso a la Proposición 8 porque "ninguna persona o grupo debería sufrir discriminación legal, económica o administrativa". ^{[ 130 ]} Además, todas las secciones locales de la Asociación Nacional para el Progreso de las Personas de Color (NAACP), excepto dos , en California, así como el presidente nacional de la NAACP, Julian Bond , y el presidente Benjamin Jealous, se opusieron a la Proposición 8. ^{[ 131 ]} Amnistía Internacional también condenó la Proposición 8, afirmando que "los estados nunca deberían negar derechos por motivos de pertenencia a una minoría". ^{[ 132 ]}

Una coalición de ejecutivos de Silicon Valley instó a votar "No" a la Proposición 8. ^{[ 133 ]} Google se opuso oficialmente a la Proposición 8 "como una cuestión de igualdad", y sus fundadores donaron $140,000 a la campaña No a la 8. ^{[ 134 ]}^{[ 135 ]}^{[ 136 ]} Apple Inc. también se opuso a la Proposición 8 como una cuestión "fundamental" de derechos civiles , y donó $100,000 a la campaña No a la 8. ^{[ 136 ]}^{[ 137 ]} Los líderes de biotecnología advirtieron sobre el daño potencial a la industria del estado de $73 mil millones, citando a Massachusetts como un competidor importante por los empleados. ^{[ 138 ]}

Muchos miembros de la industria del entretenimiento se opusieron a la Proposición 8. ^{[ 139 ]} El actor Tom Hanks , un firme defensor del matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo , se mostró extremadamente crítico con el proyecto de ley. Brad Pitt y Steven Spielberg donaron diferentes cantidades de dinero a la campaña de oposición "No a la 8". ^{[ 140 ]} En 2010, el documental 8: The Mormon Proposition se estrenó con entradas agotadas en el Festival de Cine de Sundance .

La Junta de Educación del Distrito Escolar Unificado de Los Ángeles votó por unanimidad a favor de una resolución para oponerse a la Proposición 8. ^[¹⁴¹^] La Asociación de Maestros de California donó un millón de dólares para luchar contra la Proposición 8. ^[¹⁴²^] El rector Robert Birgeneau de la UC Berkeley instó a votar en contra de la medida, alegando una probable amenaza para la competitividad académica de California si se aprueba la Proposición 8. ^[¹⁴³^]

Editoriales de periódicos

Los diez periódicos más grandes del estado publicaron editoriales en contra de la Proposición 8, incluyendo Los Angeles Times , ^{[ 144 ]} y San Francisco Chronicle . ^{[ 145 ]}^{[ 146 ]}^{[ 147 ]}^{[ 148 ]}^{[ 149 ]}^{[ 150 ]}^{[ 151 ]}^{[ 152 ]}^{[ 153 ]} Otros periódicos que publicaron editoriales en contra incluyen The New York Times , ^{[ 154 ]} La Opinión (Los Ángeles), ^{[ 155 ]} y The Bakersfield Californian . ^{[ 156 ]}

Acciones contra simpatizantes y opositores

Tras las elecciones, se llevaron a cabo varias protestas contra la aprobación del referéndum. Estas incluyeron vigilias con velas frente a organizaciones como las iglesias SUD que promovieron la propuesta. ^{[ 157 ]}^{[ 158 ]} Se realizaron manifestaciones contra la enmienda en California y en todo el país, con miles de participantes. ^{[ 159 ]}^{[ 160 ]}^{[ 161 ]}^{[ 162 ]}^{[ 163 ]}^{[ 164 ]}

Los boicots también fueron una característica de la respuesta pública al resultado de las elecciones. Los grupos de derechos LGBTQ publicaron listas de donantes a la campaña del Sí a la Proposición 8 y organizaron boicots contra individuos u organizaciones que la habían promovido o donado. ^{[ 165 ]}^{[ 166 ]}^{[ 167 ]} Entre los objetivos de los boicots se encontraban el Festival de Cine de Sundance en Utah, El Coyote Cafe , California Musical Theatre y el Hotel Manchester Grand Hyatt . ^{[ 167 ]}^{[ 168 ]}^{[ 169 ]}

Algunos partidarios de la Proposición 8 informaron haber recibido amenazas de muerte , algunas de las cuales afirmaban estar "derivadas de la Proposición 8". ^{[ 170 ]}^{[ 171 ]} Algunas iglesias SUD fueron vandalizadas con pintura en aerosol . ^{[ 172 ]}^{[ 173 ]}

Los partidarios del matrimonio homosexual en el área de Fresno también fueron acosados; los letreros de "No a la Proposición 8" en la Iglesia Unitaria Universalista de Clovis fueron arrancados, y el reverendo Bryan Jessup alegó que su iglesia sufría vandalismo "todas las noches". ^{[ 170 ]} El fiscal adjunto del distrito del condado de Santa Clara , Jay Boyarsky, atribuyó un aumento en los crímenes de odio contra los homosexuales , de 3 en 2007 a 14 en 2008, a la controversia sobre la Proposición 8. ^[¹⁷⁴^]

Encuestas de opinión previas a las decisiones

Se realizaron diversas encuestas de opinión para estimar el resultado de la propuesta. Los márgenes con diferencias menores que sus márgenes de error se marcan como "ns", que significa no significativo (véase significancia estadística ). Los márgenes considerados estadísticamente significativos se indican con los puntos porcentuales y la postura favorecida en la encuesta, ya sea "pro" para quienes están a favor de la aprobación de la propuesta (por ejemplo, 1% pro) o "con" para quienes están en contra (por ejemplo, 1% con).

Según el director de Field Poll, la discrepancia entre las encuestas preelectorales y los resultados de las urnas se debe a que "los feligreses habituales ... eran más propensos que otros votantes a dejarse influir por los llamamientos de última hora para que se ajustaran a las posturas de la iglesia ortodoxa al votar sobre un tema social progresista como el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo". ^{[ 175 ]}

Resultados

En la madrugada del 5 de noviembre de 2008, KGO-TV informó, con el 92% de los distritos electorales contabilizados, y Associated Press (AP) informó, con el 95% de los distritos electorales contabilizados, que la Proposición 8 había sido aprobada. Según AP, aún quedaban por contabilizar algunos votos provisionales y por correo, pero basándose en las tendencias y la ubicación de los votos pendientes, el margen de apoyo de la Proposición 8 era seguro. ^{[ 192 ]}^{[ 193 ]}^{[ 194 ]}^{[ 195 ]}^{[ 196 ]}

La enmienda de la Constitución de California mediante iniciativa popular requiere una mayoría simple para ser aprobada. ^{[ 197 ]}

Edison/Mitofsky realizó una encuesta a pie de urna en nombre del National Election Pool , que es la única fuente de datos sobre la demografía de los votantes en California en las elecciones de 2008. ^{[ 198 ]}^{[ 199 ]} Las tendencias estadísticas de la encuesta a pie de urna de 2240 votantes sugirieron que una variedad de votantes se manifestaron tanto en contra como a favor de la Proposición 8, sin que ningún grupo demográfico constituyera la mayoría del voto a favor o en contra. La encuesta del National Election Pool mostró que el apoyo a la Proposición 8 fue fuerte entre los votantes afroamericanos, entrevistados en la encuesta a pie de urna con un 70% a favor, más que cualquier otro grupo racial. ^{[ 200 ]} Su apoyo se consideró crucial para la aprobación de la proposición, ya que los afroamericanos representaron un porcentaje inusualmente mayor de votantes ese año, debido a la presencia de Barack Obama en la boleta electoral. ^{[ 201 ]} Las encuestas de Associated Press y CNN reflejaron estos datos, reportando un apoyo entre los votantes negros del 70% ^{[ 202 ]} y del 75%, ^{[ 203 ]} respectivamente. Un estudio posterior de la National Gay and Lesbian Task Force (NGLTF), que examinó el voto negro solo de cinco condados dentro del estado, sugirió que el apoyo negro era más cercano al 58%. ^{[ 204 ]}^{[ 205 ]}

Los votantes hispanos y latinos también votaron a favor de la Proposición 8. ^{[ 206 ]}

Quienes se describían como religiosos fueron los más firmes partidarios de la Propuesta 8. ^{[ 207 ]} Según el estudio de la NGLTF, los católicos y protestantes que se identificaban como tales apoyaron la Propuesta 8 con un 55 % y un 66 %, respectivamente, ^{[ 208 ]} mientras que los judíos se opusieron abrumadoramente, con un apoyo de tan solo el 17 %. ^{[ 209 ]}^{[ 210 ]} Los votantes jóvenes tenían más probabilidades de haber votado en contra de la medida electoral que los votantes mayores, mientras que los republicanos tenían más probabilidades de haberla apoyado que los demócratas. ^{[ 211 ]}

Desglose por condado

Desglose de la ciudad

Eventos posteriores a las elecciones

Respuesta inmediata

In California, a constitutional amendment passed by the electorate takes effect the day after the election.^[197] On the evening of November 4 the "Yes on 8" campaign issued a statement by Ron Prentice, the chairman of ProtectMarriage.com, saying "The people of California stood up for traditional marriage and reclaimed this great institution."^[213] The organizers of the "No on Prop 8" campaign issued a statement on November 6 saying, "Tuesday's vote was deeply disappointing to all who believe in equal treatment under the law."^[214] The counties of Los Angeles, San Francisco, Yolo, Kern, Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, Sonoma, San Diego, San Bernardino, Sacramento, and Tuolumne stopped issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples the day after the election.^[215]^[216]^[217]^[218]

Fines

Following an audit by the California Franchise Tax Board, the proponents of Proposition 8 faced a fine of $49,000 for violating California campaign finance disclosure laws, by failing to report $1,169,292 in contributions under the timelines required by state law.^[219]

Protests

Following the passage of Proposition 8, mass protests took place across the state. These included protests outside the Los Angeles California Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Westwood, Los Angeles;^[220] a march through Hollywood that blocked traffic and elicited police intervention;^[221] and a candlelight vigil in front of the Sacramento Gay and Lesbian Center, along with a protest in front of the California State Capitol.^[222]^[223]

In San Francisco, thousands gathered in front of the City Hall to protest the proposition and to perform a candlelit vigil. Speakers who voiced their opinion in opposition of Proposition 8 included state senator Mark Leno and Mayor of San Francisco Gavin Newsom.^[224]

Outside California, a protest at the headquarters of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Salt Lake City, Utah^[225] was addressed by local gay rights supporters including former Salt Lake City Mayor Rocky Anderson and three gay members of the Utah Legislature: Senator Scott McCoy and Representatives Christine Johnson and Jackie Biskupski.^[226] On November 12, 2008, more than 10,000 protesters gathered outside the Manhattan New York Temple to protest the support of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints for Proposition 8.^[227] On November 15, 2008, tens of thousands of people in cities around the United States participated in rallies to protest the passage of Proposition 8 and to promote the expansion of civil marriage to same-sex couples throughout the nation.^[228]

Boycotts

The passage of Proposition 8 led to opponents responding by publicly shaming its supporters as bigots and boycotting supporters' businesses and employers. On November 7, 2008, a blogger revealed that Scott Eckern, then Artistic Director of California Musical Theatre, had made a personal donation of $1,000 to the "Yes on 8" campaign.^[229] All campaign contributions of $1,000 or more required a name, home and occupation be listed. On November 10, gay artists condemned Eckern and called for a boycott of California Musical Theatre.^[230] On November 11, Eckern issued an apology on the online site Playbill stating that a similar donation had been made to a human rights organization that includes gay rights as one of its causes.^[231] On November 12, Eckern resigned from California Musical Theatre. Executive producer of the CMT Richard Lewis stated that Eckern was not forced to resign but did so of his own accord.^[232]

Richard Raddon, Director of the Los Angeles Film Festival, also resigned due to boycotts by the gay community.^[233]

Protests in California were marred by racial incidents. Due to their support of Proposition 8, reported as high as 70 percent, some African Americans attending events were allegedly subjected to racial epithets and felt threatened.California Assembly Speaker Karen Bass stated she was disturbed by the treatment of African Americans in the aftermath of the passage of the proposition. In reaction to the racial incidents, Evan Wolfson said, "In any fight, there will be people who say things they shouldn't say, but that shouldn't divert attention from what the vast majority are saying against this, that it's a terrible injustice."^[234]^[235]

Media

To protest the passage of Proposition 8, musical theatre composer Marc Shaiman wrote a satiric mini-musical called "Prop 8 — The Musical".^[236] The three-minute video was distributed on the internet at FunnyOrDie.com. The cast includes Jack Black (who plays Jesus), Nicole Parker, Neil Patrick Harris, John C. Reilly, Allison Janney, Andy Richter, Maya Rudolph, Margaret Cho, Rashida Jones, Kathy Najimy, Sarah Chalke, Jennifer Lewis, John Hill and other celebrities. It was directed by Adam Shankman. The video satirizes Christian churches that selectively pick and choose biblical doctrines to follow.^[237] It received 1.2 million internet hits in its first day,^[238]^[239] won the 2009 Webby Award category Comedy: Individual Short or Episode,^[240] and won a GLAAD media award.^[241]

In 2010, 8: The Mormon Proposition, a documentary alleging the involvement of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in the passage of Proposition 8. Written by Reed Cowan and narrated by Dustin Lance Black, the film divided critics over a perceived heavy-handed approach to the church's involvement; it won the 2011 GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Documentary.

In 2011, 8, a play re-enacting the proceedings of Perry v. Brown in a condensed manner of documentary theatre, was premiered on Broadway.

Controversies about campaign financing and donations

On November 13, 2008, Fred Karger of the group Californians Against Hate filed a complaint with the California Fair Political Practices Commission that campaign finance reports filed by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints under-reported its actual Proposition 8 campaign expenses as $2,078.97.^[242]^[243] Karger charged that the Church's failure to report "non-monetary contributions" placed it in violation of California's Political Reform Act. Church spokesman Scott Trotter denied the charges, saying the church had "fully complied with the reporting requirements" and a "further report will be filed on or before [...the] due date, Jan. 30, 2009."^[244]

In a report filed with the California Secretary of State's office January 30, 2009, the LDS Church reported its non-monetary expenditures as $189,903.58.^[245] On January 31, the San Francisco Chronicle stated, "While the deadline for the report, which covers the period from July 1 to Dec. 31, is [February 2], many campaign contributions by major donors and independent committees must be reported within days after they're made." The article further stated that the executive director of the FPPC stated that the LDS church was still under investigation, and "In general, however, 'cases like these hinge over what had to be reported and when it had to be reported.' A late report covering disputed filings 'wouldn't remove the obligation to file on time' but would be considered by investigators."^[246]

The Boston Herald reported on February 2, 2009:^[247]

While many church members had donated directly to the Yes on 8 campaign—some estimates of Mormon giving range as high as $20 million—the church itself had previously reported little direct campaign activity. But in the filing made Friday, the Mormon church reported thousands in travel expenses, such as airline tickets, hotel rooms and car rentals for the campaign. The church also reported $96,849.31 worth of 'compensated staff time'—hours that church employees spent working to pass the same-sex marriage ban.

In a statement issued February 2, 2009, the LDS Church responded to "erroneous news reports", saying its subsequent disclosure was "in no way prompted by an investigation by the California Fair Political Practices Commission," that "We believe we have complied with California law," and that the report's filing date met the January 31, 2009 deadline:^[248]

The Church, like other organizations on both sides of the ballot issue, was required to publicly file these donations by the 31 January deadline. The Church has been filing required contribution reports throughout the campaign. Those earlier donations 'initially stated' were filed for specific time periods prior to this last reporting period, as required by law. Other groups are also filing their final contribution reports to meet the same deadline.

On January 7, 2009, supporters of Proposition 8 filed a federal lawsuit to block public disclosure of their donations. Alleging threats against their lives as well as other forms of harassment, the lawsuit also requested a preliminary injunction that ordered the California Secretary of State to remove information about donations posted on its website. Opponents of Proposition 8 called it "hypocritical" that its supporters would refer to their support of the measure as the "will of the people" while seeking to overturn voter-approved campaign disclosure laws.^[249]U.S. District Judge Morrison England Jr. denied that request on January 29; he said that the public had the right to know about donors of political causes, that he did not agree that the plaintiffs had a probability of success in court, and that they had not proven they would suffer "irreparable injury" if he did not grant the preliminary injunction.^[250]

Litigation

California Supreme Court cases

After the passage of Proposition 8, a number of lawsuits were filed by against the state and state officials with the intent of overturning the measure and arguing that Proposition 8 should not have retroactive effect on existing same-sex marriages. On November 13, 2008, the California Supreme Court asked California Attorney General Jerry Brown for an opinion on whether the Court should accept these cases for review and whether the measure should be suspended while they decide the case. On November 19, the Court accepted three lawsuits challenging Proposition 8 but denied the requests to stay its enforcement.^[251] The Court asked for final briefs by January 5, 2009. Oral arguments were held on March 5, 2009.

On Tuesday May 26 the court ruled that "The Amendment to the State Constitution referred to as Proposition 8 is valid and enforceable from the moment it was passed." The court also held that "Proposition 8 must be understood as creating a limited exception to the state equal protection clause."^[252] Justice Moreno in his lone dissenting opinion, argued that such a change to the Constitution should only be implemented "by a constitutional revision to modify the equal protection clause to protect some, rather than all, similarly situated persons" and not by a simple majority vote.

The Court did rule that their decision cannot be applied to retroactively annul marriages that were transacted while the practice was legal in the state of California.^[253] Proposition 8 has no retroactive effect. The California Supreme Court ruled unanimously on May 26, 2009, that the approximately 18,000 same-sex marriages that had occurred prior to Proposition 8's passage would still be valid and must continue to be recognized in the state, since the amendment does not state explicitly that it would nullify the same-sex marriages performed before it took effect.^[253]

Later legislation clarified that same-sex couples who married out-of-state within the window of legality would also retain their legal marriage rights. The bill was signed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on October 11, 2009.^[254]

Federal challenges

Smelt v. United States

Immediately following the passage of Proposition 8, Arthur Smelt and Christopher Hammer filed suit in the Southern Division of the United States District Court for the Central District of California, in Orange County. In the case, Smelt v. United States, the couple argued that Proposition 8 and the Federal Defense of Marriage Act violated the Equal Protection Clause of the American constitution.^[255] The United States Justice Department filed a motion to dismiss the case because the "plaintiffs are married, and their challenge to the federal Defense of Marriage Act ("DOMA") poses a different set of questions."^[256] On July 15, 2009, District Judge Carter dismissed the part of Smelt that challenged Proposition 8, finding that the fact that the plaintiffs were already legally married in California meant they had no standing to challenge Proposition 8. The challenge to the Defense of Marriage Act, however, remained intact.^[257] The remainder of the case was heard on August 3, 2009, in an Orange County district court.^[258] The lawsuit was thrown out because the two men had filed suit against the federal government in a state court, a technicality which meant the suit needed to be re-filed.^[259]

Perry v. Schwarzenegger

On the day of Strauss v. Horton's decision, the American Foundation for Equal Rights (AFER) filed suit in U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California to challenge the validity of Proposition 8. Lambda Legal, the ACLU, and the National Center for Lesbian Rights have since announced their support for the lawsuit.^[260]San Francisco filed a motion to and was granted intervenor status in the case, saying that their work in In re Marriage Cases and Strauss v. Horton provided them with "extensive evidence and proposed findings on strict scrutiny factors and factual rebuttals to long claimed justifications for marriage discrimination".^[261]

California Attorney General, and former and later again Governor Jerry Brown backed the lawsuit, saying that Proposition 8 violates the U.S. Constitution and should be struck down.^[262] Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger took a more neutral path,^[263] saying that he supported the lawsuit because the Proposition 8 conflict asks "important constitutional questions that require and warrant judicial determination." Because this means that the Californian government will not defend the law in court,^[264] the proponents of Proposition 8's campaign were granted the right to intervene as defendants.^[265] The case was first heard on July 2, 2009, in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California in San Francisco, Judge Vaughn R. Walker presiding.^[266]

In an act unprecedented in California history both the Governor and Attorney General refused to defend a constitutional amendment.^[267]

In August, Judge Walker heard further requests for intervenor status and ordered a trial set for January 2010. On August 4, 2010, U.S. District Chief Judge Vaughn R. Walker ruled Proposition 8 unconstitutional, but at the same time temporarily provided for a suspension of the ruling while he considered whether to grant an indefinite suspension pending appeal.^[268] Walker lifted the stay on August 12, 2010, thus allowing same-sex marriages to be performed as of August 18, 2010.^[269]

On August 16, 2010, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit imposed a stay of all new same-sex marriages in the State of California. It also scheduled an accelerated time table for hearing an appeal of Judge Walker's ruling.^[270] Before the appeal trial begins, there will be a December 6, 2010 hearing on who has legal standing to appeal the District Court's decision and whether the proposition violates equal protection rights.^[271]

Legal challenges

Following the passing of Proposition 8 in 2008, and the subsequent mass protests, several lawsuits were filed in both the State Supreme Court and in the Federal District Court.

State court: Strauss v. Horton

In considering the cases within the state courts, on November 13, 2008, the California Supreme Court asked California Attorney General Jerry Brown for an opinion on whether the Court should accept these cases for review and whether the measure should be suspended while they decide the case. On November 19, the Court accepted three lawsuits challenging Proposition 8, which consolidated into Strauss v. Horton.^[272] The Court rendered its decision on May 26, 2009. The majority decision was that Proposition 8 "carved out a limited [or 'narrow'] exception to the state equal protection clause"; Justice Moreno dissented that exceptions to the Equal Protection Clause could not be made by any majority since its whole purpose was to protect minorities against the will of a majority. Until overturned by Hollingsworth v. Perry (below), the ruling established that Proposition 8 was valid as voted, but that marriages performed before it went into effect would remain valid.

Federal court

Perry v. Schwarzenegger

After the California Supreme Court upheld the voter initiative, a suit, Perry v. Schwarzenegger (later Hollingsworth v. Perry), was filed in a Federal District Court in San Francisco. On August 4, 2010, U.S. District Chief Judge Vaughn Walker overturned Proposition 8, stating it is "unconstitutional under the Due Process Clause because no compelling state interest justifies denying same-sex couples the fundamental right to marry."^[273] The court also determined that "Proposition 8 violated the Equal Protection Clause because there is no rational basis for limiting the designation of 'marriage' to opposite-sex couples."^[274] The court also stayed the ruling; the voter initiative was to remain in effect pending appeal.^[22] On August 12, Walker announced his decision to lift the stay (which would have allowed same-sex marriages to be performed) as of August 18,2010.^[275]^[276] However, on August 16, 2010, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit indefinitely extended the District Court's stay, stopping new same-sex marriages in the state of California pending appeal. It also scheduled an accelerated time table for hearing an appeal of Walker's ruling.^[277]

Perry v. Brown (on appeal)

As the State of California chose not to appeal the ruling, an appeal was sought by two parties—the initiative proponents, and Imperial County (via its deputy clerk). The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals considered the question of standing first. On January 4, 2011, the Ninth Circuit ruled that Imperial County did not have standing to intervene in the lawsuit (by now called Perry v. Brown)—the formal reason being the county's appeal had been "untimely", but also that the appellant was the county's deputy clerk, and precedent existed in other cases that a deputy clerk could not 'represent' a county.

To address the question whether the initiative proponents had particularized standing (that is, standing either via personal interest, or standing to represent the State's interest), the Ninth Circuit certified a question to the California Supreme Court on January 4, 2011, asking that court to rule whether, under the California Constitution or otherwise under California law, non-governmental proponents of an initiative have standing to appeal when the State is no longer willing to defend it.^[278] On February 16, 2011, the California Supreme Court unanimously agreed to address the Ninth Circuit's request.^[279] The court set an expedited schedule for the hearing^[280] and heard oral arguments on September 6, 2011.^[281] On November 17, 2011, the California Supreme Court issued an advisory opinion that the proponents of Proposition 8 did have standing, and could defend it.^[282]^[283]

Ninth Circuit ruling

On February 7, 2012, a three-judge panel on the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals issued a 2–1 majority opinion affirming the judgment in Perry v. Schwarzenegger, which declared Proposition 8 unconstitutional, saying it violated the Equal Protection Clause. The opinion, written by Judge Stephen Reinhardt and joined by Judge Michael Hawkins, states that Proposition 8 did nothing more than lessen the status and dignity of gays and lesbians, and classify their relationships and families as inferior to those of opposite-sex couples.^[284] The court found that the people of California, by using their initiative power to target a minority group and withdraw the right to marry they once possessed under the California State Constitution, violated the federal Constitution.^[285]

The court concluded that the trial court had correctly found Proposition 8 to have no purpose other than to impose the majority's private disapproval of gays, lesbians, and their relationships through the public law, and to take away from them the designation of marriage and its recognized societal status.^[286] The findings of fact and expert witness testimony in District Court played an important role in this appellate decision, emphasizing that it is unreasonable to believe Proposition 8 was enacted to: promote childrearing by biological parents, encourage procreation, be cautious in social change, protect religious liberty, or control children's education.^[287] The court declared that it is "implausible to think that denying two men or two women the right to call themselves married could somehow bolster the stability of families headed by one man and one woman".^[288]^[289]

The dissenting judge, Judge N. Randy Smith, noted in his dissent that states do legitimately prohibit sexual relationships condemned by society such as incest, bigamy, and bestiality, and impose age limits for marriage without violating constitutional rights.^[290] He stated that "gays and lesbians are not a suspect or quasi-suspect class" and are thus not entitled to the courts' increased scrutiny of laws that affect them.^[290] He wrote, "The family structure of two committed biological parents—one man and one woman—is the optimal partnership for raising children." He also said that governments have a legitimate interest in "a responsible procreation theory, justifying the inducement of marital recognition only for opposite-sex couples" because only they can have children.^[290] He urged judicial restraint, that the justices should refrain from striking down Proposition 8.^[291]

En banc review denied

On February 21, 2012, proponents requested to have the case reviewed en banc by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals.^[292] If granted, en banc review could have taken a year or more, which would have delayed possible U.S. Supreme Court review.^[292] Pending the appeal, a stay was continued, barring any marriages from taking place.^[293] On June 5, 2012, the full Ninth Circuit refused to rehear the case; the stay would remain in place pending final action by the Supreme Court.^[294]

The Ninth Court's ruling was subsequently vacated (withdrawn) although it affirmed the district court ruling, since the Supreme Court later determined that the proponents of Proposition 8 had not had standing to appeal the district court's ruling.

Hollingsworth v. Perry (U.S. Supreme Court)

The proposition's proponents filed a petition for certiorari with the U.S. Supreme Court on July 30, 2012, requesting that the Supreme Court review the case.^[295] Briefs in opposition both from the individual respondents and from the City and County of San Francisco were filed August 24, and the petitioners replied on September 4.^[296] On December 7, 2012, the Supreme Court granted the proponents' petition for certiorari^[297] and asked to be briefed for arguments concerning the petitioners' Article III standing,^[298] amid considerable anticipation of a finding of a lack of justiciability in order to avoid a holding on the merits.^[299] Oral arguments were heard on March 26, 2013.^[26]

Parties who lodged amicus briefs with the court included: Judge Georg Ress and the Marriage Law Foundation; William N. Eskridge Jr., et al.; the Center for Constitutional Jurisprudence; the Public Advocate of the United States, et al.; the National Association of Evangelicals, et al.; the American Civil Rights Union; Judicial Watch, Inc., et al.; the Eagle Forum Education & Legal Defense Fund, Inc.; the Foundation for Moral Law; and the state of Indiana, et al.^[296]

The Supreme Court issued a 5–4 decision on June 26, 2013.^[300]Chief Justice Roberts wrote for the majority, and was joined by Justices Scalia, Ginsburg, Breyer, and Kagan.^[300] Justices Kennedy, Thomas, Alito, and Sotomayor were in the minority.^[301] The Court found the proponents did not have standing to appeal in federal court. To have standing, they "must have suffered an injury in fact, thus giving [them] a sufficiently concrete interest in the outcome of the issue in dispute".^[12] Because no injury had been shown, the appeal to the Ninth Circuit should have been dismissed for lack of jurisdiction. (This only applied to the Ninth Circuit and Supreme Court cases.) The Court returned the case to the Ninth Circuit with instructions to dismiss the appeal. This left the district court's ruling overturning Proposition 8 as the final ruling in the case. Because the appeal was decided on the question of standing, the Supreme Court did not examine nor rule on whether in their view Proposition 8 had violated the U.S. Constitution.

Justice Kennedy, writing for the minority, said the views of the California Supreme Court on the proponents' standing should have been respected,^[12] because "the basic premise of the initiative process [and] the essence of democracy is that the right to make law rests in the people and flows to the government, not the other way around".^[8]^:13

Aftermath

On June 28, 2013, the Ninth Circuit lifted its stay of the district court's ruling, enabling same-sex marriages to resume;^[13] minutes afterward, plaintiffs Perry and Stier became the first couple in California to legally wed under state law since the enactment of Proposition 8 in 2008, doing so at San Francisco City Hall at 4:45 PDT, with California's Attorney General Kamala Harris officiating at the ceremony.^[302]

There were two legal challenges made to the implementation of the ruling, both subsequently denied:

Federal court legal challenge to removal of stay

On June 29, 2013, the proponents of Proposition 8 filed an emergency motion with the U.S. Supreme Court to vacate the Ninth Circuit's lifting of its stay, claiming it had been "premature".^[303] The next day, June 30, 2013, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Anthony Kennedy, responsible for overseeing the Ninth Circuit, denied the motion without comment.^[304]

State court legal challenges to statewide implementation of ruling

Even before the Ninth Circuit lifted its stay, Proposition 8 proponents had expressed the intent to fight on, by asserting that the ruling only applies to the persons or counties involved and would be unlawful for other couples or counties to comply with it.^[305]

Two petitions to this effect were filed with the California Supreme Court, by proponents (Hollingsworth v. O'Connell and Brown, July 12, 2013) and—against county policy—by a San Diego County Clerk (Dronenburg, July 19, 2013: dropped August 2 as duplicative). The proponents' petition challenged the state and county clerk responses to the ruling in Perry, asserting that, in their view, only two counties were affected by the ruling and other counties had no legal capacity to discretionally do likewise; that the plaintiffs, not representing a class, had their relief while others who were not plaintiffs had no change to their position within the law; and that county clerks were not in fact covered by the ruling and were therefore bound to comply with the law as it stood.

This position was rejected by California's governor, who on legal advice^[306] ordered the change to license issuance, according to the ruling.^[307] California's Attorney General Kamala Harris noted that "state officials are obligated to govern marriage equally in all counties and that [United States District Court for the Northern District of California Chief Judge Vaughn] Walker's ruling specifically covers those officials."^[305]San Francisco's city attorney stated that it was "the most basic concepts of American law ... that a state court will not overrule the federal judiciary".^[306] Twenty-four County Clerks stated, through their lawyer, that their role was "ultimately state supervised" and it would be unfeasible to have a "patchwork" of different marriage criteria varying between the counties of a single state.^[308]

On July 15, the California Supreme Court unanimously declined the request to order an immediate halt to same-sex marriages in the state pending a decision on the petition. The court requested arguments from the parties on the points raised in their petition.^[309] On August 14, 2013, the California Supreme Court unanimously rejected the challenge by Proposition 8 proponents.^[310]

Repeal

2009–2022

On April 30, 2009, the members of 'Yes! on Equality' submitted a ballot initiative dubbed "California Marriage Equality Act" to the Attorney General's office, requesting a title and summary. The text of the ballot would repeal Article I, Section 7.5 of the Californian Constitution as well as clarifying that no school curriculum will be changed and no clergy will be forced to perform any "service or duty incongruent with their faith". Yes! on Equality had until August 17, 2009, to gather 694,354 signatures in order to qualify for the June 2010 ballot.^[311]^[312] A petition for initiative for the November 2010 ballot also failed to obtain enough signatures.^[313]^[314]

Several LGBTQ groups of color (including API Equality-LA, HONOR PAC, and the Jordan/Rustin Coalition) published a statement "Prepare to Prevail",^[315] in which they argued that the ballot repeal effort should be delayed until 2012. The repeal effort was subsequently canceled in light of victorious court cases.^[316]

2024 repeal

On February 14, 2023, following comments by Clarence Thomas in the U.S. Supreme Court decision Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization that called for the court to review Obergefell v. Hodges, lawmaker Evan Low introduced ACA-5 into the California legislature.^[317] A legislatively referred constitutional amendment repealing the ban on same-sex marriage was proposed for the 2024 California elections; activists stated that 2024 would be the appropriate time for a ballot measure to prevent public competition for attention with 2022 California Proposition 1.^[318]^[319]

In June 2023, the California State Assembly passed ACA-5 in a unanimous vote, and the following month another unanimous vote took place in the California State Senate, therefore placing the proposal to repeal Proposition 8 on the ballot in 2024.^[320] The measure was approved by over 61% of voters. The text of the Constitution was changed to read: "the right to marry is a fundamental right".^[321]

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↑California voters ban gay marriage
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↑Prop. 8 wins; legal challenges poised
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External links

The District Court's decision in Perry v Schwarzenegger (Prop 8 Unconstitutional)
The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals Decision Affirming Perry v Schwarzenegger (Prop 8 Unconstitutional)
Video—Ninth Circuit Appeals Court Trial on the Merits
Video—Ninth Circuit Appeals Court Trial on Recusal
ProtectMarriage.com: Organizational sponsor of Proposition 8
No On Prop. 8: Organizational opponent to Proposition 8
Guía oficial de información para votantes de California sobre la Proposición 8 : título y resumen, análisis, argumentos y refutaciones, y el texto de la proposición.
Escaneo de la iniciativa del sitio web del Fiscal General de California
El dinero detrás de las propuestas electorales de 2008 sobre uniones entre personas del mismo sexo: secretos a voces.
Mapa de la Proposición 8: un mapa detallado con hipervínculos en el atlas electoral de David Leips.
Hollingsworth contra Perry en SCOTUSblog
Escritos de amicus curiae presentados en el caso Hollingsworth contra Perry por el Fiscal de la Ciudad de San Francisco.

[1] 2008 Election in California

[2] VOTER PARTICIPATION STATISTICS BY COUNTY

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Descripción general

Historia de la iniciativa electoral

Texto completo

Desafíos legales preelectorales

Petición para retirar la propuesta de la boleta electoral.

Desafío al título y al resumen

Campaña

Financiación y gasto de campañas

Defensores

Figuras políticas

Organizaciones religiosas

Otros

Iglesia de la Cienciología

Anuncio "Te guste o no"

Oponentes

Figuras políticas

Organizaciones religiosas

Otros

Editoriales de periódicos

Acciones contra simpatizantes y opositores

Encuestas de opinión previas a las decisiones

Resultados

Desglose por condado

Desglose de la ciudad

Eventos posteriores a las elecciones

Respuesta inmediata

Fines

Protests

Boycotts

Media

Controversies about campaign financing and donations

Litigation

California Supreme Court cases

Federal challenges

Smelt v. United States

Perry v. Schwarzenegger

Legal challenges

State court: Strauss v. Horton

Federal court

Perry v. Schwarzenegger

Perry v. Brown (on appeal)

Ninth Circuit ruling

En banc review denied

Hollingsworth v. Perry (U.S. Supreme Court)

Aftermath

Federal court legal challenge to removal of stay

State court legal challenges to statewide implementation of ruling

Repeal

2009–2022

2024 repeal

See also

References

External links