Articulo de referencia

Cultura de Rusia

La catedral de San Basilio en la Plaza Roja de Moscú, la arquitectura moscovita más emblemática que combinaba estilos de iglesias rusas antiguas y tártaras orientales. [ 1 ] Cel...

La catedral de San Basilio en la Plaza Roja de Moscú, la arquitectura moscovita más emblemática que combinaba estilos de iglesias rusas antiguas y tártaras orientales. [ 1 ]
Celebración de las "Velas Escarlata" en San Petersburgo.

La cultura rusa ( en ruso : Культура России , romanizado : Kul'tura Rossii , IPA: [ kʊlʲˈturə rɐˈsʲiɪ ] ) se ha formado por la historia de la nación, su ubicación geográfica y su vasta extensión, tradiciones religiosas y sociales, y la influencia tanto oriental [ 2 ] como occidental . [ 3 ] Los científicos culturales creen que la influencia de Oriente fue bastante insignificante, ya que los mongoles no coexistieron con los rusos durante la conquista, y los pueblos indígenas fueron sometidos a una asimilación cultural inversa , a diferencia de los vecinos escandinavos y más occidentales , que se han convertido en la razón principal de la formación de la cultura moderna entre los rusos. [ 4 ] Los escritores y filósofos rusos han desempeñado un papel importante en el desarrollo del pensamiento europeo . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Los rusos también han influido enormemente en la música clásica , [ 7 ] el ballet , [ 8 ] el teatro, [ 9 ] la pintura , [ 10 ] el cine [ 11 ] y el deporte , [ 12 ] La nación también ha realizado contribuciones pioneras a la ciencia y la tecnología y la exploración espacial . [ 13 ] [ 14 ]

Historia

La historia de Rusia comienza con las historias de los eslavos orientales . [ 15 ] [ 16 ] La fecha de inicio tradicional de la historia específicamente rusa es el establecimiento del estado de Rus' en el norte en el año 862, gobernado por los varegos . [ 17 ] [ 18 ] En 882, el príncipe Oleg de Novgorod tomó Kiev , unificando las tierras del norte y del sur de los eslavos orientales bajo una sola autoridad, trasladando el centro de gobierno a Kiev a finales del siglo X y manteniendo partes del norte y del sur con una autonomía significativa entre sí. El estado adoptó el cristianismo del Imperio bizantino en 988, comenzando la síntesis de las culturas bizantina , eslava y escandinava que definió la cultura rusa durante el siguiente milenio. La Rus' de Kiev finalmente se desintegró como estado debido a las invasiones mongolas en 1237-1240. Después del siglo XIII, Moscú emergió como una fuerza política y cultural significativa, impulsando la reunión de territorios rusos . [ 19 ] A finales del siglo XV, muchos de los pequeños principados alrededor de Moscú se habían unido al Gran Ducado de Moscú , que tomó el control total de su propia soberanía bajo Iván el Grande .

Iván el Terrible transformó el Gran Ducado en el Zarato de Rusia en 1547. Sin embargo, la muerte de su hijo Teodoro I sin descendencia en 1598 creó una crisis de sucesión y llevó a Rusia a un período de caos y guerra civil conocido como el Tiempo Tumultuoso , que terminó con la coronación de Miguel Romanov como el primer zar de la dinastía Romanov en 1613. Durante el resto del siglo XVII, Rusia completó la exploración y conquista de Siberia , reclamando tierras hasta el Océano Pacífico a finales de siglo. Internamente, Rusia enfrentó numerosos levantamientos de los diversos grupos étnicos bajo su control, como ejemplifica el líder cosaco Stenka Razin , quien lideró una revuelta en 1670-1671. En 1721, tras la Gran Guerra del Norte , el zar Pedro el Grande renombró el estado como Imperio ruso ; También se le reconoce por haber establecido San Petersburgo como la nueva capital de su Imperio y por haber introducido la cultura de Europa Occidental en Rusia. En 1762, Rusia quedó bajo el control de Catalina la Grande , quien continuó las políticas occidentalizadoras de Pedro el Grande e inauguró la Ilustración rusa . El nieto de Catalina, Alejandro I , repelió una invasión del emperador francés Napoleón , lo que elevó a Rusia al estatus de una de las grandes potencias .

Las revueltas campesinas se intensificaron durante el siglo XIX, culminando con la abolición de la servidumbre rusa por Alejandro II en 1861. En las décadas siguientes, los esfuerzos reformistas, como las reformas de Stolypin (1906-1914), la constitución de 1906 y la Duma Estatal (1906-1917), intentaron liberalizar la economía y el sistema político, pero los emperadores se negaron a renunciar al gobierno autocrático y se resistieron a compartir el poder. Una combinación de colapso económico, mala gestión de la participación de Rusia en la Primera Guerra Mundial y descontento con el sistema de gobierno autocrático desencadenó la Revolución Rusa en 1917. El fin de la monarquía inicialmente llevó al poder a una coalición de liberales y socialistas moderados, pero sus políticas fallidas condujeron a la Revolución de Octubre . En 1922, la Rusia soviética , junto con la RSS de Ucrania , la RSS de Bielorrusia y la RSFS de Transcaucasia , firmaron el Tratado de Creación de la URSS , fusionando oficialmente las cuatro repúblicas para formar la Unión Soviética como un solo estado. Entre 1922 y 1991, la historia de Rusia se convirtió esencialmente en la historia de la Unión Soviética . Durante este período, la Unión Soviética fue uno de los vencedores de la Segunda Guerra Mundial tras recuperarse de la invasión sorpresiva de 1941 por parte de la Alemania nazi y sus colaboradores , que previamente habían firmado un pacto de no agresión con la Unión Soviética. La red de estados satélite de la Unión Soviética en Europa del Este, que se incorporaron a su esfera de influencia en las etapas finales de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, ayudó al país a convertirse en una superpotencia que competía con Estados Unidos y otros países occidentales en la Guerra Fría .

A mediados de la década de 1980, con las debilidades de las estructuras económicas y políticas soviéticas cada vez más agudas, Mijaíl Gorbachov emprendió importantes reformas, que finalmente llevaron al debilitamiento del partido comunista y a la disolución de la Unión Soviética , dejando a Rusia nuevamente sola y marcando el comienzo de la historia de la Rusia postsoviética . La República Socialista Federativa Soviética de Rusia se renombró como Federación Rusa y se convirtió en el principal estado sucesor de la Unión Soviética . [ 20 ] Rusia conservó su arsenal nuclear pero perdió su estatus de superpotencia . Abandonando la planificación centralizada y la propiedad estatal de la era soviética en la década de 1990, nuevos líderes, encabezados por el presidente Vladímir Putin , tomaron el poder político y económico después del año 2000 y emprendieron una política exterior asertiva. Junto con el crecimiento económico, Rusia ha recuperado desde entonces un estatus global significativo como potencia mundial. La anexión rusa de la península de Crimea en 2014 provocó sanciones económicas impuestas por Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea . La invasión rusa de Ucrania en 2022 provocó una ampliación significativa de las sanciones . Bajo el liderazgo de Putin, la corrupción en Rusia está considerada como la peor de Europa, y la situación de los derechos humanos en Rusia ha sido objeto de crecientes críticas por parte de observadores internacionales.

Lengua y literatura

Dave ha venido caminando.
Los Evangelios de Ostromir , el segundo libro eslavo oriental más antiguo conocido; 1056 d. C.; Biblioteca Nacional de Rusia ( San Petersburgo ).
Página de un manuscrito ruso iluminado; 1485–1490

Los 160 grupos étnicos de Rusia hablan alrededor de 100 idiomas. [ 21 ] Según el censo de 2002, 142,6  millones de personas hablan ruso , seguido del tártaro con 5,3  millones y el ucraniano con 1,8  millones de hablantes. [ 22 ] El ruso es el único idioma oficial del Estado, pero la Constitución otorga a las repúblicas individuales el derecho a hacer de su idioma nativo cooficial junto con el ruso. [ 23 ] A pesar de su amplia dispersión, el idioma ruso es homogéneo en toda Rusia. El ruso es el idioma con mayor extensión geográfica de Eurasia y el idioma eslavo más hablado . [ 24 ] El ruso pertenece a la familia de lenguas indoeuropeas y es uno de los miembros vivos de las lenguas eslavas orientales ; los otros son el bielorruso y el ucraniano (y posiblemente el rusino ). Se atestiguan ejemplos escritos del antiguo eslavo oriental ( antiguo ruso ) desde el siglo X en adelante. [ 25 ]

Más de una cuarta parte de la literatura científica mundial se publica en ruso. El ruso también se utiliza como medio de codificación y almacenamiento del conocimiento universal: entre el 60 % y el 70 % de toda la información mundial se publica en inglés y ruso. [ 26 ] El ruso es uno de los seis idiomas oficiales de las Naciones Unidas .

Folklore

El folclore ruso tiene sus raíces en las creencias paganas de los antiguos eslavos , que aún hoy se encuentran presentes en el folclore ruso . Las bylinas épicas rusas también constituyen una parte importante de la mitología eslava . Las bylinas más antiguas del ciclo de Kiev se registraron en el norte de Rusia , especialmente en Karelia , donde también se registró la mayor parte de la epopeya nacional finlandesa Kalevala .

Buyan por Ivan Bilibin

Muchos cuentos de hadas y bylinas rusos fueron adaptados para películas de animación rusas o para largometrajes por directores famosos como Aleksandr Ptushko ( Ilya Muromets , Sadko ) y Aleksandr Rou ( Morozko , Vasilisa la Bella ). Algunos poetas rusos, entre ellos Pyotr Yershov y Leonid Filatov , crearon varias interpretaciones poéticas muy conocidas de cuentos de hadas clásicos rusos y, en algunos casos, como el de Alexander Pushkin , también crearon poemas de cuentos de hadas completamente originales que se hicieron muy populares.

Los folcloristas actuales consideran la década de 1920 como la edad de oro del folclore en la Unión Soviética . El nuevo gobierno, en apuros, debía centrar sus esfuerzos en establecer un nuevo sistema administrativo y en impulsar la economía atrasada del país, por lo que no podía permitirse el lujo de controlar la literatura, lo que propició el florecimiento de los estudios folclóricos. Durante esa década, existieron dos corrientes principales en el estudio del folclore: la escuela formalista y la escuela finlandesa . El formalismo se centraba en la forma artística de los antiguos cuentos de hadas y de hadas, específicamente en el uso de estructuras y recursos poéticos distintivos. [ 27 ] La escuela finlandesa se ocupaba de las conexiones entre leyendas relacionadas de diversas regiones de Europa del Este. Los eruditos finlandeses recopilaban relatos similares de múltiples lugares y analizaban sus similitudes y diferencias, con la esperanza de rastrear las rutas migratorias de estas historias épicas. [ 28 ]

Emblema del Ministerio de Cultura de Rusia . La imagen del águila bicéfala coronada y la corona central, unida a otras dos, se utiliza a menudo como representación gráfica de la naturaleza cultural de Rusia. Una de las cabezas coronadas mira hacia Europa y refleja el elemento europeo occidental en la cultura rusa; la otra mira hacia Asia y simboliza el elemento oriental asiático en Rusia. Ambas están conectadas a una tercera corona de mayor tamaño. La cultura rusa está vinculada a las culturas europea y asiática, y ha recibido la influencia de ambas. [ 29 ]

Una vez que Iósif Stalin llegó al poder y puso en marcha su primer plan quinquenal en 1928, el gobierno soviético comenzó a criticar y censurar los estudios de folclore. Stalin y el régimen soviético reprimieron el folclore, creyendo que apoyaba el antiguo sistema zarista y la economía capitalista. Lo veían como un recordatorio de la sociedad rusa atrasada que los bolcheviques se esforzaban por superar. [ 30 ] Para controlar los estudios de folclore e impedir la difusión de ideas "inapropiadas" entre las masas, el gobierno creó la RAPP ( Asociación Rusa de Escritores Proletarios ). La RAPP se centró específicamente en censurar los cuentos de hadas y la literatura infantil, creyendo que las fantasías y las "tonterías burguesas" perjudicaban el desarrollo de ciudadanos soviéticos ejemplares. Los cuentos de hadas fueron retirados de las librerías y se animó a los niños a leer libros sobre naturaleza y ciencia. [ 31 ] La RAPP finalmente aumentó sus niveles de censura y se convirtió en la Unión de Escritores Soviéticos en 1932.

Bogatyrs de Viktor Vasnetsov . Los tres héroes de la mitología rusa : (izq. ar.) Dobrynya Nikitich , Ilya Muromets y Alyosha Popovich.

Para continuar investigando y analizando el folclore, los intelectuales necesitaban justificar su valor ante el régimen comunista. De lo contrario, las colecciones de folclore, junto con toda la demás literatura considerada inútil para los propósitos del Plan Quinquenal de Stalin, se convertirían en un campo de estudio inaceptable. En 1934, Maksim Gorki pronunció un discurso ante la Unión de Escritores Soviéticos argumentando que el folclore podía, de hecho, utilizarse conscientemente para promover los valores comunistas. Además de exponer el valor artístico del folclore, destacó que las leyendas y los cuentos de hadas tradicionales mostraban personajes ideales, orientados a la comunidad, que ejemplificaban al ciudadano soviético modelo. [ 32 ] El folclore, con muchos de sus conflictos basados ​​en las luchas de un estilo de vida orientado al trabajo, era relevante para el comunismo, ya que no podría haber existido sin la contribución directa de las clases trabajadoras. [ 33 ] Asimismo, Gorki explicó que los personajes del folclore expresaban altos niveles de optimismo y, por lo tanto, podían alentar a los lectores a mantener una mentalidad positiva, especialmente a medida que sus vidas cambiaban con el desarrollo del comunismo. [ 28 ]

Yuri Sokolov , jefe de la sección de folclore de la Unión de Escritores Soviéticos, también promovió el estudio del folclore argumentando que este había sido originalmente la tradición oral del pueblo trabajador y, por consiguiente, podía utilizarse para motivar e inspirar proyectos colectivos entre el proletariado actual. [ 34 ] Los personajes de los cuentos populares rusos tradicionales a menudo se encontraban en un viaje de autodescubrimiento, un proceso que los llevaba a valorarse no como individuos, sino como parte necesaria de un todo común. Las actitudes de estos personajes legendarios reflejaban la mentalidad que el gobierno soviético deseaba inculcar en sus ciudadanos. [ 35 ] También señaló la existencia de muchos cuentos que mostraban a miembros de la clase trabajadora burlando a sus crueles amos, trabajando una vez más para demostrar el valor del folclore para la ideología soviética y la sociedad del país en general. [ 36 ] Convencidos por los argumentos de Gorki y Sokolov, el gobierno soviético y la Unión de Escritores Soviéticos comenzaron a recopilar y evaluar el folclore de todo el país. La Unión seleccionó y registró historias específicas que, a su juicio, promovían suficientemente el espíritu colectivista y mostraban los beneficios y el progreso del régimen soviético. Luego procedió a redistribuir copias de las historias aprobadas entre la población. Mientras tanto, surgieron centros locales de folclore en todas las ciudades principales. [ 37 ] Responsables de promover un sentimiento de nacionalismo soviético, estas organizaciones se aseguraron de que los medios publicaran versiones apropiadas de cuentos populares rusos de manera sistemática. [ 28 ]

Sadko de Ilya Repin

Además de difundir cuentos de hadas y byliny aprobados por el gobierno, durante el régimen de Stalin, autores que repetían las ideologías soviéticas pertinentes escribieron cuentos populares comunistas y los introdujeron a la población. Estos cuentos populares contemporáneos combinaban las estructuras y los motivos de los antiguos byliny con la vida contemporánea en la Unión Soviética. Llamados noviny, estos nuevos cuentos fueron considerados el renacimiento de la épica rusa. [ 38 ] Se recurrió a folcloristas para enseñar a los cantantes populares modernos el estilo y la estructura convencionales de los byliny tradicionales. También explicaron a los intérpretes los tipos apropiados de ideología comunista que debían estar representados en las nuevas historias y canciones. [ 39 ] Dado que los intérpretes de la época a menudo tenían una educación deficiente, necesitaban obtener una comprensión profunda de la ideología marxista antes de que se esperara que transmitieran cuentos populares al público de una manera que convenía al gobierno soviético. Además de recibir una educación extensa, muchos intérpretes populares viajaron por todo el país para comprender mejor la vida de la clase trabajadora y, de este modo, comunicar sus historias con mayor eficacia. [ 40 ] Debido a su papel crucial en la difusión de los ideales comunistas por toda la Unión Soviética, algunos de estos artistas llegaron a ser miembros muy valorados de la sociedad soviética. Varios de ellos, a pesar de su analfabetismo, incluso fueron elegidos miembros de la Unión de Escritores Soviéticos. [ 41 ]

Estos nuevos cuentos de hadas y canciones populares soviéticas se centraban principalmente en los contrastes entre una vida miserable en la antigua Rusia zarista y una vida mejorada bajo el liderazgo de Stalin. [ 42 ] Sus personajes representaban identidades por las que los ciudadanos soviéticos debían esforzarse, ejemplificando los rasgos del " Nuevo Hombre Soviético ". [ 43 ] Los héroes de los cuentos soviéticos estaban destinados a retratar una versión transformada y mejorada del ciudadano promedio, brindando al lector una meta clara para un yo ideal orientado a la comunidad que el futuro en el que estaba destinado a convertirse. Estos nuevos cuentos populares reemplazaron la magia con la tecnología y las fuerzas sobrenaturales con Stalin. [ 44 ] En lugar de recibir consejos esenciales de un ser mítico, el protagonista recibiría consejos del omnisciente Stalin. Si el personaje seguía el consejo divino de Stalin, podía tener asegurado el éxito en todos sus esfuerzos y una transformación completa en el "Nuevo Hombre Soviético". [ 45 ] Los villanos de estos cuentos de hadas contemporáneos eran los Blancos y su líder Idolisce, "el ídolo más monstruoso", que era el equivalente del zar. Las descripciones de los blancos en noviny reflejaban las de los tártaros en byliny. [ 46 ] En estos nuevos relatos, los blancos eran capitalistas incompetentes y estancados, mientras que los ciudadanos soviéticos se convertían en héroes invencibles. [ 47 ]

Tras la muerte de Stalin en marzo de 1953, los folcloristas de la época abandonaron rápidamente los nuevos cuentos populares. Escritos por autores e intérpretes individuales, los noviny no provenían de las tradiciones orales de la clase trabajadora. Por consiguiente, hoy se consideran pseudofolclore, en lugar de auténtico folclore soviético (o ruso). [ 48 ] Sin una verdadera conexión con las masas, no había razón para considerar los noviny como algo distinto a la literatura contemporánea. Los especialistas decidieron que los intentos de representar la vida contemporánea a través de la estructura y el arte de las antiguas epopeyas no podían considerarse auténtico folclore. [ 49 ] El nombre de Stalin se ha omitido en los pocos pseudocuentos populares que sobreviven de la época. [ 48 ] En lugar de considerar el folclore bajo Stalin como un renacimiento de la épica rusa tradicional, hoy se considera generalmente un período de contención y falsedad.

Literatura

La literatura rusa es considerada una de las más influyentes y desarrolladas del mundo. [ 50 ] Se remonta a la Edad Media , cuando se compusieron epopeyas y crónicas en antiguo eslavo oriental . [ 51 ] Para la Ilustración , la literatura había adquirido mayor importancia, con obras de Mikhail Lomonosov , Denis Fonvizin , Gavrila Derzhavin y Nikolay Karamzin . [ 1 ] Desde principios de la década de 1830, durante la Edad de Oro de la poesía rusa , la literatura experimentó una asombrosa edad de oro en poesía, prosa y teatro. [ 52 ] El Romanticismo permitió un florecimiento del talento poético: Vasily Zhukovsky y más tarde su protegido Alexander Pushkin alcanzaron la prominencia. [ 53 ] Siguiendo los pasos de Pushkin, nació una nueva generación de poetas, entre ellos Mikhail Lermontov , Nikolay Nekrasov , Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy , Fyodor Tyutchev y Afanasy Fet . [ 1 ]

El primer gran novelista ruso fue Nikolai Gogol . [ 54 ] Luego vino Ivan Turgenev , quien dominó tanto los cuentos como las novelas. [ 55 ] Fyodor Dostoevsky y Leo Tolstoy pronto se hicieron internacionalmente famosos. Ivan Goncharov es recordado principalmente por su novela Oblomov . [ 56 ] Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin escribió sátira en prosa, [ 57 ] mientras que Nikolai Leskov es mejor recordado por su ficción breve. [ 58 ] En la segunda mitad del siglo, Anton Chekhov sobresalió en los cuentos y se convirtió en un dramaturgo destacado. [ 59 ] Otros desarrollos importantes del siglo XIX incluyeron al fabulista Ivan Krylov , [ 60 ] escritores de no ficción como el crítico Vissarion Belinsky , [ 61 ] y dramaturgos como Aleksandr Griboyedov y Aleksandr Ostrovsky . [ 62 ] [ 63 ] El comienzo del siglo XX se considera la Edad de Plata de la poesía rusa . Esta época contó con poetas como Alexander Blok , Anna Akhmatova , Boris Pasternak , Konstantin Balmont , [ 64 ] Marina Tsvetaeva , Vladimir Mayakovsky y Osip Mandelshtam . También produjo algunos novelistas y cuentistas de primer nivel, como Aleksandr Kuprin , el premio Nobel Ivan Bunin , Leonid Andreyev , Yevgeny Zamyatin , Dmitry Merezhkovsky y Andrei Bely . [ 1 ]

Tras la Revolución rusa de 1917, la literatura rusa se dividió en dos partes: la soviética y la de los emigrados blancos . En la década de 1930, el realismo socialista se convirtió en la corriente predominante en Rusia. Su figura principal fue Maxim Gorki , quien sentó las bases de este estilo. [ 65 ] Mijaíl Bulgákov fue uno de los escritores más importantes de la era soviética. [ 66 ] La novela de Nikolái Ostrovsky , *Cómo se templó el acero*, se encuentra entre las obras más exitosas de la literatura rusa. Entre los escritores emigrados influyentes se encuentran Vladímir Nabokov , [ 67 ] e Isaac Asimov , considerado uno de los "Tres Grandes" de la ciencia ficción . [ 68 ] Algunos escritores se atrevieron a oponerse a la ideología soviética, como el novelista ganador del Premio Nobel Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn , quien escribió sobre la vida en los campos del Gulag. [ 69 ]

A principios del siglo XXI, las figuras más comentadas, los posmodernistas Victor Pelevin y Vladimir Sorokin, seguían siendo los principales escritores rusos. [ 70 ]

Humor

Gran parte del ingenio ruso se debe a la gran flexibilidad y riqueza del idioma, que permite juegos de palabras y asociaciones inesperadas. Como en cualquier otra nación, su amplio abanico de humor abarca desde chistes subidos de tono y juegos de palabras ingeniosos hasta la sátira política .

Los chistes rusos , la forma más popular del humor ruso , son relatos cortos o diálogos con un remate final . La cultura del chiste ruso se caracteriza por una serie de categorías con escenarios y personajes fijos y muy familiares. Se logran efectos sorprendentes gracias a una infinita variedad de tramas. A los rusos les encantan los chistes sobre temas de todo el mundo, ya sea política, relaciones de pareja o suegras .

Chastushka, a type of traditional musical Russian poetry, is a single quatrain in trochaictetrameter with an ABAB or ABCB rhyme scheme. Usually humorous, satirical, or ironic in nature, chastushkas are often put to music as well, usually with balalaika or accordion accompaniment. The rigid, short structure (and to a lesser degree, the type of humor these use) parallels limericks. The name originates from the Russian word части́ть, meaning "to speak fast".

Visual arts

As early as the 12th and 13th centuries Russia had its national masters who were free of all foreign influence, i. e. that of the Greeks on the one hand, and on the other hand that of the Lombard master-masons called in Andrei Georgievich to build the Uspensky (Assumption) Cathedral in the city of Vladimir. Russia's relations with the Greek world were hampered by the Mongol invasion, and it is to the isolation arising from this that we must attribute the originality of Slavo-Russian ornamentation, which has a character of its own, quite unlike the Byzantine style and the Romanesque.

Architecture

La historia de la arquitectura rusa comienza con las primeras construcciones de madera de los antiguos eslavos y la arquitectura eclesiástica de la Rus de Kiev . [ 71 ] Tras la cristianización de la Rus de Kiev , durante varios siglos estuvo influenciada predominantemente por el Imperio bizantino . [ 72 ] Aristóteles Fioravanti y otros arquitectos italianos introdujeron las tendencias renacentistas en Rusia. [ 73 ] El siglo XVI vio el desarrollo de las singulares iglesias con forma de tienda de campaña y el diseño de cúpula bulbosa , que es un rasgo distintivo de la arquitectura rusa. [ 74 ] En el siglo XVII, el "estilo ardiente" de ornamentación floreció en Moscú y Yaroslavl , allanando gradualmente el camino para el barroco Naryshkin de la década de 1690.

Después de las reformas de Pedro el Grande, la arquitectura rusa se vio influenciada por los estilos de Europa Occidental. El gusto del siglo XVIII por la arquitectura rococó dio lugar a las espléndidas obras de Bartolomeo Rastrelli y sus seguidores. Los arquitectos rusos más influyentes del siglo XVIII, Vasili Bazhenov , Matvey Kazakov e Iván Starov , crearon monumentos perdurables en Moscú y San Petersburgo y establecieron una base para las formas más rusas que les siguieron. [ 1 ] Durante el reinado de Catalina la Grande, San Petersburgo se transformó en un museo al aire libre de arquitectura neoclásica . [ 75 ] Durante el reinado de Alejandro I , el estilo Imperio se convirtió en el estilo arquitectónico de facto , [ 76 ] y Nicolás I abrió la puerta del eclecticismo a Rusia. La segunda mitad del siglo XIX estuvo dominada por el estilo neobizantino y el renacimiento ruso . A principios del siglo XX, el renacimiento neoclásico ruso se convirtió en una tendencia. [ 77 ] Los estilos predominantes de finales del siglo XX fueron el Art Nouveau , el Constructivismo , [ 78 ] y el Clasicismo Socialista . [ 79 ]

Algunos edificios rusos notables son:

Artesanía

La matrioshka es una muñeca rusa de anidación. Un juego de matrioshkas consta de una figura de madera que se puede separar para revelar otra figura del mismo tipo, pero algo más pequeña, en su interior. Esta, a su vez, contiene otra figura aún más pequeña, y así sucesivamente. Generalmente, el número de figuras anidadas es de seis o más. Su forma suele ser cilíndrica, redondeada en la parte superior para la cabeza y ahusada hacia la base, pero sin muchas otras características. Las muñecas no tienen extremidades (excepto las pintadas). El verdadero arte reside en la pintura de cada muñeca, que puede ser extremadamente elaborada. El tema suele ser el de campesinas con vestimenta tradicional, pero puede ser casi cualquier cosa; por ejemplo, cuentos de hadas o líderes soviéticos.

Otras formas de artesanía rusa incluyen khokhloma , juguete Dymkovo , gzhel , pintura Zhostovo , juguetes Filimonov , pisanka , chal de Pavlovo Posad , Rushnyk y palekh .

Pinturas históricas que representan a rusos comunes y corrientes y su vestimenta.

Pintura de iconos

Tríptico con Cristo, la Virgen y San Juan Evangelista; siglo XIX; pigmento sobre madera, con inserto esmaltado cloisonné ; dimensiones totales: 7,9 x 21,9 x 2 cm; Museo de Arte de Cleveland (EE. UU.).

Los iconos rusos suelen ser pinturas sobre madera, a menudo pequeñas, aunque algunas en iglesias y monasterios pueden ser tan grandes como una mesa. Muchos hogares religiosos en Rusia tienen iconos colgados en la pared en el krasny ugol , el rincón "rojo" o "hermoso" (véase Rincón de los Iconos ). Existe una rica historia y un elaborado simbolismo religioso asociado con los iconos. En las iglesias rusas, la nave suele estar separada del santuario por un iconostasio (en ruso, ikonostás ), una pared de iconos. Las pinturas de iconos en Rusia buscaban ayudar a las personas en sus oraciones sin idolatrar la figura representada. La colección más completa de arte iconográfico se encuentra en la Galería Tretiakov . [ 83 ]

El uso y la creación de iconos se introdujeron en la Rus de Kiev tras su conversión al cristianismo ortodoxo desde el Imperio Romano de Oriente ( Bizantino ) en el año 988 d. C. Por lo general, estos iconos seguían estrictamente modelos y fórmulas consagradas por la tradición, algunas de las cuales tenían su origen en Constantinopla. Con el tiempo, los rusos —en particular Andrei Rublev y Dionisio— ampliaron el repertorio de tipos y estilos icónicos mucho más allá de lo que se encontraba en otros lugares. Las tradiciones personales, improvisadas y creativas del arte religioso de Europa occidental estaban prácticamente ausentes en Rusia antes del siglo XVII, cuando la pintura de Simon Ushakov recibió una fuerte influencia de las pinturas y grabados religiosos tanto de la Europa protestante como de la católica.

A mediados del siglo XVII, los cambios en la liturgia y la práctica instituidos por el Patriarca Nikon provocaron una escisión en la Iglesia Ortodoxa Rusa. Los tradicionalistas, los perseguidos «Viejos Ritualistas» o « Viejos Creyentes », continuaron con la estilización tradicional de los iconos, mientras que la Iglesia Estatal modificó su práctica. A partir de entonces, los iconos comenzaron a pintarse no solo en el estilo tradicional estilizado y no realista, sino también en una mezcla de estilización rusa y realismo occidental, con un estilo muy similar al del arte religioso católico de la época. El movimiento Stroganov y los iconos de Nevyansk se encuentran entre las últimas escuelas importantes de la pintura de iconos rusa.

Lubok

Un lubok (plural Lubki , cirílico : ruso : лубо́к, лубо́чная картинка ) es una estampa popular rusa , caracterizada por gráficos sencillos y narraciones derivadas de la literatura, historias religiosas y cuentos populares. Las estampas lubki se usaban como decoración en casas y posadas. Los primeros ejemplos de finales del siglo XVII y principios del XVIII eran xilografías , luego grabados o aguafuertes fueron típicos, y desde mediados del siglo XIX, litografías . A veces aparecían en series, que podrían considerarse precursoras de la tira cómica moderna . Los libros baratos y sencillos, similares a los folletos , [ 84 ] que consistían principalmente en imágenes, se denominan literatura lubok o ( cirílico : ruso : лубочная литература ). Tanto las imágenes como la literatura se conocen comúnmente como lubki . La palabra rusa lubok deriva de lub , un tipo especial de cartón sobre el que se imprimían las imágenes.

Pintura barroca, clásica y romántica

La Academia Rusa de las Artes se creó en 1757 con el objetivo de otorgar a los artistas rusos un papel y un estatus internacional. Entre los retratistas más destacados de la academia se encuentran Ivan Argunov , Fyodor Rokotov , Dmitry Levitzky y Vladimir Borovikovsky .

A principios del siglo XIX, cuando florecieron el neoclasicismo y el romanticismo , famosos artistas académicos se centraron en temas mitológicos y bíblicos, como Karl Briullov , Orest Kiprensky , Ivan Aivazovsky y Alexander Ivanov .

Pintura realista y modernista

El realismo se consolidó en el siglo XIX. Los realistas plasmaron la identidad rusa en paisajes de amplios ríos, bosques y claros de abedules , así como en vigorosas escenas de género y robustos retratos de sus contemporáneos. Otros artistas se centraron en la crítica social , mostrando las condiciones de los pobres y caricaturizando la autoridad; el realismo crítico floreció durante el reinado de Alejandro II , y algunos artistas hicieron del ciclo del sufrimiento humano su tema principal. Otros se centraron en representar momentos dramáticos de la historia rusa. El grupo de artistas Peredvizhniki ( vagabundos ) rompió con la Academia Rusa e inició una escuela de arte liberada de las restricciones académicas. Entre los principales realistas se encuentran Ivan Shishkin , Arkhip Kuindzhi , Ivan Kramskoi , Vasily Polenov , Isaac Levitan , Vasily Surikov , Viktor Vasnetsov e Ilya Repin . [ 85 ] [ 86 ]

A principios del siglo XX, muchos artistas rusos desarrollaron estilos propios y singulares, que no se enmarcaban ni en el realismo ni en la vanguardia. Entre ellos se encuentran Boris Kustodiev , Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin , Mikhail Vrubel y Nicholas Roerich . Muchas obras del grupo Peredvizhniki han sido muy codiciadas por los coleccionistas en los últimos años. Las subastas de arte ruso durante la Semana del Arte Ruso en Londres han experimentado un aumento en la demanda y se han vendido obras a precios récord.

Vanguardia rusa

La vanguardia rusa es un término general que define la gran e influyente ola de arte modernista que floreció en Rusia aproximadamente entre 1890 y 1930. El término abarca muchos movimientos artísticos distintos, pero intrínsecamente relacionados, que surgieron en ese período; a saber, el neoprimitivismo , el suprematismo , el constructivismo , el rayonismo y el futurismo . Entre los artistas notables de esta época se encuentran El Lissitzky , Kazimir Malevich , Wassily Kandinsky , Vladimir Tatlin , Alexander Rodchenko , Pavel Filonov y Marc Chagall . La vanguardia rusa alcanzó su apogeo creativo y popular en el período comprendido entre la Revolución Rusa de 1917 y 1932, momento en el que las ideas revolucionarias de la vanguardia chocaron con la recién surgida dirección conservadora del realismo socialista .

En el siglo XX, muchos artistas rusos desarrollaron sus carreras en Europa Occidental, obligados a emigrar por la Revolución. Wassily Kandinsky , Marc Chagall , Naum Gabo y otros difundieron su obra, sus ideas y el impacto del arte ruso a nivel mundial.

arte soviético

Durante la Revolución Rusa se inició un movimiento para poner todas las artes al servicio de la dictadura del proletariado. El instrumento para ello se creó pocos días antes de la Revolución de Octubre, conocido como Proletkult, abreviatura de "Proletarskie kulturno-prosvetitelnye organizatsii" (Organizaciones Culturales y de Ilustración Proletarias). Un destacado teórico de este movimiento fue Alexander Bogdanov . Inicialmente, el Narkompros (Ministerio de Educación), que también estaba a cargo de las artes, apoyó a Proletkult. Aunque de carácter marxista, Proletkult se granjeó el descontento de muchos líderes del partido y, para 1922, había decaído considerablemente. Finalmente, Stalin lo disolvió en 1932. Las restricciones de facto sobre lo que los artistas podían pintar se abandonaron a finales de la década de 1980.

Sin embargo, a finales de la era soviética, muchos artistas combinaron la innovación con el realismo socialista, entre ellos Ernst Neizvestny , Ilya Kabakov , Mikhail Shemyakin , Igor Novikov , Erik Bulatov y Vera Mukhina . Emplearon técnicas tan variadas como el primitivismo , el hiperrealismo , lo grotesco y la abstracción . Los artistas soviéticos produjeron obras de un fervor patriótico y antifascista en la década de 1940. Tras la Gran Guerra Patria , los escultores soviéticos erigieron numerosos monumentos a los caídos en la guerra, caracterizados por una solemnidad contenida.

Artes escénicas

música folclórica rusa

Una balalaika

Los rusos poseen tradiciones distintivas de música folclórica . Los instrumentos musicales típicos rusos son el gusli , la balalaika , la zhaleika , el contrabajo balalaika, el acordeón bayan , la guitarra gitana y la garmoshka . La música folclórica influyó notablemente en los compositores clásicos rusos y, en la actualidad, es fuente de inspiración para numerosos grupos folclóricos populares , entre los que destacan Golden Ring , el Coro Nacional de los Urales y Lyudmila Zykina . Las canciones folclóricas rusas , así como las canciones patrióticas de la era soviética , constituyen la mayor parte del repertorio del mundialmente famoso coro del Ejército Rojo y otros conjuntos populares rusos.

danza folclórica rusa

La danza folclórica rusa ( en ruso : Русский Народный Танец) generalmente se puede dividir en dos tipos principales de danzas. Khorovod ( en ruso : Хоровод), una danza circular tipo juego donde los participantes se toman de las manos, cantan y la acción generalmente ocurre en el centro del círculo, y Plyaska ( en ruso : Пляска o Плясовый), una danza circular para hombres y mujeres que aumenta en diversidad y ritmo, según Bob Renfield, considerado el erudito preeminente en el tema. Otras formas de danza folclórica rusa incluyen el Pereplyas ( en ruso : Перепляс), una danza competitiva exclusivamente masculina; la Danza Masiva ( en ruso : Массовый пляс), una danza escénica sin parejas y sin restricciones de edad ni número de participantes; la Danza Grupal ( en ruso : Групповая пляска), un tipo de danza masiva que emplea pasajes sencillos de danza circular e improvisación; y diferentes tipos de Cuadrillas ( en ruso : Кадриль), originalmente una danza francesa traída a Rusia en el siglo XVIII. [ 87 ]

Bailarina rusa bailando vprisiadku

Las danzas étnicas rusas incluyen khorovod (ruso: Хоровод), barynya (ruso: Барыня), kamarinskaya (ruso: Камаринская), kazachok (ruso: Казачок) y chechotka (ruso: Чечётка) (un baile de claqué con zapatos de líber y con un bayán). [ 88 ] Troika (ruso: Тройка) Un baile con un hombre y dos mujeres, llamado así por el carruaje tradicional ruso conducido por tres caballos. La danza del oso o danza con osos (en ruso: Танец С Медведем) data del año 907, cuando el gran príncipe ruso Oleg, para celebrar su victoria sobre los griegos en Kiev, ofreció como entretenimiento a 16 bailarines vestidos de osos y cuatro osos vestidos de bailarines. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] Las danzas con bailarines vestidos de osos son un tema recurrente, como se puede apreciar en una grabación del Coro Folclórico Ruso de Omsk. [ 91 ] Una de las principales características de las danzas furiosas rusas son los elementos vprisiadku . [ 92 ] [ 93 ]

Música clásica

Hasta el siglo XVIII, la música en Rusia consistía principalmente en música sacra y canciones y danzas folclóricas. [ 1 ] En el siglo XIX, estuvo definida por la tensión entre el compositor clásico Mikhail Glinka y otros miembros de El Mano Poderosa , por un lado, y la Sociedad Musical Rusa liderada por los compositores Anton y Nikolay Rubinstein , por el otro. [ 1 ] La tradición posterior de Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky , uno de los más grandes compositores de la era romántica , fue continuada en el siglo XX por Sergei Rachmaninoff , uno de los últimos grandes defensores del estilo romántico de la música clásica europea. [ 94 ] Entre los compositores de renombre mundial del siglo XX se encuentran Alexander Scriabin , Alexander Glazunov , Igor Stravinsky , Sergei Prokofiev , Dmitri Shostakovich , Georgy Sviridov y Alfred Schnittke . [ 1 ]

Los conservatorios soviéticos y rusos han formado generaciones de solistas de renombre mundial. Entre los más conocidos se encuentran los violinistas David Oistrakh y Gidon Kremer , [ 95 ] [ 96 ] el violonchelista Mstislav Rostropovich , [ 97 ] los pianistas Vladimir Horowitz , [ 98 ] Sviatoslav Richter , [ 99 ] y Emil Gilels , [ 100 ] y la vocalista Galina Vishnevskaya . [ 101 ]

Ballet

Anna Pavlova

The original purpose of the ballet in Russia was to entertain the imperial court. The first ballet company was the Imperial School of Ballet in St. Petersburg in the 1740s. The Ballets Russes was a ballet company founded in the 1909 by Sergey Diaghilev, an enormously important figure in the Russian ballet scene. Diaghilev and his Ballets Russes' travels abroad profoundly influenced the development of dance worldwide.[102] The headquarters of his ballet company was located in Paris, France. A protégé of Diaghilev, George Balanchine, founded the New York City Ballet Company in 1948.

During the early 20th century, Russian ballet dancers Anna Pavlova and Vaslav Nijinsky rose to fame. Soviet ballet preserved the perfected 19th century traditions,[103] and the Soviet Union's choreography schools produced one internationally famous star after another, including Maya Plisetskaya, Rudolf Nureyev, and Mikhail Baryshnikov. The Bolshoi Ballet in Moscow and the Mariinsky in Saint Petersburg remain famous throughout the world. Ballet from then on spread worldwide.[104]

Opera

The first known opera made in Russia was A Life for the Tsar by Mikhail Glinka in 1836. This was followed by several operas such as Ruslan and Lyudmila in 1842. Russian opera was originally a combination of Russian folk music and Italian opera. After the October Revolution many opera composers left Russia. Russia's most popular operas include Boris Godunov, Eugene Onegin, The Golden Cockerel, Prince Igor, and The Queen of Spades.

Electronic and experimental music

Alexandra Stepanoff playing Theremin in 1930

Russia is the place where many of the earliest experiments in electronic music and noise music took place. Arseny Avraamov's magnum opus, "Symphony of the factory sirens" (composed in 1918, performed live in 1922) stood as one of the earliest experiments in noise music and a precursor to musique concrete, Avraamov was also a notable inventor in the field of earliest electronic instruments. Theremin, one of the first mass-produced electronic musical instruments, was invented by Leon Theremin in the Soviet Union before 1928. ANS was another early electronic instrument, invented in 1937 by Soviet engineer Evgeny Murzin. Other electronic instruments, invented around the same time in the Soviet Union and also by Russian emigrees, included "la croix sonore" ("a sounding cross") by Nikolai Obukhov (1929), violena (Russian: виолена) by Soviet engineer Alexander Gurov and ilston (Russian: ильстон) by Ilya Ilsarov, sonar (Russian: сонар) by Nikita Ananiev, ekvodin (Russian: экводин) by Andrei Volodin, kompanola (Russian: компанола) by Igor Simonov, and many others.

During the 1940s, new electronic instruments were invented in the Soviet Union, including "V-9" (Russian: В-9) by Andrei Volodin, emiriton (Russian: эмиритон) by Andrey Rimsky-Korsakov and A.Ivanov. Emiriton was praised by Shostakovich, and an ensemble of four emiritons toured Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1940.

In 1956, Ensemble of Electromusical Instruments (Russian: Ансамбль Электромузыкальных Инструментов), or EMI (Russian: ЭМИ) was founded by Vyacheslav Mescherin. Among many synthesizers used by EMI were theremins, electronic harps, electronic organs, ekvodin and a Soviet-made reverb unit. EMI played music reminiscent of the Westernspace-age pop.

In 1965, production of the first consumer-grade synthesizer in the Soviet Union, called "Yunost-70" (Youth-70) (Russian: Юность-70), was launched.

In 1966, Moscow Experimental Electronic Music Studio (MESEM) (Russian: МЭСЭМ) was created by Evgeny Murzin, and it was officially opened in 1967. Several notable electronic and experimental composers emerged from the studio, including Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina, Stanislav Kreichi, Alexander Nemtin, Sándor Kallós, Vladimir Martynov, Alfred Schnittke and one of the pioneers of new age music, Eduard Artemiev. Artemiev was among the composers, whose work laid down the foundation of trance music almost two decades later.

During the late 1960s, electronic light music ensembles emerged in the Soviet Union, among them were Ensemble Rokoko, Ensemble Elektron and various jazz ensembles. Their music was frequently transmitted by radio abroad, an effort to increase foreign tourism to the USSR.

By the early 1970s, electronic and electroacoustic instruments became a staple in Soviet estrada and VIA music. Electronic music found acceptance in the Soviet cinema, for instance it was used by Andrei Tarkovsky in "Solaris", "Mirror", "Stalker", was used in Andrei Konchalovsky's "Siberiade", but also was used in more accessible movies, such as "Diamond hand".

Among official soundtracks for the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow opening and closing ceremonies was electronic "Oh Thou Sport, you are eternal progress" (Russian: О, спорт - ты вечный прогресс) from the electronic cantata "Ode to the good messenger" (Russian: Ода доброму вестнику) composed by Eduard Artemiev. The sound director for the opening ceremony, Yury Bogdanov, was another notable alumni of MESEM and author of more than 200 electronic soundtracks for Soviet movies, and numerous electronic and experimental albums.

After the fall of Soviet Union, several electronic music subgenres have emerged from Russia, namely hardbass, drift phonk, dark psytrance, hookah rap, operplugg, sovietwave.

Modern music

Little Big is a famous rave band in Russia.

During the Soviet times, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two balladeersVladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava,[105] and performers such as Alla Pugacheva.[106]Jazz, even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.[105] The Ganelin Trio have been described by critics as the greatest ensemble of free-jazz in continental Europe.[107] By the 1980s, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as Aria, Aquarium,[108]DDT,[109] and Kino.[110]Pop music in Russia has continued to flourish since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u.[111] In the recent times, Little Big, a rave band, has gained popularity in Russia and across Europe.[112] Other modern music can be found in the media, such as YouTube. For example, the song "Moscow, Moscow," is extremely popular among memes and other means of entertainment.

Cinema

Poster of Battleship Potemkin (1925) by Sergei Eisenstein, which was named the greatest film of all time at the Brussels World's Fair in 1958.[113]

Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as The Battleship Potemkin.[114] Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors.[115][116] Eisenstein was a student of Lev Kuleshov, who developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography.[117]Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye" theory had a huge impact on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.[118] Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, and Ballad of a Soldier.

The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema. The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.[119][120] In 1961–68 Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic War and Peace, which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.[121] In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular film in a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space.[122] In 2002, Russian Ark was the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take.[123] Today, the Russian cinema industry continues to expand.[124]

Animation

Russia also has a long and rich tradition of animation, which started already in the late Russian Empire times. Most of Russia's cartoon production for cinema and television was created during Soviet times, when Soyuzmultfilm studio was the largest animation producer. Soviet animators developed a great and unmatched variety of pioneering techniques and aesthetic styles, with prominent directors including Ivan Ivanov-Vano, Fyodor Khitruk and Aleksandr Tatarskiy. Soviet cartoons are still a source for many popular catch phrases, while such cartoon heroes as Russian-style Winnie-the-Pooh, cute little Cheburashka, Wolf and Hare from Nu, Pogodi! being iconic images in Russia and many surrounding countries. The traditions of Soviet animation were developed in the past decade by such directors as Aleksandr Petrov and studios like Melnitsa, along with Ivan Maximov.

Philosophy

Some Russian writers, like Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky, are known also as philosophers, while many more authors are known primarily for their philosophical works. Russian philosophy blossomed since the 19th century, when it was defined initially by the opposition of Westernizers, advocating Russia's following the Western political and economical models, and Slavophiles, insisting on developing Russia as a unique civilization.[125] The latter group includes Nikolai Danilevsky and Konstantin Leontiev, the early founders of eurasianism.[126]

In its further developments, Russian philosophy was always marked by a deep connection to literature and interest in creativity, society, politics and nationalism; cosmos and religion were other primary subjects. Notable philosophers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, predominantly religious, include Vladimir Solovyov, Sergei Bulgakov, Pavel Florensky, Nikolai Berdyaev, Semyon Frank, Nikolay Lossky, Vasily Rozanov, and Vladimir Vernadsky.[6][127] In the 20th century Russian philosophy became dominated by Marxism.[128]

Science and technology

Radio and TV

Logo of the state-owned TV channel Russia-1

Russia has almost 37 thousand media outlets, over 35 thousand newspapers,[129] and 12 thousand magazines.[130] The largest internationally operating news agencies in Russia are TASS, RIA Novosti, and Interfax.[131]Television is the most popular media in Russia, as 99% of the Russian population receives at least one television channel,[129] and roughly 60% of Russians watch television on a daily basis.[132] The most watched TV channels in Russia include the state-owned Russia-1, Channel One Russia, NTV, REN TV, and Russia Today.[130] Popular nationwide radio stations in Russia include Radio Rossii, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, Radio Yunost, and Russkoye Radio.[130]

Internet

Runet Prize ceremony

Originating from Russian scientific community and telecommunication industries, a specific Russian culture of using the Internet has been established since the early 1990s. In the second half of the 1990s, the term Runet was coined to call the segment of Internet written or understood in the Russian language. Whereas the Internet "has no boundaries", "Russian Internet" (online communications in the Russian language) can not be localized solely to the users residing in the Russian Federation as it includes Russian-speaking people from all around the world. This segment includes millions of users in other ex-USSR countries, Israel and others abroad diasporas.[133]

With the introduction of the Web, many social and cultural events found reflections within the Russian Internet society. Various online communities formed, and the most popular one grew out of the Russian-speaking users of the California-based blogging platform LiveJournal (which was completely bought out in December 2007 by Russian firm SUP Fabrik).[134] In January 2008 a LiveJournal blog of the "3rd statesman" Sergey Mironov had appeared and he was shortly followed by the new President Dmitry Medvedev who opened a personal video blog which was later also expanded with a LiveJournal version.

As of late, there are scores of websites offering Russian language content including mass media, e-commerce, search engines and so on. Particularly notorious are the "Russian Hackers".[135] Russian web design studios, software and web-hosting enterprises offer a variety of services, and the results form a sort of national digital culture. E-commerce giants such as Google and Microsoft have their Russian branches. In September 2007, the national domain .ru passed the milestone of a million domain names.[136] By the end of the 2000s, VKontakte social network became the most populated in the Runet.

Science and innovation

Russia's research and development budget is the world's ninth-highest, with an expenditure of approximately 422 billion rubles on domestic research and development.[137] In 2019, Russia was ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications.[138] Russia ranked 45th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021.[139] Since 1904, Nobel Prize were awarded to twenty-six Soviets and Russians in physics, chemistry, medicine, economy, literature and peace.[140]

Mikhail Lomonosov proposed the conservation of mass in chemical reactions, discovered the atmosphere of Venus, and founded modern geology.[141] Since the times of Nikolay Lobachevsky, who pioneered the non-Euclidean geometry, and a prominent tutor Pafnuty Chebyshev, Russian mathematicians became among the world's most influential.[142]Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, the main framework of modern chemistry.[143]Sofya Kovalevskaya was a pioneer among women in mathematics in the 19th century.[144] Nine Soviet/Russian mathematicians have been awarded with the Fields Medal. Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006, both of which he infamously declined.[145][146]

Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio,[147] while Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of laser and maser.[148]Zhores Alferov contributed significantly to the creation of modern heterostructure physics and electronics.[149]Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field of semiconductor junctions, and discovered light-emitting diodes.[150]Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology.[151]Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research in immunology.[152]Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in classical conditioning.[153]Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics.[154]

Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified the centers of origin of cultivated plants.[155] Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés. Igor Sikorsky was an aviation pioneer.[156]Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the iconoscope and kinescope television systems.[157]Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the modern synthesis.[158]George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the Big Bang theory.[159] Many foreign scientists lived and worked in Russia for a long period, such as Leonard Euler and Alfred Nobel.[160][161]

Space exploration

Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field of space technology and space exploration can be traced back to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the father of theoretical astronautics, whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program in the early stages of the Space Race and beyond.[162]:6–7,333

In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yuri Gagarin. Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued. In 1963, Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest woman in space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6.[163] In 1965, Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the space capsule during Voskhod 2.[164]

In 1957, Laika, a Soviet space dog, became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard Sputnik 2.[165] In 1966, Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a celestial body, the Moon.[166] In 1968, Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to arrive at and circumnavigate the Moon.[167] In 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet, Venus.[168] In 1971, Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land on Mars.[169]:34–60 During the same period, Lunokhod 1 became the first space exploration rover,[170] while Salyut 1 became the world's first space station.[171] Russia had 176 active satellites in space in 2021,[172] the world's third-highest.[173]

Lifestyle

Ethnic dress of Russian people

Picture of young Russian peasant women in front of traditional wooden house (ca. 1909 to 1915), taken by Prokudin-Gorskii.

Not only the minorities in Russia but the Russian culture as a whole has in the different regions of the country like in Northwest Russia, Central Russia, Southern Russia, Siberian Russia, Volga Russia, Ural Russia, Far East Russia and the Russian North Caucasus and their Oblasts own local traditions and characteristics which were developed over a long period of time through strong ethno-cultural interactions within the various groups and communities, like Slavs, Tatars and Finno-Ugrics.[174]

Traditional Russian clothes include kaftan, a cloth which Old Russia had in common with similar robes in the Ottoman Empire, Scandinavia and Persia.[175]Kosovorotka, which was over a long time of period a traditional holidays blouse worn by men.[176]Ushanka for men, which design was influenced in the 17th century when in central and northern Russia a hat with earflaps called treukh was worn. Sarafan which is connected to the Middle East region and were worn in Central- and Northern regions of Old Russia. In Southern Russia burka and papaha are connected to the Cossacks which, in turn, is culturally connected to the people of the Northern Caucaus. Kokoshnik for women was primarily worn in the northern regions of Russia in the 16th to 19th centuries. Lapti and similar shoes were mostly worn by poorer members in Old Russia and northern regions where Slavic, Baltic and Finno-Ugric people lived. Valenki are traditional Russian shoes from 18th century designs which originally originated in the Great steppe, from Asian nomads. Russian traditional cloths and its elements still have a high priority in today's Russia, especially in pagan Slavic communities, folk festivals, Cossack communities, in modern fashion and Russian music ensembles.

Cuisine

Kvass is an ancient and traditional Russian beverage.

Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks.[177]Bread, of many varieties,[178] is very popular across Russia.[179] Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads.[180][181]Pirozhki, blini, and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Beef Stroganoff, Chicken Kiev, pelmeni,[182] and shashlyk are popular meat dishes.[183] Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat.[184] Salads include Olivier salad,[185]vinegret,[186] and dressed herring.[187]

Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is kvass,[188] and the national alcoholic drink is vodka, which was created in the nation in the 14th century.[189] The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,[190] while beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.[191]Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century.[192]Tea has also been a historically popular beverage in Russia.[193]

Traditions

Holidays

The Scarlet Sails being celebrated along the Neva in Saint Petersburg

Russia has eight, diverse—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.[194] The year starts with New Year's Day on January 1, soon followed by Russian Orthodox Christmas on January 7; the two are the country's most popular holidays.[195]Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is celebrated on February 23;[196]International Women's Day, dedicated to women, on March 8;[197] and Spring and Labor Day, originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers; on May 1.[198]

Victory Day, which honors Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the End of World War II in Europe, is celebrated as an annual large parade in Moscow's Red Square;[199] and marks the famous Immortal Regiment civil event.[200] Other patriotic holidays include Russia Day on June 12, celebrated to commemorate Russia's declaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union;[201] and Unity Day on November 4, commemorating the uprising which marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian occupation of Moscow.[202]

Popular non-public holidays include Old New Year on 14 January;[203]Tatiana Day on 25 January, dedicated to students;[204]Maslenitsa, an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday;[205]Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space;[206]Kupala Night on 6–7 July, a traditional Slavic holiday;[207] and Peter and Fevronia Day. Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.[208] The Scarlet Sails is a famous public event held annually during the White Nights Festival in Saint Petersburg.[209]

Religion

Cathedral of Christ the Saviour.

Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism are Russia's traditional religions, deemed part of Russia's "historical heritage" in a law passed in 1997.[210] Estimates of believers widely fluctuate among sources, and some reports put the number of non-believers in Russia as high as 48-67% of the population.[211]Russian Orthodoxy is the dominant religion in Russia.[212] 95% of the registered Orthodox parishes belong to the Russian Orthodox Church while there are a number of smaller Orthodox Churches.[213] However, the vast majority of Orthodox believers do not attend church on a regular basis. Nonetheless, the church is widely respected by both believers and nonbelievers, who see it as a symbol of Russian heritage and culture.[214] Smaller Christian denominations such as Roman Catholics, Armenian Gregorians, and various Protestants exist.

Kulich is a popular variant of Russian Easter breads called Paska

The ancestors of many of today's Russians adopted Orthodox Christianity in the 10th century.[214] The 2007 International Religious Freedom Report published by the US Department of State said that approximately 100 million citizens consider themselves Russian Orthodox Christians.[215] According to a poll by the Russian Public Opinion Research Center, 63% of respondents considered themselves Russian Orthodox, 6% of respondents considered themselves Muslim and less than 1% considered themselves either Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant or Jewish. Another 12% said they believe in God, but did not practice any religion, and 16% said they are non-believers.[216]

Cossack culture in Russia

Volga Cossack in 1774. The picture is made before 1841. (Watch Russian Cossacks singing famous Russian folk song Oy, to ne vecher on YouTube)

The steppe culture of the Russian Cossacks originated from nomadic steppe people which merged with Eastern Slavic people groups into large communities. The early Cossack communities emerged in the 14th century, the first, among others, were the Don Cossacks. Other Cossack communities that have played an important role in Russia's history and culture are the Ural Cossacks, Terek Cossacks, Kuban Cossacks, Orenburg Cossacks, Volga Cossacks, Astrakhan Cossacks, Siberian Cossacks, Transbaikal Cossacks, Amur Cossacks, Ussuri Cossacks. Cossacks defended the Russian borders and expanded Russia's territory. The regions of the large Cossack communities enjoyed many freedoms in Tsarist Russia. The culture of the Cossacks became an important part of Russian culture, many Russian songs and various elements in dances and Russia's culture in general were much shaped by the Cossack communities.[217]

Russian forest culture

The forest plays a very important role in Russia's culture and history. The forest had a great influence on the characteristics of Russian people and their cultural creations. Many myths of Russian culture are closely intertwined with the forest. Various of the early Slavic and other tribes built their houses out of wood so that the forest influenced the style of Russian architecture significantly.[218][219] The handcraft Hohloma which originated in the Volga region is made out of wood and depicts numerous plants of the forest, like the berry Viburnum opulus (Russian: Калина, Kalina), flowers and leaves. Many Russian fairy tales play in the forest and fictional characters like Baba Yaga are strongly connected to Russian wood culture. The forest is also an important subject of many Russian folk songs.[220]

More elements of Russian society and culture

Russian walking culture

Strolling or walking (Russian: гулять, gulyat') is very common in the Russian society. In contrast to many western countries strolling is very common among young people in Russia. Young people often arrange just to go for a walk.[221][222] Besides the verb, the experience itself, which describes the time span of the walk, is called progulka (Russian: прогулка).[223] Walking is so important in Russian culture that gulyat' is also a synonym for "to party".[224][225]

Mushroom hunting and berry picking

Activities in the forest where people pick mushrooms and berries are very common in Russia. Mushrooms (Russian: грибы, griby) have been an important part of Russian folk culture at least since the 10th century and an essential part of Russian meals. There are more than 200 kinds of edible mushrooms in Russia. Mushrooms were always considered magical and so they play a prominent role in Russian fairy tales. The ability to identify and prepare edible mushrooms is often passed on from generation to generation. The mushroom hunting tradition is especially common in Slavic-speaking and Baltic countries. The berry (Russian: ягода, yagoda) also plays an important role in Russian folk culture and is often part of Russian craftsmanship, folk songs and national costumes. The cranberry was known in Europe for centuries as the "Russian berry". To pick mushrooms and berries in forests is a kind of meditation in Russia.[226][227][228][229][230]

Sports

Maria Sharapova, former world No. 1 tennis player; and the world's highest-paid female athlete for 11 consecutive years.[231]

Historically, Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in the Olympic Games,[232] ranking second in an all-time Olympic Games medal count.[233] Russia is the leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics; and Russian synchronized swimming is considered to be the world's best.[234]Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially pair skating and ice dancing.[235] Russia has produced a number of famous tennis players.[236]Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.[237] The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow,[238] and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.[239][240]

Basketball

As the Soviet Union, Russia was traditionally very strong in basketball, winning Olympic tournaments, World Championships and Eurobasket. As of 2009 they have various players in the NBA, notably Utah Jazz forward Andrei Kirilenko, and are considered as a worldwide basketball force. In 2007, Russia defeated world champions Spain to win Eurobasket 2007. Russian basketball clubs such as PBC CSKA Moscow (numerous Euroleague Champions) have also had great success in European competitions such as the Euroleague and the ULEB Cup.

Ice hockey

Although ice hockey was only introduced during the Soviet era, the national team soon dominated the sport internationally, winning gold at seven of the nine Olympics and 19 of the 30 World Championships they contested between 1954 and 1991. Russian players Valeri Kharlamov, Sergei Makarov, Viacheslav Fetisov and Vladislav Tretiak hold four of the six positions on the IIHF Team of the Century.[241] As with some other sports, the Russian ice hockey programme suffered after the breakup of the Soviet Union, with Russia enduring a 15-year gold medal drought. At that time many prominent Russian players made their careers in the National Hockey League (NHL). In recent years Russia has reemerged as a hockey power, winning back to back gold medals in the 2008 and 2009 World Championships, and overtaking Team Canada as the top ranked ice hockey team in the world, but then lost to Canada in the quarter-finals of the 2010 Olympics and 2010 World Junior Championship.[242] The Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) was founded in 2008 as a rival of the NHL.

Bandy

Bandy, known in Russian as "hockey with a ball" and sometimes informally as "Russian hockey" (as opposed to "Canadian hockey", an informal name for ice hockey), is another traditionally popular ice sport, with national league games averaging around 3,500 spectators.[243] It's considered a national sport.[244] The Soviet Union national bandy team won all the Bandy World Championships from 1957 to 1979. The Russian team is the reigning world champion since the 2014 tournament, having defended the title in 2015.

Football

Russian football fans with a gigantic Go Russia! banner, featuring Russian Bear on the background of the Russian flag.

Football is the most popular sport in Russia.[245] The Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winning Euro 1960,[246] and reached the finals of Euro 1988.[247] In 1956 and 1988, the Soviet Union won gold at the Olympic football tournament. Russian clubs CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg won the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008.[248][249] The Russian national football team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2008.[250] Russia was the host nation for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup,[251] and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[252]

Martial arts

Russia has an extensive history of martial arts. Some of its best-known forms include the fistfight, Sambo, and Systema with its derivatives Ryabko's Systema and Retuinskih's System ROSS. Undefeated lightweight UFC champion Khabib Nurmagomedov is from Makhachkala and was called by President Vladimir Putin following his victory over Conor McGregor.

National symbols

State symbols

State symbols of Russia include the Byzantinedouble-headed eagle, combined with St. George of Moscow in the Russian coat of arms; these symbols date from the time of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The Russian flag appeared in the late Tsardom of Russia period and became widely used during the era of the Russian Empire. The current Russian national anthem shares its music with the Soviet Anthem, though not the lyrics (many Russians of older generations don't know the new lyrics and sing the old ones). The Russian imperialmottoGod is with us and the Soviet motto Proletarians of all countries, unite! are now obsolete and no new motto has been officially introduced to replace them. The Hammer and sickle and the full Soviet coat of arms are still widely seen in Russian cities as a part of old architectural decorations. Soviet Red Stars are also encountered, often on military equipment and war memorials. The Soviet Red Banner is still honored, especially the Banner of Victory of 1945.

Dissected Matryoshka doll

Unofficial symbols

The Matryoshka doll is a recognizable symbol of Russia, while the towers of Moscow Kremlin and Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow are main Russia's architectural symbols. Cheburashka is a mascot of Russian national Olympic team. Mary, Saint Nicholas, Saint Andrew, Saint George, Saint Alexander Nevsky, Saint Sergius of Radonezh, Saint Seraphim of Sarov are Russia's patron saints. Chamomile is a flower that Russians often associate with their Motherland, while birch is a national tree. The Russian bear is an animal often associated with Russia, though this image has Western origins and Russians themselves do not consider it as a special symbol. The native Russian national personification is "Родина мать" Mother Motherland (the statue of it located on the Mamay hill "Мамаев курган" in Volgograd /former Stalingrad/), called Mother Russia at the West. In Russia another state symbol would be White or Silver Birch Trees or chamomile. Chamomile can be found in most places of Russia but is mostly found in the forests. Finding a chamomile can be a good sign in Russia and you could also make a headband out of it called a venok. Mostly young girls will sit outside with their friends in poorer regions and make them. You can make them out of any flower and keep them hanging in the house or wear it when outside.

Tourism

Tourism in Russia has seen rapid growth since the late Soviet times, first inner tourism and then international tourism as well. Rich cultural heritage and great natural variety place Russia among the most popular tourist destinations in the world. The country contains 29 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, while many more are on UNESCO's tentative lists.[253] Major tourist routes in Russia include a travel around the Golden Ring of ancient cities, cruises on the big rivers like Volga, and long journeys on the famous Trans-Siberian Railway. Diverse regions and ethnic cultures of Russia offer many different food and souvenirs, and show a great variety of traditions, like Russian banya, Tatar Sabantuy, or Siberian shamanist rituals.

Cultural tourism

Grand Cascade in Peterhof Palace, nicknamed Russian Versailles, a popular tourist destination in Saint Petersburg.

Most popular tourist destinations in Russia are Moscow and Saint Petersburg, the current and the former capitals of the country and great cultural centers, recognized as World Cities. Moscow and Saint Petersburg feature such world-renowned museums as Tretyakov Gallery and Hermitage, famous theaters like Bolshoi and Mariinsky, ornate churches like Saint Basil's Cathedral, Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, Saint Isaac's Cathedral and Church of the Savior on Blood, impressive fortifications like Moscow Kremlin and Peter and Paul Fortress, beautiful squares like Red Square and Palace Square, and streets like Tverskaya and Nevsky Prospect. Rich palaces and parks of extreme beauty are found in the former imperial residences in suburbs of Moscow (Kolomenskoye, Tsaritsyno) and Saint Petersburg (Peterhof, Strelna, Oranienbaum, Gatchina, Pavlovsk Palace, Tsarskoye Selo). Moscow contains a great variety of impressive Soviet-era buildings along with modern skyscrapers, while Saint Petersburg, nicknamed Venice of the North, boasts of its classical architecture, many rivers, channels and bridges.

Kazan, the capital of Tatarstan, shows a unique mix of Christian Russian and Muslim Tatar cultures. The city has registered a brand The Third Capital of Russia, though a number of other major Russian cities compete for this status, like Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg and Nizhny Novgorod, all being major cultural centers with rich history and prominent architecture. Veliky Novgorod, Pskov and the cities of Golden Ring (Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Kostroma and others) have at best preserved the architecture and the spirit of ancient and medieval Rus', and also are among the main tourist destinations. Many old fortifications (typically Kremlins), monasteries and churches are scattered throughout Russia, forming its unique cultural landscape both in big cities and in remote areas.

Resorts and nature tourism

The ski resort at Dombay, Western Caucasus.

The warm subtropical Black Sea coast of Russia is the site for a number of popular sea resorts, like Sochi, known for its beaches and wonderful nature. At the same time Sochi can boast a number of major ski resorts, like Krasnaya Polyana; the city is the host of 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics. The mountains of the Northern Caucasus contain many other popular ski resorts, like Dombay in Karachay–Cherkessia.

The most famous natural tourist destination in Russia is Lake Baikal, named the Blue Eye of Siberia. This unique lake, oldest and deepest in the world, has crystal-clean waters and is surrounded by taiga-covered mountains.

Other popular natural destinations include Kamchatka with its volcanoes and geysers, Karelia with its many lakes and granite rocks, Altai with its snowy mountains and Tyva with its wild steppes.

See also

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Further reading

  • Cornwell, Neil; Christian, Nicole, eds. (1998). Reference Guide to Russian Literature. London; Chicago, Il: Fitzroy Dearborn Pub. ISBN 1-884964-10-9.
  • Curtis, Glenn E.; Leighton, Marian (1998). «Capítulo 4. Contexto étnico, religioso y cultural» . En Curtis, Glenn E. (ed.). Rusia: Un estudio de país . Serie de manuales regionales. Biblioteca del Congreso, División de Investigación Federal (1.ª  ed.). Washington, DC: Oficina de Imprenta del Gobierno de los Estados Unidos . págs. 169-236 . ISBN  0-8444-0866-2Archivado del original el 14 de julio de 2020 .También a través de Archive.org
  • Lossky, NO (1952) [1951]. Historia de la filosofía rusa . Londres: George Allen & Unwin.
  • Senelick, Laurence (2015) [2007]. Diccionario histórico del teatro ruso (2.ª  ed.). Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-4926-4.
  • Hardiman, Louise; Kozicharow, Nicola (2017). Modernismo y espiritualidad en el arte ruso: nuevas perspectivas . Open Book Publishers . doi : 10.11647/obp.0115 . ISBN 978-1-80064-534-9.
  • Centro cinematográfico ruso