Articulo de referencia

Terrorismo islámico

El terrorismo islámico (también conocido como terrorismo islamista o terrorismo islámico radical o terrorismo yihadista ) se refiere a actos terroristas llevados a cabo por mili...

El terrorismo islámico (también conocido como terrorismo islamista o terrorismo islámico radical o terrorismo yihadista ) se refiere a actos terroristas llevados a cabo por militantes islamistas fundamentalistas y extremistas islámicos . [1] [2] [3]

Desde al menos la década de 1990, se han producido incidentes terroristas islamistas en todo el mundo y han tenido como objetivo tanto a musulmanes como a no musulmanes. [4] La mayoría de los ataques se han concentrado en países de mayoría musulmana , [5] con estudios que encuentran que el 80-90% de las víctimas terroristas son musulmanas. [6] [7] [8] El número anual de muertes por ataques terroristas aumentó drásticamente de 2011 a 2014, cuando alcanzó un pico de 33.438, antes de disminuir a 13.826 en 2019. [9] En 2015, cuatro grupos extremistas islámicos - Estado Islámico , Boko Haram , los talibanes y al-Qaeda - fueron responsables del 74% de todas las muertes por terrorismo . [10] [11] En algunas de las regiones de mayoría musulmana más afectadas, estos terroristas han sido enfrentados por grupos de resistencia independientes armados. [12] El terrorismo islamista también ha sido rotundamente condenado por destacadas figuras y grupos islámicos. [13] [14] [15]

Las justificaciones dadas para los ataques a civiles por parte de grupos extremistas islámicos provienen de sus interpretaciones del Corán , [3] el hadiz , [16] [17] y la ley sharia . [3] Estas incluyen la retribución mediante la yihad armada por las injusticias percibidas de los incrédulos contra los musulmanes; [18] la creencia de que muchos autoproclamados musulmanes han violado la ley islámica y son incrédulos ( takfir ); [19] la necesidad percibida de restaurar el Islam mediante el establecimiento de la ley sharia , incluido el restablecimiento del Califato como un estado panislámico (por ejemplo, ISIS ); [20] la gloria y las recompensas celestiales del martirio ; [17] y la creencia en la supremacía del Islam sobre todas las demás religiones . [Nota 1]

El uso de la expresión "terrorismo islámico" es objeto de controversia. En el discurso político occidental, quienes desaprueban la caracterización de "islámico" la han calificado de "contraproducente", "altamente politizada, intelectualmente discutible" y "dañina para las relaciones comunitarias". [23] [24] [25] Se ha argumentado que "terrorismo islámico" es un nombre inapropiado para lo que debería llamarse " terrorismo islamista ". [26]

Terminología

George W. Bush y Tony Blair (presidente de Estados Unidos y primer ministro del Reino Unido respectivamente en el momento de los ataques del 11 de septiembre ) afirmaron repetidamente que la guerra contra el terrorismo no tiene nada que ver con el Islam. [27] Otros dentro y fuera del mundo islámico que se oponen a su uso con el argumento de que no hay conexión entre el Islam y el terrorismo incluyen a Imran Khan , el primer ministro de Pakistán, y el académico Bruce Lawrence . [28] [29] El expresidente estadounidense Barack Obama explicó por qué utilizó el término "terrorismo" en lugar de "terrorismo islámico" en una reunión municipal de 2016 diciendo: "No hay duda, ... organizaciones terroristas como Al-Qaeda o ISIL - Han pervertido y distorsionado y han tratado de reclamar el manto del Islam como excusa para básicamente la barbarie y la muerte ... Pero en lo que he sido cuidadoso cuando describo estos temas es asegurarme de que no agrupemos a estos asesinos entre los mil millones de musulmanes que existen en todo el mundo ..." [30]

Se ha argumentado que “terrorismo islámico” es un nombre inapropiado para lo que debería llamarse “ terrorismo islamista ”. [26]

En enero de 2008, la Oficina de Derechos Civiles y Libertades Civiles del Departamento de Seguridad Nacional de Estados Unidos publicó un informe titulado "Terminología para definir a los terroristas: recomendaciones de los musulmanes estadounidenses", [31] que comenzaba con

Las palabras importan. La terminología que utilicen los altos funcionarios del gobierno debe identificar con precisión la naturaleza de los desafíos que enfrenta nuestra generación. [...] Al mismo tiempo, la terminología también debe ser estratégica: debe evitar ayudar a los terroristas inflando las bases religiosas y el atractivo glamoroso de su ideología.

La oficina "consultó a algunos de los principales académicos y comentaristas sobre el Islam con sede en Estados Unidos para discutir la mejor terminología a utilizar al describir la amenaza terrorista". Entre los expertos que consultaron,

Hubo consenso en que el Gobierno de Estados Unidos debía evitar presentar involuntariamente a los terroristas, que carecen de legitimidad moral y religiosa, como combatientes valientes, soldados legítimos o portavoces de los musulmanes comunes. Por lo tanto, los expertos aconsejaron cautela al utilizar términos como "yihadista", "terrorista islámico", "islamista" y "guerrero santo" como descripciones grandilocuentes.

Historia

Antes del siglo XX

Otros, como Ibn Warraq, afirman que desde el comienzo del Islam, "han surgido movimientos violentos" como los jariyitas , [32] Sahl ibn Salama, Barbahari , el movimiento Kadizadeli , Ibn Abd al-Wahhab , etc., "que buscan revivir el verdadero Islam, que sus miembros sentían que había sido descuidado en las sociedades musulmanas, que no estaban a la altura de los ideales de los primeros musulmanes". [33] Los jariyitas del siglo VII , según algunos, comenzaron desde una posición esencialmente política, pero desarrollaron doctrinas extremas que los diferenciaron tanto de los musulmanes sunitas como de los chiítas . El grupo se destacó particularmente por adoptar un enfoque radical del takfir , por el cual declaraban que los oponentes musulmanes eran infieles y, por lo tanto, dignos de muerte, [34] y también por su fuerte parecido con el EIIL contemporáneo. [35]

Década de 1960 y 1970

Durante la era de la lucha anticolonial en el norte de África y Oriente Medio , y coincidiendo con la creación de Israel en 1948, una serie de movimientos marxistas-leninistas y antiimperialistas se extendieron por todo el mundo árabe e islámico. Estos movimientos eran nacionalistas y revolucionarios, pero no islámicos. Sin embargo, su visión de que el terrorismo podía ser eficaz para alcanzar sus objetivos políticos generó la primera fase del terrorismo internacional moderno. A fines de la década de 1960, movimientos seculares palestinos como Al Fatah y el Frente Popular para la Liberación de Palestina (FPLP) comenzaron a atacar a civiles fuera del escenario inmediato del conflicto. Después de la victoria de Israel sobre las fuerzas árabes en 1967, los líderes palestinos comenzaron a darse cuenta de que el mundo árabe era incapaz de derrotar a Israel en el campo de batalla. Al mismo tiempo, las lecciones extraídas de la lucha judía contra los británicos en Palestina y los movimientos revolucionarios en América Latina, el norte de África y el sudeste asiático motivaron a los palestinos a alejarse de la guerra de guerrillas y pasar al terrorismo urbano. Estos movimientos eran de naturaleza secular, aunque su alcance internacional sirvió para difundir tácticas terroristas en todo el mundo. [36] Además, la Guerra Fría árabe entre monarquías islámicas conservadoras en su mayoría alineadas con los EE. UU. (Marruecos, Arabia Saudita, Jordania) y gobiernos nacional-revolucionarios seculares alineados con los soviéticos (Egipto, Siria, Argelia, Libia, Irak) inspiró un crecimiento de movimientos islámicos con motivaciones religiosas en el Medio Oriente, apoyados por Arabia Saudita , que entraron en conflicto con las ideologías nacionalistas seculares ( nasseristas y baasistas ) predominantes en ese momento. [36] [37]

El libro The Revolt de Menachem Begin , líder de la milicia Irgun y futuro primer ministro israelí, influyó tanto en la teoría de la guerrilla urbana de Carlos Marighella como en la organización islamista Al Qaeda de Osama bin Laden . [38] El periodista israelí Ronen Bergman en el libro Rise and Kill First afirmó que la campaña de 1983 de ataques terroristas coordinados de Hezbolá contra instalaciones militares estadounidenses, francesas e israelíes en Beirut se inspiró y reflejó directamente la campaña de bombardeos de 1946 de la Haganá y el Irgun contra los británicos: ambas lograron crear una atmósfera de miedo generalizado que finalmente obligó al enemigo a retirarse. [39] Bergman afirma además que la influencia de las operaciones terroristas patrocinadas por Israel sobre los islamistas emergentes también fue de naturaleza operativa: el Frente para la Liberación del Líbano de los Extranjeros, un grupo israelí, había llevado a cabo múltiples atentados con camiones letales en el Líbano mucho antes del surgimiento de Hezbolá. Un agente del Mossad israelí le dijo a Bergman: "Vi desde lejos cómo uno de los coches explotaba y destruía una calle entera. Estábamos enseñando a los libaneses lo eficaz que podía ser un coche bomba. Todo lo que vimos después con Hezbolá surgió de lo que vieron que había sucedido después de estas operaciones". [40]

El año 1979 es considerado un punto de inflexión en el ascenso del radicalismo de motivación religiosa en el mundo musulmán. Se cree que varios acontecimientos (la guerra soviética-afgana y el apoyo sin precedentes de Arabia Saudita, Pakistán y los Estados Unidos a los yihadistas antisoviéticos ; la revolución iraní y la posterior guerra entre Irán e Irak , así como el apoyo activo de Jomeini a los grupos chiítas que resistían la ocupación israelí del Líbano ; la toma de la Gran Mezquita de La Meca y la posterior wahabización del gobierno saudí; y el tratado de paz entre Egipto e Israel , que fue muy impopular en algunos sectores del mundo musulmán) fueron cruciales para la proliferación del terrorismo islamista en la década siguiente. [41]

Según Bruce Hoffman de la Corporación RAND , en 1980, 2 de 64 grupos terroristas fueron categorizados como de motivación religiosa, mientras que en 1995, casi la mitad (26 de 56) tenían motivaciones religiosas y la mayoría tenía al Islam como su fuerza guía. [42] [36]

Década de 1980 y 1990

La guerra soviética-afgana y la posterior guerra de los muyahidines contra la Unión Soviética, que duró de 1979 a 1989, dieron inicio al surgimiento y expansión de los grupos terroristas. Desde su inicio en 1994, la milicia talibán apoyada por Pakistán en Afganistán ha adquirido varias características tradicionalmente asociadas con los estados patrocinadores del terrorismo , brindando apoyo logístico, documentación de viaje e instalaciones de entrenamiento. Desde 1989, la creciente disposición de los extremistas religiosos a atacar objetivos fuera de las áreas inmediatas del país o la región resalta la naturaleza global del terrorismo contemporáneo. El atentado de 1993 contra el World Trade Center y los ataques del 11 de septiembre de 2001 contra el World Trade Center y el Pentágono son representativos de esta tendencia. [36]

Década de 2000-2010

Según una investigación del periódico alemán Welt am Sonntag , entre el 11 de septiembre de 2001 y el 21 de abril de 2019 se produjeron 31.221 atentados terroristas islamistas, en los que murieron al menos 146.811 personas. Muchas de las víctimas eran musulmanas, incluida la mayoría de las víctimas que murieron en atentados con 12 o más muertos. [43] [44] [45]

Década de 2010

Según el Índice Global de Terrorismo, las muertes por terrorismo alcanzaron su pico en 2014 y han disminuido cada año desde entonces hasta 2019 (el último año del que se dispone de cifras en el estudio), lo que supone una reducción de más de la mitad (59% o 13.826 muertes) desde su pico. Los cinco países "más afectados" por el terrorismo siguen siendo países musulmanes: Afganistán, Irak, Nigeria, Siria y Somalia. [Nota 2]

Perfiles y motivaciones de los atacantes

La motivación de los terroristas islámicos ha sido objeto de controversia. Algunos (como Maajid Nawaz , Graeme Wood e Ibn Warraq ) la atribuyen a interpretaciones extremistas del Islam; [47] [48] [33] otros (Mehdi Hasan) a una combinación de agravio político y desajuste sociopsicológico; [49] y otros (como James L. Payne y Michael Scheuer ) a una lucha contra "la agresión, opresión y explotación de tierras y pueblos musulmanes por parte de Estados Unidos, Occidente y los judíos". [50]

Motivación religiosa

Daniel Benjamin y Steven Simon , en su libro The Age of Sacred Terror , sostienen que los ataques terroristas islámicos están motivados por el fervor religioso. Se los considera como "un sacramento... destinado a restaurar en el universo un orden moral que había sido corrompido por los enemigos del Islam". Sus ataques no son políticos ni estratégicos, sino un "acto de redención" destinado a "humillar y masacrar a quienes desafiaron la hegemonía de Dios". [51]

Según el líder islámico indonesio Yahya Cholil Staquf, en una entrevista concedida a la revista Time en 2017 , dentro de la tradición islámica clásica se supone que la relación entre musulmanes y no musulmanes es de segregación y enemistad. En su opinión, el extremismo y el terrorismo están vinculados con "los supuestos básicos de la ortodoxia islámica" y los movimientos islámicos radicales no son nada nuevo. También añadió que los políticos occidentales deberían dejar de fingir que el extremismo no está vinculado al Islam. [52] [53]

Según el periodista Graeme Wood, “mucho de lo que hace” un importante grupo terrorista islámico –el ISIS– “parece absurdo, salvo a la luz de un compromiso sincero y cuidadosamente meditado de devolver la civilización a un entorno legal del siglo VII” de Mahoma y sus compañeros, “y, en última instancia, de provocar el apocalipsis” y el Día del Juicio Final . Los miembros del grupo ISIS insisten en que “no se apartarán –no pueden apartarse– de los preceptos de gobierno que fueron incorporados al Islam por el profeta Mahoma y sus primeros seguidores”. [54]

Shmuel Bar sostiene que, si bien no hay duda de la importancia de los factores políticos y socioeconómicos en el terrorismo islamista, "para comprender la motivación de estos actos y diseñar una estrategia eficaz para una guerra contra el terrorismo, es necesario comprender los factores religiosos e ideológicos, que están profundamente arraigados en el Islam". [55]

En un estudio sobre los antecedentes de los terroristas musulmanes en Europa, uno del Reino Unido y otro de Francia, se encontró poca conexión entre los actos terroristas realizados en nombre del Islam y la devoción religiosa de los agentes. Un informe británico de 2008, "restringido", sobre cientos de estudios de casos realizados por la agencia de contrainteligencia nacional MI5, concluyó que no había un "perfil típico" de terrorista y que

[L]ejos de ser fanáticos religiosos, un gran número de los implicados en el terrorismo no practican su fe con regularidad. Muchos carecen de alfabetización religiosa y podrían ser considerados, de hecho, como novatos religiosos. Muy pocos han sido criados en hogares fuertemente religiosos, y hay una proporción de conversos superior a la media. Algunos se dedican al consumo de drogas, al consumo de alcohol y a la prostitución. El MI5 afirma que hay pruebas de que una identidad religiosa bien establecida en realidad protege contra la radicalización violenta. [56]

Sin embargo, si bien la motivación de las personas directamente involucradas en la realización de los ataques terroristas no es necesariamente religiosa y puede provenir de otras razones, muy a menudo hay organizaciones y gobiernos con motivaciones religiosas detrás de esos ataques. Las organizaciones y los gobiernos fundamentalistas a menudo alientan, financian, ayudan, incentivan o recompensan las acciones de individuos que reconocen como susceptibles de ser coaccionados para cometer ataques terroristas, utilizando así a personas que no siempre tienen motivaciones religiosas para lograr fines religiosos. Hamás , por ejemplo, es conocido por pagar a las familias de terroristas encarcelados y de terroristas suicidas . La República Islámica del Irán destina miles de millones de dólares estadounidenses anuales a milicianos y terroristas, [57] explotando las extremas dificultades económicas que enfrentan las personas en países como Yemen , Líbano y Siria , ofreciéndoles dinero en efectivo a cambio de actividades terroristas. [58]

Un "retrato general" de 2015 sobre "las condiciones y circunstancias" en las que las personas que viven en Francia se convierten en "radicales islámicos" (terroristas o potenciales terroristas) realizado por Olivier Roy (ver arriba) concluyó que la radicalización no era un "levantamiento de una comunidad musulmana que es víctima de la pobreza y el racismo: sólo se unen los jóvenes, incluidos los conversos". [59]

Roy cree que el terrorismo/radicalismo se "expresa en términos religiosos" porque

  1. La mayoría de los radicales tienen un origen musulmán, lo que los deja expuestos a un proceso de reislamización ("casi ninguno de ellos había sido piadoso antes de entrar en el proceso de radicalización"), y [59]
  2. La yihad es “la única causa en el mercado global”. Si matas en silencio, el periódico local informará de ello; “si matas gritando ‘Allahu Akbar’, seguro que aparecerás en los titulares nacionales”. Otras causas extremas –la ultraizquierda o la ecología radical– son “demasiado burguesas e intelectuales” para los radicales. [59]

En cierta contradicción con esto, un estudio que encuestó a musulmanes en Europa para examinar en qué medida la ideología islamista aumenta el apoyo al terrorismo, encontró que "en los países occidentales afectados por el terrorismo interno... la justificación del terrorismo está fuertemente asociada con un aumento en la práctica religiosa". (Este no es el caso en los "países europeos donde los musulmanes son predominantes" -Bosnia , Albania , etc.- donde parece suceder lo opuesto, es decir, cuanto más importancia asignaban los encuestados a la religión en su vida, menos probabilidades había de que "justificaran la violencia política".) [60]

Denominaciones/Ideologías

La mayoría de las corrientes de pensamiento/escuelas/sectas/movimientos/ denominaciones /tradiciones del Islam no apoyan ni se asocian de otro modo con el terrorismo. [Nota 3] Según Mir Faizal, solo tres sectas o movimientos del Islam (las sectas sunitas de Salafi , Deobandi y Barelvi ) [Nota 4] han sido asociadas con la violencia contra civiles. [61] De los tres, solo el Islam salafista (específicamente el Islam yihadista salafista ) puede considerarse involucrado en el terrorismo global, ya que está conectado con Al-Qaeda , ISIS , Boko Haram y otros grupos. (El terrorismo entre algunos miembros de la secta Barelvi se limita a ataques contra supuestos blasfemos en Pakistán, y el terrorismo entre los grupos Deobandi no tiene "casi" ninguna influencia más allá de Afganistán, Pakistán y la India.) [61] Otra secta/movimiento conocido como wahabismo (entrelazado con el salafismo no yihadista ) ha sido acusado de ser la ideología detrás de los grupos terroristas islámicos, [62] pero Al Qaeda y otros terroristas son descritos más comúnmente como seguidores de una fusión del qutbismo y el wahabismo . [63] [64] [65]

Más allá de estas sectas o movimientos religiosos, la ideología religiosa del qutbismo ha influido en el terrorismo islámico, junto con temas y tendencias religiosas como el takfir , los ataques suicidas y la creencia de que los judíos y los cristianos no son Gente del Libro sino infieles/kafir que libran una " guerra contra el Islam ". (Estas ideas suelen estar relacionadas y superpuestas).

Qutbismo

El qutbismo recibe su nombre del teórico islamista egipcio Sayyid Qutb , que escribió un manifiesto (conocido como Milestones ) mientras estaba en prisión. Se dice que Qutb sentó las bases ideológicas del yihadismo salafista (según Bruce Livesey); [66] se dice que sus ideas formaron "el movimiento islamista moderno" (según Gilles Kepel); [Nota 5] que, junto con otros "pensamientos islámicos violentos", se convirtió en la ideología conocida como " qutbismo" , que es el "centro de gravedad" de Al Qaeda y grupos relacionados (según el coronel del ejército estadounidense Dale C. Eikmeier). [47] Se cree que Qutb es una gran influencia en el líder número 2 de Al Qaeda, Ayman al-Zawahiri . [68] [Nota 6]

En su manifiesto (llamado "una de las obras más influyentes en árabe del último medio siglo"), [71] Qutb predicó:

  • la absoluta necesidad de la aplicación de la sharia ("incluso más necesaria que el establecimiento de la creencia islámica", sin la cual el Islam no existe); [72]
  • la necesidad de una yihad violenta así como de predicación para restablecer la sharia y difundir el Islam (un "movimiento" de vanguardia utilizará "el poder físico y la yihad", [73] para eliminar "obstáculos materiales"); [74]
  • que la yihad ofensiva —atacar territorio no musulmán— no debe ser descuidada por los verdaderos musulmanes en favor de la yihad defensiva (esto "disminuye la grandeza del modo de vida islámico", [75] y es el trabajo de aquellos que han sido "derrotados por los ataques de los orientalistas traidores!" [76] Los musulmanes no deben permitir que la falta de agresión no musulmana les impida emprender la yihad para difundir la ley sharia porque "la verdad y la falsedad no pueden coexistir en la tierra" en paz. [77]
  • un odio hacia “Occidente” (un “montón de basura… inmundicia… hueco y sin valor”); [78]
  • ... que está socavando deliberadamente el Islam (persiguiendo un "plan bien pensado" para "demoler la estructura de la sociedad musulmana"); [79]
  • ... a pesar de que "sabe" que es inferior al Islam ("sabe que no posee nada que satisfaga su propia conciencia y justifique su existencia", de modo que cuando se enfrenta a la "lógica, belleza, humanidad y felicidad" del Islam, "el pueblo estadounidense se sonroja"); [80]
  • y un odio y aversión hacia los judíos ("el judaísmo mundial, cuyo propósito es eliminar... las limitaciones impuestas por la fe y la religión, para que los judíos puedan penetrar en la política corporal de todo el mundo y luego puedan ser libres de perpetuar sus malvados designios [tales como] la usura, cuyo objetivo es que toda la riqueza de la humanidad termine en manos de instituciones financieras judías..."). [81]

Eikmeier resume los principios del qutbismo de la siguiente manera:

  • Creencia de que los musulmanes se han desviado del verdadero Islam y deben regresar al "Islam puro" tal como se practicaba originalmente durante la época de Mahoma .
  • El camino hacia ese "Islam puro" sólo pasa por una interpretación literal y estricta del Corán y el Hadith , junto con la implementación de los mandamientos de Mahoma.
  • Los musulmanes deben interpretar las fuentes originales individualmente sin estar obligados a seguir las interpretaciones de los eruditos islámicos.
  • Cualquier interpretación del Corán desde una perspectiva histórica y contextual es una corrupción, y la mayor parte de la historia islámica y la tradición jurisprudencial clásica es mera sofistería. [47]

Aunque Sayyid Qutb predicó que todo el mundo musulmán se había vuelto apóstata o jahiliyah , no hizo específicamente takfir ni pidió la ejecución de ningún apóstata, incluso aquellos que gobernaban gobiernos no sharia [Nota 7]. Qutb, sin embargo, enfatizó que "las organizaciones y autoridades" de los países supuestamente musulmanes eran irremediablemente corruptas y malvadas [83] y tendrían que ser abolidas por "poder físico y Jihad", [83] por un movimiento de "vanguardia" [84] de verdaderos musulmanes. [85]

Uno de los que sí lo defendió fue Muhammad abd-al-Salam Faraj , el principal teórico del grupo islamista que asesinó al presidente egipcio Anwar Sadat , quien en su libro Al-Farida al-gha'iba (El deber desatendido) citó una fatwa emitida en 1303 d. C. por el célebre y estricto jurista medieval Ibn Taymiyyah . Había dictaminado que luchar y matar a los invasores mongoles que estaban invadiendo Siria no sólo estaba permitido sino que era obligatorio según la sharia. Esto se debía a que los mongoles no seguían la ley sharia y, por lo tanto, aunque se habían convertido al Islam (argumentaba Ibn Taymiyyah), no eran realmente musulmanes. [86] Faraj predicaba que gobernantes como Anwar Sadat eran "rebeldes contra las Leyes de Dios [la sharia]", [87] [88] y "apóstatas del Islam" que no han conservado nada del Islam excepto su nombre. [89]

Wahabismo/Salafismo

Otro movimiento islámico acusado de estar involucrado en el terrorismo es el conocido como wahabismo . [90] [91] [92] [93] [62]

Patrocinado por la potencia exportadora de petróleo Arabia Saudita , el wahabismo es profundamente conservador y antirrevolucionario (su fundador enseñó que los musulmanes están obligados a dar lealtad incuestionable a su gobernante, por imperfecto que sea, siempre que dirija a la comunidad de acuerdo con las leyes de Dios), [94] [95] No obstante, esta ideología y sus patrocinadores han sido acusados ​​de ayudar al terrorismo tanto

Hasta al menos 2017 o algo así (cuando el príncipe heredero saudí Muhammad bin Salman declaró que Arabia Saudita estaba volviendo al "Islam moderado"), [105] Arabia Saudita gastó muchos miles de millones, no solo a través del gobierno saudí sino a través de organizaciones islámicas, organizaciones benéficas religiosas y fuentes privadas, [106] en dawah wahhabiya , es decir, difundir la interpretación wahabí del Islam, [107] Esta financiación incentivó a las "escuelas, editoriales, revistas, periódicos o incluso gobiernos" musulmanes de todo el mundo a "dar forma a su comportamiento, discurso y pensamiento de tal manera que incurrieran y se beneficiaran de la generosidad saudí", y así propagar las doctrinas wahabíes; [108]

Los cientos de colegios y centros islámicos, más de mil mezquitas y escuelas para niños musulmanes que financió [Nota 8] a menudo presentaban planes de estudio y materiales religiosos favorables al wahabismo [111] [112] [113], como libros de texto que explicaban que todas las formas del Islam, excepto el wahabismo, eran una desviación [114] , o el texto saudí de duodécimo grado que "instruye a los estudiantes que es una obligación religiosa hacer 'batalla' contra los infieles para difundir la fe". [115]

Entre las obras a favor del wahabismo que se distribuyeron gratuitamente y que estaban "financiadas por las regalías del petróleo" se encontraban las de Ibn Taymiyyah [116] (autor de la fatwa mencionada anteriormente contra los gobernantes que no gobiernan según la sharia). [87] [88]

No menos importante, la exitosa yihad de 1980-1990 contra la ocupación soviética de Afganistán —que inspiró a los veteranos de la yihad no afganos a continuar la yihad en su propio país o en otros— se benefició de miles de millones de dólares de financiación saudí, así como de "armamento e inteligencia". [117]

Interpretaciones religiosas

La "causa fundamental" del terrorismo musulmán es la ideología extremista, según el teólogo paquistaní Javed Ahmad Ghamidi , específicamente las enseñanzas de que:

  • "Sólo los musulmanes tienen derecho a gobernar, los no musulmanes deben ser subyugados";
  • "Los estados nacionales modernos no son islámicos y constituyen kufr (incredulidad)";
  • La única forma de Estado verdaderamente islámica es un califato musulmán unificado;
  • "Cuando los musulmanes obtengan el poder, derrocarán a los gobiernos no musulmanes y gobernarán";
  • “El castigo del kufr (incredulidad) y la irtidad (apostasía) es la muerte y debe ser implementado”. [118]

Otros autores han señalado otros elementos de la ideología islámica extremista.

Martirio/Istishhad

Los medios de comunicación suelen denominar a los ataques terroristas que requieren la muerte del atacante como ataques suicidas o atentados con bombas , pero cuando los perpetran islamistas, sus perpetradores suelen llamar a ese ataque Istishhad (o en español, " operación de martirio "), [119] y al atacante suicida shahid (pl. shuhada , literalmente "testigo" y generalmente traducido como "mártir"). La idea es que el atacante murió para dar testimonio de su fe en Dios, por ejemplo mientras libraba la yihad bis saif ( yihad con la espada). El término "suicidio" nunca se utiliza porque el Islam tiene fuertes restricciones contra el suicidio.

Según el autor Sadakat Kadri, "la idea misma de que los musulmanes pudieran inmolarse en nombre de Dios era algo inaudito antes de 1983, y hasta principios de los años 1990 nadie en ningún lugar había intentado justificar el asesinato de musulmanes inocentes que no estuvieran en el campo de batalla". Después de 1983, el proceso se limitó entre los musulmanes a Hezbolá y otras facciones chiítas libanesas durante más de una década. [120]

Desde entonces, el "vocabulario del martirio y el sacrificio", las grabaciones en vídeo de las confesiones de fe de los atacantes, se han convertido en parte de la "conciencia cultural islámica", "instantáneamente reconocibles" para los musulmanes (según Noah Feldman ), [ cita requerida ] mientras que la táctica se ha extendido por el mundo musulmán "con una velocidad asombrosa y siguiendo un curso sorprendente". [ cita requerida ]

En un principio, los objetivos fueron los soldados estadounidenses, luego, sobre todo, los israelíes, incluidos mujeres y niños. Desde Líbano e Israel, la técnica de los atentados suicidas se trasladó a Irak, donde los objetivos han incluido mezquitas y santuarios, y las víctimas previstas han sido en su mayoría iraquíes chiítas . ... [En] Afganistán , ... tanto los perpetradores como los objetivos son musulmanes sunitas ortodoxos . No hace mucho, un atentado con bomba en Lashkar Gah, la capital de la provincia de Helmand , mató a musulmanes, incluidas mujeres, que solicitaban ir en peregrinación a La Meca . En general, la tendencia apunta definitivamente hacia la violencia entre musulmanes. Según un cálculo conservador, más de tres veces más iraquíes han muerto por atentados suicidas en sólo tres años (2003-6) que israelíes en diez (entre 1996 y 2006). Los atentados suicidas se han convertido en el arquetipo de la violencia musulmana, no sólo para los occidentales sino también para los propios musulmanes. [121]

Comparaciones yihadistas de la vida y la muerte

A continuación se presentan declaraciones yihadistas que comparan la vida y la muerte:

  • “Amamos la muerte como nuestros enemigos aman la vida” ( el líder de Hamás, Ismail Haniyeh, en Al-Aqsa TV en 2014) [122]
  • "Los estadounidenses aman la Pepsi-Cola, nosotros amamos la muerte." (El yihadista afgano Maulana Inyadullah dirigiéndose a un periodista británico en 2001) [123]
  • "El mundo no es más que un pasaje... lo que se llama vida en este mundo no es vida sino muerte" ( Ayatolá Jomeini en 1977, conmemorando la muerte de su hijo) [124]
  • "... Los hijos de la tierra de los dos lugares más sagrados [ La Meca y Medina ]... Os digo esto: estos jóvenes aman la muerte como vosotros amáis la vida" (Osama bin Laden dirigiéndose al Secretario de Defensa de los EE.UU. William Perry en la fatwa de 1996) [125]
Justificación para matar a no combatientes

La justificación de Al Qaeda para el asesinato de civiles después de su primer ataque (ver arriba) basada en una fatwa de Ibn Taymiyyah fue descrita por el autor Lawrence Wright,

Ibn Taymiyyah había emitido una fatwa histórica: cualquiera que ayudara a los mongoles, que les comprara bienes o les vendiera o simplemente estuviera cerca de ellos, también podría ser asesinado. Si es un buen musulmán, irá al Paraíso; si es malo, irá al infierno, y buena suerte. De este modo, el turista muerto y el trabajador del hotel [asesinado por Al Qaeda] recibirían su merecida recompensa. [126]

Un influyente tratado titulado Management of Savagery ( Idarat at-Tawahhush ) explica en parte los asesinatos en masa por el hecho de que incluso "si toda la umma [comunidad de musulmanes] pereciera, todos serían mártires". [127] [128] De manera similar, el autor Ali A. Rizvi ha descrito la reacción en una sala de chat de un partidario talibán a su condena (la de Rizvi) de la masacre de la escuela de Peshawar de 2014 —que los 132 niños de la escuela que los talibanes masacraron "no estaban muertos" porque habían sido asesinados "en el camino de Dios... No los llaméis muertos. Están vivos, pero nosotros no lo percibimos" (citando, Corán 3:169 Nunca penséis que los martirizados por la causa de Alá están muertos. De hecho, están vivos con su Señor, bien provistos—), y manteniendo que aquellos cuya fe islámica es "pura" tampoco se molestarían con el asesinato de niños por parte de los talibanes. [129]

"Guerra contra el Islam"

Un principio que defienden el qutbismo y otros islamistas militantes es que las políticas y la sociedad occidentales no sólo son antiislámicas o explotadoras, sino activamente antiislámicas o, como se dice a veces, libran una " guerra contra el islam ". Los islamistas (como Qutb) suelen identificar lo que consideran una lucha histórica entre el cristianismo y el islam , que se remonta a las Cruzadas [130] , entre otros conflictos históricos entre practicantes de las dos religiones respectivas.

En 2006, la entonces jefa del MI5 británico, Eliza Manningham-Buller, dijo de Al Qaeda que "ha desarrollado una ideología que sostiene que el Islam está bajo ataque y necesita ser defendido". "Se trata de una poderosa narrativa que entrelaza conflictos de todo el mundo y presenta la respuesta de Occidente a cuestiones variadas y complejas, desde disputas de larga data como Israel/Palestina y Cachemira hasta acontecimientos más recientes como prueba de una determinación generalizada de socavar y humillar al Islam en todo el mundo". [131] Dijo que los testamentos en vídeo de los terroristas suicidas británicos dejaban claro que estaban motivados por injusticias mundiales y de larga data percibidas contra los musulmanes; una interpretación extrema y minoritaria del Islam promovida por algunos predicadores y personas influyentes; su interpretación como antimusulmana de la política exterior del Reino Unido, en particular la participación del Reino Unido en Irak y Afganistán". [131]

En su llamado a la yihad, Osama bin Laden casi invariablemente describió a sus enemigos como agresivos y sus acciones contra ellos como defensivas. [132]

Enemistad hacia los no musulmanes, la sociedad occidental y los LGBT+

La enemistad hacia los no musulmanes entre militantes, líderes y académicos islamistas está impulsada por creencias teológicas que consideran a los cristianos y judíos como " infieles ". Esta hostilidad se extiende aún más a la sociedad occidental debido a sus valores y prácticas seculares, que se consideran contrarios a los principios islámicos. Entre ellos se incluyen cuestiones como la proliferación de la pornografía , la inmoralidad percibida y la aceptación de la homosexualidad y el feminismo .

Un ejemplo de esta postura ideológica en la práctica fue proporcionado por Karam Kuhdi, un islamista arrestado en Egipto en 1981 por su participación en una serie de robos y asesinatos dirigidos contra orfebres cristianos. En este período, los turistas, a menudo no musulmanes, también fueron frecuentemente atacados por terroristas islámicos en Egipto. Durante el interrogatorio policial, Kuhdi sorprendió a las autoridades con sus creencias poco convencionales. Rechazó la doctrina islámica tradicional de que los cristianos eran " Pueblo del Libro " con derecho a protección como dhimmis , considerándolos en cambio infieles sujetos a la yihad violenta. Kuhdi apoyó su postura citando versos coránicos como "Aquellos que dicen que Dios es Jesús, hijo de María, son infieles" y "combatir a aquellos del pueblo del libro que son infieles", explicando la visión islamista de que los infieles son "el Pueblo del Libro, ya que no han creído en este libro". [133]

Según una doctrina conocida como al-wala' wa al-bara ' (literalmente, "lealtad y disociación"), el fundador wahabí Abd al-Wahhab argumentó que era "imperativo para los musulmanes no hacerse amigos, aliarse con, o imitar a los no musulmanes o musulmanes heréticos", y que esta "enemistad y hostilidad de los musulmanes hacia los no musulmanes y heréticos tenía que ser visible e inequívoca". [134]

Aunque Bin Laden casi siempre enfatizó la supuesta opresión de los musulmanes por parte de Estados Unidos y los judíos cuando hablaba de la necesidad de la yihad en sus mensajes, en su " Carta a América ", respondió a la pregunta: "¿A qué los estamos llamando y qué queremos de ustedes?" con:

Os llamamos a ser un pueblo de costumbres, principios, honor y pureza; a rechazar los actos inmorales de fornicación, homosexualidad, intoxicantes, juegos de azar y comercio con intereses (...) Separáis la religión de vuestras políticas, (...) Sois la nación que permite la usura, que ha sido prohibida por todas las religiones (...) Sois una nación que permite la producción, el comercio y el uso de intoxicantes (...) Sois una nación que permite actos de inmoralidad (...) Sois una nación que permite el juego en todas sus formas. (...) Usáis a las mujeres para servir a los pasajeros, visitantes y extraños para aumentar vuestros márgenes de beneficio. Luego despotricáis diciendo que apoyáis la liberación de la mujer. [135]

Este principio ha sido enfatizado por Ayman al-Zawahiri (líder de al-Qaeda desde junio de 2011), Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi (teórico yihadista), Hamoud al-Aqla al-Shu'aybi (erudito sudí conservador que apoyó los ataques del 11 de septiembre) y varios predicadores salafistas, Ahmad Musa Jibril y Abdullah el-Faisal . [136]

Tras el tiroteo en el club nocturno de Orlando en 2016 , descrito como un "crimen de odio" debido a que las víctimas eran clientes de un club nocturno LGBT, [137] supuestamente atacado en represalia por los ataques aéreos estadounidenses contra ISIS, la revista oficial de ISIS, Dabiq, respondió: "¿Un crimen de odio? Sí. Los musulmanes sin duda odian a los sodomitas liberales. ¿Un acto de terrorismo? Sin duda. A los musulmanes se les ha ordenado aterrorizar a los enemigos incrédulos de Alá". [138] [136]

Takfir

Según la ley islámica tradicional, la sangre de quien abandona el Islam es “pendiente”, es decir, condenado a muerte. [82] Esto se aplica no sólo a los autoproclamados ex musulmanes, sino a aquellos que todavía creen ser musulmanes pero que (a los ojos de sus acusadores) se han desviado demasiado de la ortodoxia. [Nota 9]

Muchos musulmanes liberales, modernistas y reformistas contemporáneos creen que matar a los apóstatas viola el mandato coránico “No hay compulsión en la religión…” ( Al-Baqara 256 ), pero incluso generaciones anteriores de eruditos islámicos advirtieron contra hacer tales acusaciones (conocidas como takfir ), sin mucho cuidado y generalmente reservaban el castigo de muerte para los defensores “extremos, persistentes y agresivos” de la innovación religiosa ( bidʻah ). [141] El peligro, según algunos (como Gilles Kepel ), era que “usado incorrectamente o sin restricciones, ... los musulmanes podrían recurrir a la excomunión mutua y así impulsar a la Ummah al desastre completo”. [82]

Kepel señaló que algunos de los primeros seguidores de Qutb creían que su declaración de que el mundo musulmán había vuelto a la ignorancia preislámica ( Yahiliyyah ) debía tomarse literalmente y que todos los que estaban fuera de su movimiento debían ser takfir; [67] y los wahabíes eran conocidos por su disposición a takfir a los musulmanes no wahabíes. [142] [143]

Desde la segunda mitad del siglo XX, una "ideología central" [144] de los grupos yihadistas wahabistas / salafistas insurgentes [145] ha sido la "sanción" de la "violencia contra los líderes" de los estados de mayoría musulmana [144] que no aplican la sharia (ley islámica) o que son "considerados insuficientemente religiosos". [144] Se cree que algunos grupos insurgentes - Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya de Egipto, y más tarde GIA , los talibanes y el EIIL - han ido incluso más allá, aplicando el takfir y su pena capital no sólo contra las autoridades gubernamentales sunitas y los musulmanes chiítas, sino también contra los civiles sunitas comunes que no están de acuerdo con las políticas insurgentes, como la reinstauración de la esclavitud, o las han desobedecido.

En 1977, el grupo Jama'at al-Muslimin (conocido por el público como Takfir wal-Hijra ), secuestró y luego mató a un erudito islámico y ex ministro del gobierno egipcio Muhammad al-Dhahabi. El fundador de Jama'at al-Muslimin , Shukri Mustaf, había sido encarcelado con Sayyid Qutb , y se había convertido en uno de los discípulos "más radicales" de Qutb. [146] Creía que no solo el gobierno egipcio era apóstata , sino también "la sociedad egipcia en su conjunto" porque "no estaba luchando contra el gobierno egipcio y, por lo tanto, había aceptado el gobierno de los no musulmanes". [147] Mientras la policía disolvía el grupo, este se reorganizó con miles de miembros, [148] algunos de los cuales ayudaron a asesinar al presidente egipcio Anwar Sadat, [149] y se unieron a la Guerra Civil Argelina y a Al Qaeda. [150] Durante la década de 1990, una violenta insurgencia islámica en Egipto, perpetrada principalmente por Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya , tuvo como blanco no sólo a la policía y a funcionarios gubernamentales sino también a civiles, matando o hiriendo a 1.106 personas en un año particularmente sangriento (1993). [151]

En la brutal guerra civil argelina de 1991-2002, se sabe que el Grupo Islámico Armado de Argelia (GIA), de línea dura, declaró el takfir contra el público argelino en general . El emir del GIA, Antar Zouabri, se atribuyó el mérito de dos masacres de civiles (las masacres de Rais y Bentalha ), calificando las matanzas de "ofrenda a Dios" y declarando impíos a las víctimas y a todos los argelinos que no se habían unido a sus filas. [152] Declaró que "excepto los que están con nosotros, todos los demás son apóstatas y merecedores de la muerte", [153] (Decenas, y a veces cientos, de civiles fueron asesinados en cada una de una serie de masacres que comenzaron en abril de 1998. [154] Sin embargo, no se sabe cuántos asesinatos fueron obra del GIA y cuántos de las fuerzas de seguridad, que se habían infiltrado en los insurgentes y no eran conocidos por su probidad). [155] [156]

En agosto de 1998, los insurgentes talibanes masacraron a 8.000 no combatientes hazaras , en su mayoría chiítas, en Mazar-i-Sharif , Afganistán. En varios discursos pronunciados en las mezquitas de Mazar-i-Sharif después de la matanza, el mulá Niazi, comandante talibán del ataque y gobernador recién instalado, declaró: "Los hazaras no son musulmanes, son chiítas. Son kofr [infieles]. Los hazaras mataron a nuestras fuerzas aquí, y ahora tenemos que matar a los hazaras... O aceptáis ser musulmanes o os vais de Afganistán..." [157] , lo que indicaba que, junto con la venganza y/o el odio étnico, el takfir era un motivo de la matanza.

Desde su creación en 2013 hasta 2020, directamente o a través de grupos afiliados, Daesh ), "ha sido responsable de 27.947 muertes de terroristas", la mayoría de ellos musulmanes, [Nota 10] "porque los ha considerado kafir". [158]

Un ejemplo del takfir de Daesh se encuentra en el número 13 de su revista Dabiq , que dedicó "docenas de páginas... a atacar y explicar la necesidad de matar a los chiítas", a los que el grupo se refiere con el nombre de Rafidah.

Iniciados por un judío astuto, [los chiítas] son ​​una secta apóstata que se ahoga en la adoración de los muertos, maldiciendo a los mejores compañeros y esposas del Profeta, difundiendo dudas sobre la base misma de la religión (el Corán y la Sunnah), difamando el honor mismo del Profeta, y prefiriendo a sus "doce" imanes a los profetas e incluso a Alá! ... Así, los Rāfidah son apóstatas mushrik [politeístas] que deben ser asesinados dondequiera que se los encuentre, hasta que ningún Rāfidī camine sobre la faz de la tierra, incluso si los pretendientes de la yihad los desprecian... [159]

Daesh no sólo pidió el restablecimiento de la esclavitud de los no musulmanes (específicamente del grupo minoritario yazidí ), sino que declaró el takfir contra cualquier musulmán que no estuviera de acuerdo con su política.

Las mujeres y los niños yazidíes [deben ser] divididos de acuerdo con la Sharia entre los combatientes del Estado Islámico que participaron en las operaciones de Sinjar ... Esclavizar a las familias de los kuffar y tomar a sus mujeres como concubinas es un aspecto firmemente establecido de la Sharia que si uno lo negara o se burlara, estaría negando o burlándose de los versos del Corán y las narraciones del Profeta... y apostatando así del Islam. [20]

A partir de 2013, Daesh comenzó a “fomentar el takfir de los musulmanes considerados insuficientemente puros en lo que respecta al tawhid (monoteísmo)”. Se descubrió que los talibanes “eran un movimiento ‘nacionalista’, demasiado tolerante” con los chiítas. [160] En 2015, el EIIL “declaró a Jabhat al-Nusrat –entonces filial de Al Qaeda en Siria– un grupo apóstata”. [160]

Interpretaciones del Corán y los Hadices

Donald Holbrook, investigador del Centro para el Estudio del Terrorismo y la Violencia Política , analiza una muestra de 30 obras de propagandistas yihadistas en busca de referencias a las escrituras islámicas que justifiquen los objetivos de la yihad violenta. [16] An-Nisa (4:74-75) es el pasaje más citado; otros pasajes populares son At-Taubah (9:13-15, 38-39, 111), Al-Baqarah (2:190-191, 216) y Surah 9:5 :

Pero cuando estos meses de prohibición hayan terminado, matad a los idólatras dondequiera que los encontréis, y hacedlos prisioneros o sitiadlos y acechadlos en cualquier lugar posible. Pero si se arrepienten y cumplen con sus obligaciones devocionales y pagan el zakat, dejadlos que se vayan, pues Dios es indulgente y bondadoso.

Holbrook señala que la primera parte "matar a los idólatras..." se cita a menudo, pero no los factores limitantes al final del ayat . [16]

La yihad y la jurisprudencia islámica

Las técnicas de guerra están restringidas por la jurisprudencia islámica clásica, pero su alcance no lo está. Bernard Lewis afirma que, en última instancia, la yihad termina cuando el mundo entero se somete al gobierno y la ley islámicos. [161] La jurisprudencia islámica clásica impone, sin límite de tiempo o espacio, el deber de subyugar a los no musulmanes (según Lewis). [162] Wael Hallaq escribe que algunos islamistas radicales van más allá de la teoría clásica para insistir en que el propósito de la yihad es derrocar a los regímenes que oprimen a los musulmanes y hacer que los no musulmanes se conviertan al Islam. En contraste, los modernistas islámicos -a quienes los islamistas desprecian- ven la yihad como defensiva y compatible con los estándares modernos de guerra. [163] Para justificar sus actos de violencia religiosa , los individuos y redes yihadistas recurren al género no vinculante de la literatura legal islámica ( fatwa ) desarrollada por las autoridades legales yihadistas-salafistas , cuyos escritos legales se comparten y difunden a través de Internet . [3]

Al Qaeda

Aunque los opositores islámicos a los ataques contra civiles han citado numerosos hadices proféticos y hadices del primer sucesor de Mahoma , Abu Bakr , [164] Al Qaeda cree que sus ataques están justificados por razones religiosas. Después de su primer ataque contra un objetivo estadounidense que mató a civiles (un atentado con bomba en un hotel en Adén, Yemen, en 1992 ), Al Qaeda justificó el asesinato de transeúntes civiles mediante una interpretación (de un tal Abu Hajer) basada en el jurista medieval Ibn Taymiyyah (véase más arriba).

En una obra posterior al 11 de septiembre, "Una declaración de Qaidat al-Jihad sobre los mandatos de los héroes y la legalidad de las operaciones en Nueva York y Washington", Al Qaeda proporcionó una justificación más sistemática, que proporcionaba "amplia justificación teológica para matar civiles en casi cualquier situación imaginable". [18] Entre estas justificaciones se encuentra que Estados Unidos está liderando a los países occidentales en la guerra contra el Islam, que (al Qaeda alega) tiene como objetivo "mujeres, niños y ancianos musulmanes". Esto significa que cualquier ataque contra Estados Unidos es una defensa del Islam, y cualquier tratado y acuerdo entre estados de mayoría musulmana y países occidentales que se violaría con ataques es nulo y sin valor. Otras justificaciones para matar y situaciones en las que se permiten los asesinatos basándose en precedentes de la historia islámica temprana incluyen: matar a no combatientes cuando es demasiado difícil distinguir entre ellos y combatientes cuando se ataca un "bastión" enemigo ( hist ), y/o los no combatientes permanecen en territorio enemigo; matar a quienes ayudan al enemigo "con hechos, palabras y pensamientos", esto incluye a los civiles ya que ellos pueden votar en las elecciones que llevan a los enemigos del Islam al poder; necesidad de matar en la guerra para proteger al Islam y a los musulmanes; cuando se le preguntó al Profeta si los combatientes musulmanes podían usar la catapulta contra la aldea de Taif, incluso aunque los combatientes enemigos estuvieran mezclados con una población civil, él indicó que sí; matar a mujeres, niños y otros grupos protegidos está permitido cuando sirven como escudos humanos para el enemigo; matar a civiles está permitido si el enemigo ha roto un tratado. [18]

Los partidarios de Bin Laden han señalado informes según los cuales el profeta islámico Mahoma atacó ciudades por la noche o con catapultas, y han argumentado que debe haber tolerado daños incidentales a no combatientes, ya que habría sido imposible distinguirlos de los combatientes durante tales ataques. [165] [166] Estos argumentos no fueron ampliamente aceptados por los musulmanes. [166]

Manejo del salvajismo

Se cree que los grupos escindidos y competidores de Al Qaeda, Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad y el Estado Islámico de Irak y Siria , han sido fuertemente influenciados [167] [168] [169] [170] [171] por una obra de 2004 sobre la yihad titulada Gestión del salvajismo ( Idarat at-Tawahhush ), escrita por Abu Bakr Naji [171] y destinada a proporcionar una estrategia para crear un nuevo califato islámico destruyendo primero "objetivos económicos y estratégicos vitales" y aterrorizando al enemigo con crueldad para quebrantar su voluntad. [172]

El tratado afirma que "quien haya participado previamente en la yihad sabe que no es más que violencia, crudeza, terrorismo, disuasión y masacres", [173] y que incluso "los más abominables niveles de salvajismo" de la yihad son mejores "que la estabilidad bajo el orden de la incredulidad" (es decir, cualquier otro régimen que no sea el EIIL). [167] [174] Las víctimas no sólo deberían ser decapitadas, fusiladas, quemadas vivas en jaulas o sumergidas gradualmente hasta ahogarse, sino que estos eventos deberían ser publicitados con videos y fotografías. [175]

La jurisprudencia de la sangre
La bandera hutí , con la parte superior diciendo " Dios es el más grande ", la siguiente línea diciendo " Muerte a Estados Unidos ", seguido de " Muerte a Israel ", seguido de " Una maldición sobre los judíos ", y la parte inferior diciendo " Victoria al Islam ".

Algunos observadores [19] [176] [177] han notado la evolución de las reglas de la yihad, desde la doctrina "clásica" original hasta la del yihadismo salafista del siglo XXI . [171] Según el historiador legal Sadarat Kadri, [176] durante los últimos dos siglos, los cambios graduales en la doctrina legal islámica (desarrollada por islamistas que por lo demás condenan cualquier bid'ah (innovación) en la religión), han "normalizado" lo que antes era "impensable". [176] "La idea misma de que los musulmanes pudieran inmolarse por Dios era inaudita antes de 1983, y no fue hasta principios de los años 1990 que alguien en cualquier lugar había tratado de justificar el asesinato de musulmanes inocentes que no estaban en un campo de batalla". [176]

La primera o la doctrina "clásica" de la yihad que se desarrolló hacia finales del siglo VIII, enfatizaba la "yihad de la espada" ( jihad bil-saif ) en lugar de la "yihad del corazón", [178] pero contenía muchas restricciones legales que se desarrollaron a partir de interpretaciones tanto del Corán como del Hadith , como reglas detalladas que involucraban "la iniciación, la conducta, la terminación" de la yihad, el tratamiento de los prisioneros, la distribución del botín, etc. A menos que hubiera un ataque repentino a la comunidad musulmana , la yihad no era una "obligación personal" ( fard 'ayn ); en cambio, era una "obligación colectiva" ( fard al-kifaya ), [179] que tenía que ser cumplida "en el camino de Dios" ( fi sabil Allah ), [180] y solo podía ser dirigida por el califa , "cuya discreción sobre su conducta era casi absoluta". [180] (Esto fue diseñado en parte para evitar incidentes como la yihad de la Jarijia contra el califa Ali y su asesinato , ya que consideraban que ya no era musulmán ). [19] El martirio resultante de un ataque al enemigo sin preocuparse por su propia seguridad era digno de elogio, pero morir por su propia mano (en oposición a la del enemigo) merecía un lugar especial en el infierno . [181] La categoría de yihad que se considera una obligación colectiva a veces se simplifica como "yihad ofensiva" en los textos occidentales. [182]

Basándose en las interpretaciones del siglo XX de Sayyid Qutb , Abdullah Azzam , Ruhollah Khomeini , Al Qaeda y otros, muchos, si no todos, esos autoproclamados combatientes de la yihad creen que la yihad global defensiva es una obligación personal, lo que significa que ningún califa o jefe de estado musulmán necesita declararla. Matarse a uno mismo en el proceso de matar al enemigo es un acto de martirio y te lleva a un lugar especial en el cielo , no un lugar especial en el infierno; y el asesinato de transeúntes musulmanes (no importa si son no musulmanes), no debería impedir los actos de yihad. El analista militar e intelectual Sebastian Gorka describió la nueva interpretación de la yihad como el "ataque deliberado de civiles por parte de un actor no estatal a través de medios no convencionales". [177]

El teólogo islámico Abu Abdullah al-Muhajir ha sido identificado como uno de los teóricos e ideólogos clave detrás de la violencia yihadista moderna. [171] [183] ​​[184] [185] Sus justificaciones teológicas y legales influyeron en Abu Musab al-Zarqawi , miembro de al-Qaeda y ex líder de al-Qaeda en Irak , así como en varios otros grupos terroristas yihadistas, incluidos ISIL y Boko Haram. [171] [183] ​​[184] [185] Zarqawi utilizó un manuscrito de 579 páginas de las ideas de al-Muhajir en los campos de entrenamiento de AQI que luego fueron desplegados por ISIL, conocido en árabe como Fiqh al-Dima y al que se hace referencia en inglés como La jurisprudencia de la yihad o La jurisprudencia de la sangre . [171] [183] ​​[184] [185] [186] El libro ha sido descrito por el experto en antiterrorismo Orwa Ajjoub como una forma de racionalizar y justificar "operaciones suicidas, la mutilación de cadáveres, decapitaciones y el asesinato de niños y no combatientes". [171] El periodista de The Guardian Mark Towsend, citando a Salah al-Ansari de Quilliam , señala: "Hay una sorprendente falta de estudio y preocupación con respecto a este texto aborrecible y peligroso [ La jurisprudencia de la sangre ] en casi todos los estudios occidentales y árabes". [185] Charlie Winter de The Atlantic lo describe como un "manual teológico utilizado para justificar los actos aborrecibles del grupo". [184] Afirma:

Desde cavilaciones sobre los méritos de decapitar, torturar o quemar prisioneros hasta ideas sobre el asesinato, la guerra de asedio y el uso de armas biológicas, el legado intelectual de Muhajir es un componente crucial del corpus literario de ISIS —y, de hecho, de todo lo que venga después—, una forma de hacer que prácticamente cualquier cosa sea permisible, siempre que, claro está, pueda presentarse como beneficiosa para la yihad. [...] Según Muhajir, suicidarse para matar gente no es sólo un acto teológicamente sólido, sino también encomiable, algo que debe apreciarse y celebrarse independientemente de su resultado. [...] Ni Zarqawi ni sus herederos han mirado atrás, y han utilizado generosamente la obra de Muhajir para normalizar el uso de tácticas suicidas en el tiempo transcurrido desde entonces, de modo que se han convertido en el método militar y terrorista más importante —defensivo u ofensivo— utilizado por ISIS en la actualidad. La forma en que Muhajir lo teorizó fue simple: ofreció una solución teológica que permite a cualquiera que lo desee eludir los mandatos coránicos contra el suicidio. [184]

El psicólogo clínico Chris E. Stout también analiza el texto inspirado en Al Muhajir en su ensayo Terrorism, Political Violence, and Extremism (2017). Considera que los yihadistas consideran que sus acciones son “por el bien mayor” y que se encuentran en una situación de “debilidad en la tierra” que hace del terrorismo islámico un medio válido de solución. [186]

Motivación económica

Osama en noviembre de 2001
Osama Bin Laden, el fundador del grupo terrorista multinacional Al-Qaeda , en noviembre de 2001.

Tras el ataque del 11 de septiembre, los comentaristas destacaron la pobreza de Afganistán y especularon que la culpa podría recaer en parte en la falta de una "mayor prioridad a la salud, la educación y el desarrollo económico" en los países más ricos, [187] y en las "economías estancadas y la escasez de empleos" en los países más pobres. [188]

Entre los actos de opresión contra los musulmanes por parte de Estados Unidos y sus aliados denunciados por el jefe de Al Qaeda se encuentran la explotación económica. En un mensaje de Osama bin Laden del 6 de octubre de 2002, "Carta a América", denuncia

Ustedes roban nuestra riqueza y nuestro petróleo a precios irrisorios debido a su influencia internacional y a sus amenazas militares. Este robo es, en verdad, el mayor robo jamás presenciado por la humanidad en la historia del mundo. ... Si la gente roba nuestra riqueza, entonces tenemos el derecho de destruir su economía. [189] [190]

En una entrevista de 1997, afirmó que "desde 1973, el precio de la gasolina ha aumentado sólo 8 dólares por barril, mientras que los precios de otros artículos han subido tres veces. Los precios del petróleo también deberían haber subido tres veces, pero esto no ocurrió", [191] [Nota 11] (Por otra parte, en una entrevista cinco semanas después de la destrucción de las torres del World Trade Center de la que su operación era responsable, Bin Laden describió las torres como un símbolo de -o "predicación"- no de la explotación o el capitalismo, sino de "libertad, derechos humanos e igualdad"). [193]

En 2002, los académicos Alan B. Krueger y Jitka Maleckova descubrieron que "un análisis cuidadoso de la evidencia ofrece pocas razones para el optimismo de que una reducción de la pobreza o un aumento de los logros educativos reducirían significativamente el terrorismo internacional por sí solos". [194] Alberto Abadie descubrió que "el riesgo de terrorismo no es significativamente mayor para los países más pobres, una vez que se consideran otras características específicas de cada país", sino que parece correlacionarse con el "nivel de libertad política" de un país. [195]

Martin Kramer ha sostenido que, si bien los organizadores terroristas rara vez son pobres, sus "soldados de a pie" a menudo lo son. [196] Andrew Whitehead afirma que "la pobreza crea oportunidades" para los terroristas, que han contratado a niños pobres desesperados para realizar trabajos pesados ​​en Irak y se han ganado la lealtad de los pobres en el Líbano brindándoles servicios sociales. [197]

La política exterior occidental

Muchos creen que grupos como Al Qaeda e ISIS, que reaccionan a la agresión de potencias no musulmanas (especialmente de Estados Unidos), y que las creencias religiosas son exageradas, si no irrelevantes, en su motivación. Según un gráfico del Departamento de Estado de Estados Unidos, los ataques terroristas se intensificaron en todo el mundo tras la invasión de Afganistán por parte de Estados Unidos en 2001 y la invasión de Irak en 2003. [ 198] [¿ Fuente poco fiable? ] Dame Eliza Manningham Buller , ex jefa del MI5 , dijo a la investigación sobre Irak que los servicios de seguridad advirtieron a Tony Blair que el lanzamiento de la Guerra contra el Terror aumentaría la amenaza del terrorismo. [198] [ Se necesita una mejor fuente ] Robert Pape ha argumentado que al menos los terroristas que utilizan ataques suicidas -una forma particularmente efectiva [199] de ataque terrorista- no están impulsados ​​por el islamismo sino por "un objetivo estratégico claro: obligar a las democracias modernas a retirar sus fuerzas militares del territorio que los terroristas consideran su patria". [200] Sin embargo, Martin Kramer , que debatió con Pape sobre los orígenes de los atentados suicidas, afirmó que la motivación de los ataques suicidas no es sólo una lógica estratégica sino también una interpretación del Islam para proporcionar una lógica moral. Por ejemplo, Hezbolá inició los atentados suicidas tras una compleja reelaboración del concepto de martirio . Kramer explica que la ocupación israelí de la Zona de Seguridad del Sur del Líbano elevó la temperatura necesaria para esta reinterpretación del Islam, pero la ocupación por sí sola no habría sido suficiente para el terrorismo suicida. [201] "La única manera de poner un freno al terrorismo suicida", sostiene Kramer, "es socavar su lógica moral, alentando a los musulmanes a ver su incompatibilidad con sus propios valores". [201]

Al desglosar el contenido de las declaraciones y entrevistas de Osama bin Laden recogidas en Mensajes al mundo de Bruce Lawrence (Lawrence comparte la creencia de Payne en el imperialismo y la agresión de EE.UU. como causa del terrorismo islámico), James L. Payne descubrió que el 72% del contenido trataba sobre el tema de la "crítica de la agresión, la opresión y la explotación de tierras y pueblos musulmanes por parte de EE.UU./Occidente/judío", mientras que sólo el 1% de las declaraciones de bin Laden se centraban en criticar "la sociedad y la cultura estadounidenses". [50]

El ex analista de la CIA Michael Scheuer sostiene que los ataques terroristas (específicamente los ataques de Al Qaeda contra objetivos en los Estados Unidos) no están motivados por un odio de inspiración religiosa hacia la cultura o religión estadounidense , sino por la creencia de que la política exterior estadounidense ha oprimido, asesinado o dañado de otra manera a los musulmanes en el Medio Oriente, [202] condensado en la frase "Nos odian por lo que hacemos, no por lo que somos". Las acciones de política exterior estadounidense que Scheuer cree que están alimentando el terrorismo islámico incluyen: la intervención liderada por Estados Unidos en Afganistán y la invasión de Irak; las relaciones entre Israel y Estados Unidos , a saber, el apoyo financiero, militar y político a Israel ; [203] [204] [205] [206] el apoyo estadounidense a estados policiales " apóstatas " en naciones musulmanas como Egipto, Argelia, Marruecos y Kuwait; [207] el apoyo estadounidense a la creación de un Timor Oriental independiente a partir del territorio anteriormente ocupado por la Indonesia musulmana; la aprobación o apoyo percibido por Estados Unidos de acciones contra insurgentes musulmanes en India, Filipinas, Chechenia y Palestina . [208]

Maajid Nawaz y Sam Harris sostienen que en muchos casos simplemente no existe conexión entre los actos de extremismo islámico y la intervención occidental en tierras musulmanas.

Nawaz: ... ¿Qué tiene que ver con la política exterior estadounidense el asesinato de la población yazidí en el monte Sinjar? ¿Qué tiene que ver con la política exterior estadounidense el hecho de obligar a las mujeres a llevar pañuelos en la cabeza (tiendas de campaña , en realidad) en Waziristán y Afganistán, y el azotarlas, obligar a los hombres a dejarse crecer la barba bajo amenaza de un látigo, cortarles las manos, etc.?
Harris: Este catálogo de irrelevancias podría extenderse indefinidamente. ¿Qué tiene que ver con la política exterior estadounidense o israelí el bombardeo suní de mezquitas chiítas y ahmadíes en Pakistán? [209]

Nawaz también sostiene que se puede decir que los terroristas suicidas en países de mayoría no musulmana, como los del 7 de julio de 2005, están motivados por una ideología y no por el deseo de obligar a los militares británicos a retirarse de "su patria", ya que nacieron y se criaron en Yorkshire, nunca habían estado en Irak y no hablan su idioma. [48]

Motivaciones socio-psicológicas

Desarrollo socio-psicológico

Un factor motivador del radicalismo violento (que no se encuentra sólo en Al Qaeda e ISIS) es el desarrollo psicológico durante la adolescencia. [210] Cally O'Brien descubrió que muchos terroristas "no estuvieron expuestos a Occidente en un contexto positivo, ya sea por simple aislamiento o por la influencia familiar conservadora, hasta mucho después de haber establecido una identidad personal y social". Al analizar las teorías de la identidad personal psicológica , Seth Schwartz, Curitis Dunkel y Alan Waterman encontraron dos tipos de "identidades personales" susceptibles de radicalización que conducen al terrorismo:

  1. “Rechazados y autoritarios”: musulmanes principalmente conservadores a quienes sus familias y comunidades les enseñan desde la infancia a no desviarse de un camino estricto y a considerar a los grupos externos como inferiores u odiarlo. Cuando se los expone a la cultura occidental (ajena a ella), es probable que la juzguen en relación con su percepción del orden correcto de la sociedad, así como que perciban que su propia identidad y salud mental están en riesgo. [211] [212] [210]
  2. “Difusos y sin rumbo”: principalmente conversos cuyas vidas se caracterizan por “la falta de rumbo, la incertidumbre y la indecisión” y que no han explorado identidades diferentes ni se han comprometido con una identidad personal. Estas personas están “dispuestas a morir por ideas [como el yihadismo] que se han apropiado de otros” y que dan a sus vidas un propósito y una certeza. [212] [210]

Características de los terroristas

En 2004, un psiquiatra forense y ex oficial del servicio exterior, Marc Sageman , realizó un "estudio intensivo de datos biográficos sobre 172 participantes en la yihad" en su libro Understanding Terror Networks . [213] Concluyó que las redes sociales , los "estrechos vínculos de familia y amistad", más que los trastornos emocionales y conductuales de "pobreza, trauma, locura [o] ignorancia", inspiraron a los jóvenes musulmanes alienados a unirse a la yihad y matar. [214]

Según el antropólogo Scott Atran , un investigador de la OTAN que estudia el terrorismo suicida, a partir de 2005, la evidencia disponible contradice una serie de explicaciones simplistas sobre las motivaciones de los terroristas, incluyendo la inestabilidad mental, la pobreza y los sentimientos de humillación. [215] Los mayores predictores de los atentados suicidas —un tipo común de táctica terrorista utilizada por los terroristas islámicos— resulta no ser la religión sino la dinámica de grupo. Si bien la humillación personal no resulta ser una motivación para quienes intentan matar civiles, la percepción de que otros con quienes uno siente un vínculo común están siendo humillados puede ser un poderoso impulsor de la acción. "Dinámicas de grupos pequeños que involucran a amigos y familiares que forman la célula de diáspora de hermandad y camaradería en la que se basa la creciente ola de acciones de martirio". [216] Los terroristas, según Atran, son seres sociales influenciados por conexiones y valores sociales. En lugar de morir "por una causa", podría decirse que murieron "unos por otros". [215]

En una tesis doctoral de 2011, el antropólogo Kyle R. Gibson revisó tres estudios que documentaron 1.208 ataques suicidas entre 1981 y 2007 y encontró que los países con tasas más altas de poligamia se correlacionaban con una mayor producción de terroristas suicidas . [217] [218] El politólogo Robert Pape ha descubierto que entre los terroristas suicidas islámicos, el 97 por ciento eran solteros y el 84 por ciento eran hombres (o si se excluye al Partido de los Trabajadores del Kurdistán , el 91 por ciento eran hombres), [219] mientras que un estudio realizado por el ejército estadounidense en Irak en 2008 encontró que los atacantes suicidas eran casi siempre hombres solteros sin hijos de entre 18 y 30 años (con una edad media de 22), y eran típicamente estudiantes o empleados en ocupaciones de cuello azul . [220] Además de señalar que los países donde la poligamia se practica ampliamente tienden a tener tasas más altas de homicidios y de violaciones , los politólogos Valerie M. Hudson y Bradley Thayer han argumentado que debido a que el Islam es la única tradición religiosa importante donde la poligamia todavía se tolera en gran medida , los mayores grados de desigualdad marital en los países islámicos que en la mayor parte del mundo hacen que tengan poblaciones más susceptibles al terrorismo suicida, y que las promesas de harenes de vírgenes para el martirio sirven como un mecanismo para mitigar el conflicto dentro del grupo dentro de los países islámicos entre machos alfa y no alfa al brindar estima a las familias de estos últimos y redirigir su violencia hacia grupos externos. [221]

Además de su investigación sobre los Tigres Tamiles , Scott Atran descubrió que los grupos terroristas palestinos (como Hamás ) proporcionan estipendios mensuales , pagos globales y prestigio masivo a las familias de terroristas suicidas. [222] [223] Citando a Atran y otras investigaciones antropológicas que muestran que el 99 por ciento de los terroristas suicidas palestinos son hombres, que el 86 por ciento no están casados ​​y que el 81 por ciento tiene al menos seis hermanos (más que el tamaño promedio de la familia palestina), el científico cognitivo Steven Pinker argumenta en The Better Angels of Our Nature (2011) que debido a que las familias de los hombres en Cisjordania y Gaza a menudo no pueden pagar el precio de la novia y que muchas novias potenciales terminan en matrimonios polígamos, la compensación financiera de un acto de terrorismo suicida puede comprar suficientes novias para que los hermanos de un hombre tengan hijos para que el autosacrificio valga la pena en términos de selección de parentesco y aptitud biológica (con Pinker también citando una famosa cita atribuida al biólogo evolutivo JBS Haldane cuando Haldane bromeó diciendo que no sacrificaría su vida por su hermano, pero sí por "dos hermanos u ocho primos"). [224]

En 2007, el académico Olivier Roy describió los antecedentes de los cientos de terroristas globales (en oposición a los locales) que fueron encarcelados o asesinados y de quienes las autoridades tienen registros, como sorprendentes en varios sentidos: los sujetos con frecuencia tenían un origen occidentalizado; había pocos palestinos , iraquíes o afganos "que venían a vengar lo que estaba pasando en su país"; había una falta de religiosidad antes de la radicalización por haber "nacido de nuevo" en un país extranjero; un alto porcentaje de sujetos se había convertido al Islam; sus antecedentes estaban "desterritorializados", lo que significa, por ejemplo, que "nacieron en un país, luego se educaron en otro país, luego fueron a luchar a un tercer país y se refugiaron en un cuarto país"; y sus creencias sobre la yihad diferían de las tradicionales, es decir, creían que la yihad era permanente, global y "no vinculada a un territorio específico". [225] Roy cree que el terrorismo/radicalismo se "expresa en términos religiosos" entre los terroristas estudiados porque

  1. La mayoría de los radicales tienen un origen musulmán, lo que los deja expuestos a un proceso de reislamización ("casi ninguno de ellos había sido piadoso antes de entrar en el proceso de radicalización"), y [59]
  2. La yihad es “la única causa en el mercado global”. Si matas en silencio, el periódico local informará de ello; “si matas gritando ‘Allahu Akbar’, seguro que aparecerás en los titulares nacionales”. Otras causas extremas –la ultraizquierda o la ecología radical– son “demasiado burguesas e intelectuales” para los radicales. [59]

El autor Lawrence Wright describió la característica del " desplazamiento " de los miembros del grupo terrorista islámico más famoso, Al Qaeda:

Lo que los reclutas solían tener en común —además de su urbanidad, su origen cosmopolita , su educación, su facilidad con los idiomas y sus conocimientos informáticos— era el desplazamiento. La mayoría de los que se unieron a la yihad lo hicieron en un país distinto de aquel en el que se habían criado. Eran argelinos que vivían en enclaves de expatriados en Francia, marroquíes en España o yemeníes en Arabia Saudí. A pesar de sus logros, tenían poca reputación en las sociedades de acogida en las que vivían. [226]

Este perfil de los yihadistas globales difiere del que se encuentra entre los terroristas suicidas islamistas locales más recientes en Afganistán. Según un estudio de 2007 sobre 110 terroristas suicidas realizado por el patólogo afgano Dr. Yusef Yadgari, el 80% de los atacantes estudiados tenía algún tipo de discapacidad física o mental. Los terroristas suicidas tampoco eran "celebrados como sus homólogos de otras naciones musulmanas. Los terroristas suicidas afganos no aparecen en carteles ni en vídeos como mártires". [227] Daniel Byman, experto en Oriente Medio de la Brookings Institution , y Christine Fair, profesora adjunta de estudios sobre la paz y la seguridad en la Universidad de Georgetown , sostienen que muchos de los terroristas islámicos son tontos y no están entrenados, tal vez incluso inentrenables, y que uno de cada dos terroristas suicidas talibanes se suicidan únicamente. [228]

Al estudiar 300 casos de personas acusadas de terrorismo yihadista en los Estados Unidos desde el 11 de septiembre de 2001, el autor Peter Bergen descubrió que los perpetradores estaban "generalmente motivados por una mezcla de factores", entre ellos "una ideología islamista militante"; oposición a "la política exterior estadounidense en el mundo musulmán; una necesidad de apegarse a una ideología u organización que les diera un sentido de propósito"; y una " apertura cognitiva " al Islam militante que a menudo estaba "precipitada por una decepción personal, como la muerte de un padre". [229] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ]

Sin embargo, dos estudios sobre los antecedentes de los terroristas musulmanes en Europa (uno en el Reino Unido y otro en Francia) encontraron poca conexión entre la devoción religiosa y el terrorismo entre las bases terroristas. Un informe "restringido" de cientos de estudios de casos realizado por la agencia de contrainteligencia doméstica del Reino Unido, el MI5, encontró que

[L]ejos de ser fanáticos religiosos, un gran número de los implicados en el terrorismo no practican su fe con regularidad. Muchos carecen de alfabetización religiosa y podrían ser considerados, de hecho, como novatos religiosos. Muy pocos han sido criados en hogares fuertemente religiosos, y hay una proporción de conversos superior a la media. Algunos se dedican al consumo de drogas, al consumo de alcohol y a la prostitución. El MI5 afirma que hay pruebas de que una identidad religiosa bien establecida en realidad protege contra la radicalización violenta. [56]

Un "retrato general" de 2015 sobre "las condiciones y circunstancias" en las que las personas que viven en Francia se convierten en "radicales islámicos" (terroristas o potenciales terroristas) realizado por Olivier Roy (ver arriba) concluyó que la radicalización no era un "levantamiento de una comunidad musulmana que es víctima de la pobreza y el racismo: sólo se unen los jóvenes, incluidos los conversos". [59]

Refutaciones, críticas y explicaciones sobre el declive

Refutando el terrorismo islámico

Además de explicar el terrorismo islámico, muchos observadores han intentado señalar sus inconsistencias y los fallos de sus argumentos, sugiriendo a menudo medios para desmotivar a terroristas potenciales.

Bernard Lewis, un estudioso de Oriente Medio de la Universidad de Princeton, sostiene que, aunque Bin Laden y otros islamistas radicales afirman que están luchando para restablecer la sharia en el mundo musulmán, sus ataques contra civiles violan la forma clásica de esa jurisprudencia islámica . Los "juristas clásicos del Islam nunca consideraron ni remotamente que [la yihad] fuera el tipo de matanza masiva no provocada y no anunciada de poblaciones civiles no involucradas". [230] Con respecto a los ataques del 11 de septiembre , Lewis señaló:

Al ser una obligación religiosa, la yihad está regulada detalladamente en la sharia, que analiza con todo lujo de detalles cuestiones como la apertura, la conducción, la interrupción y el cese de las hostilidades, el trato a los prisioneros y a los no combatientes, el uso de armas, etc. [231] De manera similar, las leyes de la yihad prohíben categóricamente las matanzas indiscriminadas y sin motivo alguno. [232] Se insta a los guerreros de la guerra santa a no dañar a los no combatientes, a las mujeres y a los niños, "a menos que ellos los ataquen primero"... Un punto en el que insisten es en la necesidad de una declaración de guerra clara antes de comenzar las hostilidades, y de una advertencia adecuada antes de reanudarlas después de una tregua. Lo que los juristas clásicos del Islam nunca consideraron remotamente es el tipo de matanza masiva no provocada y no anunciada de poblaciones civiles no involucradas que vimos en Nueva York hace dos semanas. Para esto no hay precedente ni autoridad en el Islam. [233]

De manera similar, Timothy Winter escribe que las proclamaciones de Bin Laden y Ayman al-Zawahiri “ignoran 14 siglos de erudición musulmana”, y que si “hubieran seguido las normas de su religión, habrían tenido que reconocer que ninguna escuela del Islam convencional permite atacar a civiles”. [234]

El investigador Donald Holbrook señala que, si bien muchos yihadistas citan el comienzo del famoso verso (o aleya ) de la espada:

  • Pero cuando estos meses de prohibición hayan terminado, matad a los idólatras dondequiera que los encontréis, y tomadlos cautivos o asediadlos y acechadlos en cualquier lugar posible. ...

... no citan ni discuten los factores limitantes que siguen,

  • “…Pero si se arrepienten y cumplen con sus obligaciones devocionales y pagan el zakat, entonces que sigan su camino, porque Dios es indulgente y bondadoso”.

mostrando cómo son (Holbrook sostiene) "descaradamente selectivos para servir a sus objetivos de propaganda". [16]

Las credenciales académicas de los ideólogos del extremismo también son "cuestionables". [47] Dale C. Eikmeier señala

Con la excepción de Abul Ala Maududi y Abdullah Yusuf Azzam , ninguno de los principales teóricos del qutbismo se formó en los centros de aprendizaje reconocidos por el Islam. Aunque era un musulmán devoto, Hassan al-Banna era profesor y activista comunitario. Sayyid Qutb era un crítico literario. Mohammed Abdul-Salam Farag era electricista. Ayman al-Zawahiri es médico. Osama bin Laden se formó para ser hombre de negocios. [47]

Michael Sells y Jane I. Smith (profesora de Estudios Islámicos) escriben que, salvo algunos extremistas como Al Qaeda , la mayoría de los musulmanes no interpretan los versículos coránicos como una promoción de la guerra actual, sino como un reflejo de contextos históricos. [235] [236] Según Sells, la mayoría de los musulmanes "no esperan aplicar" los versículos en cuestión "a sus amigos y vecinos no musulmanes contemporáneos, así como la mayoría de los cristianos y judíos no se consideran a sí mismos ordenados por Dios, como el Josué bíblico , a exterminar a los infieles ". [235]

En su libro No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam (No hay otro dios que Dios: los orígenes, la evolución y el futuro del Islam) , el académico iraní-estadounidense Reza Aslan sostiene que actualmente se está librando una batalla interna dentro del Islam entre los ideales reformistas individualistas y la autoridad tradicional de los clérigos musulmanes . [237] La ​​lucha es similar a la de la reforma del siglo XVI en el cristianismo , y de hecho está sucediendo cuando la religión del Islam es tan "antigua" como lo era el cristianismo en el momento de su reforma. [238] Aslan sostiene que "la noción de que el contexto histórico no debería desempeñar ningún papel en la interpretación del Corán -que lo que se aplicó a la comunidad de Mahoma se aplica a todas las comunidades musulmanas de todos los tiempos- es simplemente una posición insostenible en todos los sentidos". [239]

A pesar de su proclamada devoción a la virtud de la ley Sharia, los yihadistas no siempre han evitado asociarse con la pornografía del despreciado Occidente. El periódico The Times (Londres) ha señalado que una fuente descubrió que los yihadistas habían buscado el anonimato a través de algunas de las mismas redes oscuras utilizadas para distribuir pornografía infantil , algo bastante irónico dada su proclamada piedad . [240] De manera similar, la agencia de noticias Reuters informó que se encontró pornografía entre los materiales confiscados en el complejo de Abbottabad de Osama bin Laden que fue allanado por los SEAL de la Marina de los EE. UU . [241]

Takfir

A pesar de que un principio fundamental de la yihad violenta moderna es la defensa del Islam y de los musulmanes, la mayoría de las víctimas de los ataques del terrorismo islámico ("la gran mayoría", según una fuente, JJ Goldberg) [242] son ​​musulmanes autoproclamados. Muchos grupos salafistas-yihadistas, si no todos, practican el takfir , es decir, proclaman que algunos musulmanes autoproclamados (especialmente funcionarios gubernamentales y personal de seguridad) son en realidad apóstatas que merecen la muerte.

Furthermore, the more learned salafi-jihadi thinkers and leaders are (and were), the more reluctance they are/were to embrace takfir (according to a study by Shane Drennan).[243] The late Abdullah Yusuf Azzam, "the godfather of the Afghan jihad", for example, was an Islamic scholar and university professor who avoided takfir and preached unity in the ummah (Muslim community). The Islamic education of Al-Qaeda's number two leader, Ayman al-Zawahiri, was early and much more informal—he was not a trained scholar—and al-Zawahiri expanded the definition of kafir to include many self-proclaimed Muslims. He has maintained that civilian government employees of Muslim states, security forces and any persons collaborating or engaging with these groups are apostates, for example.[243]

Two extreme takfiris -- Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, a Sunni jihadist leader in Iraq, and Djamel Zitouni, leader of the Algerian Armed Islamic Group of Algeria (GIA) during the Algerian civil war—had even broader definitions of apostasy and less religious knowledge. Al-Zarqawi was a petty criminal who had no religious training until he was 22 and limited training thereafter. Famous for bombing targets other jihadis thought off limits,[244] his definition of apostates included all Shia Muslims and "anyone violating his organization's interpretation of Shari'a".[243] Djamel Zitouni was the son of a chicken farmer with little Islamic education. He famously expanded the GIA's definition of apostate until he concluded the whole of Algerian society outside of the GIA "had left Islam". His attacks led to the deaths of thousands of Algerian civilians.[243]

De-radicalization

Evidence that more religious training may lead to less extremism has been found in Egypt. That country's largest radical Islamic group, al-Jama'a al-Islamiyya — which killed at least 796 Egyptian policemen and soldiers from 1992 to 1998 — renounced bloodshed in 2003 in a deal with the Egyptian government where a series of high-ranking members were released (as of 2009 "the group has perpetrated no new terrorist acts"). A second group Egyptian Islamic Jihad made a similar agreement in 2007. Preceding the agreements was program where Muslim scholars debated with imprisoned group leaders arguing that true Islam did not support terrorism.[245]

Muslim attitudes toward terrorism

The opinions of Muslims on the subject of attacks on civilians by Islamist groups vary. Fred Halliday, a British academic specialist on the Middle East, argues that most Muslims consider these acts to be egregious violations of Islam's laws.[246] Muslims living in the West denounce the 11 September attacks against United States, while Hezbollah contends that their rocket attacks against Israeli targets are defensive jihad by a legitimate resistance movement rather than terrorism.[247][248]

Views of modern Islamic scholars

In reference to suicide attacks, Hannah Stuart notes there is a "significant debate among contemporary clerics over which circumstance permit such attacks." Qatar-based theologian, Yusuf al-Qaradawi, criticized the 9/11 attacks but previously justified suicide bombings in Israel on the grounds of necessity and justified such attacks in 2004 against American military and civilian personnel in Iraq. According to Stuart, 61 contemporary Islamic leaders have issued fatawa permitting suicide attacks, 32 with respect to Israel. Stuart points out that all of these contemporary rulings are contrary to classical Islamic jurisprudence.[249]

Charles Kurzman and other authors have collected statements by prominent Muslim figures and organizations condemning terrorism.[13] In September 2014, an open letter to ISIS by "over 120 prominent Muslim scholars" denounced that group for "numerous religious transgressions and abominable crimes".[250][251]

Huston Smith, an author on comparative religion, argued that extremists have hijacked Islam, just as has occurred periodically in Christianity, Hinduism and other religions throughout history. He added that the real problem is that extremists do not know their own faith.[252]

Ali Gomaa, former Grand Mufti of Egypt, stated not only for Islam but in general: "Terrorism cannot be born of religion. Terrorism is the product of corrupt minds, hardened hearts, and arrogant egos, and corruption, destruction, and arrogance are unknown to the heart attached to the divine."[253]

A 600-page legal opinion (fatwa) by Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri condemned suicide bombings and other forms of terrorism as kufr (unbelief),[254] stating that it "has no place in Islamic teaching and no justification can be provided for it, or any kind of excuses or ifs or buts."[255] Iranian Ayatollah Ozma Seyyed Yousef Sanei has preached against suicide attacks and stated in an interview: "Terror in Islam, and especially Shiite, is forbidden."[256][257]

A group of Pakistani clerics of Jamaat Ahl-e-Sunnah (Barelvi movement) who were gathered for a convention denounced suicide attacks and beheadings as un-Islamic in a unanimous resolution.[258] On 2 July 2013 in Lahore, 50 Muslim scholars of the Sunni Ittehad Council (SIC) issued a collective fatwa against suicide bombings, the killing of innocent people, bomb attacks, and targeted killings. It considers them to be forbidden.[259]

Tactics

Suicide attacks

Hezbollah was the first group to use suicide bombers in the Middle East.[36] An increasingly popular tactic used by terrorists is suicide bombing.[260] This tactic is used against civilians, soldiers, and government officials of the regimes the terrorists oppose. A recent clerical ruling declares terrorism and suicide bombing as forbidden by Islam.[261]

Hijackings

Islamic terrorism sometimes employs the hijacking of passenger vehicles. The most infamous were the "9/11" attacks that killed nearly 3,000 people on a single day in 2001, effectively ending the era of aircraft hijacking.

Hostage taking, kidnappings and executions

Along with bombings and hijackings, Islamic terrorists have made extensive use of highly publicised kidnappings and executions (i.e. ritualized murders), often circulating videos of the acts for use as propaganda. A frequent form of execution by these groups is decapitation, another is shooting. In the 1980s, a series of abductions of American citizens by Hezbollah during the Lebanese Civil War resulted in the 1986 Iran–Contra affair. During the chaos of the Iraq War, more than 200 kidnappings foreign hostages (for various reasons and by various groups, including purely criminal) gained great international notoriety, even as the great majority (thousands) of victims were Iraqis. In 2007, the kidnapping of Alan Johnston by Army of Islam resulted in the British government meeting a Hamas member for the first time.

Motivations

Islamist militants, including Boko Haram, Hamas, al-Qaeda and the ISIS, have used kidnapping as a method of fundraising, as a means of bargaining for political concessions, and as a way of intimidating potential opponents.[262]

As political tactic

An example of political kidnapping occurred in September 2014, in the Philippines. The German Foreign Ministry reported that the Islamist militant group Abu Sayyaf had kidnapped two German nationals and was threatening to kill them unless the German government withdraw its support for the war against ISIS and also pay a large ransom.[263] In September 2014 an Islamist militant group kidnapped a French national in Algeria and threatened to kill the hostage unless the government of France withdrew its support for the war against ISIS.[264]

Islamist self-justifications

ISIL justified various acts internally, including beheadings and its kidnapping of Yazidi women and forcing them to become sex slaves or concubines.[265]

Abubakar Shekau, the leader of the Nigerian extremist group Boko Haram, said in a 2014 interview claiming responsibility for the 2014 Chibok kidnapping of 270+ schoolgirls, "Slavery is allowed in my religion, and I shall capture people and make them slaves".[266]

Kidnapping as revenue

Nasir al-Wuhayshi leader of the Islamist militant group Al-Qaida in the Arabian Peninsula describes kidnapped hostages as "an easy spoil... which I may describe as a profitable trade and a precious treasure."[267]

A 2014 investigation, by journalist Rukmini Maria Callimachi published in The New York Times demonstrated that between 2008 and 2014, Al Qaeda and groups directly affiliated with al-Qaeda took in over US$125 million from kidnapping, with $66 million of that total paid in 2013 alone. The article showed that from a somewhat haphazard beginning in 2003, kidnapping grew into the group's main fundraising strategy, with targeted, professional kidnapping of civilians from wealthy European countries—principally France, Spain and Switzerland—willing to pay huge ransoms. US and UK nationals are less commonly targeted since these governments have shown an unwillingness to pay ransom.[267]

Boko Haram kidnapped Europeans for the Ransom their governments would pay in the early 2010s.[268][269][270]

According to Yochi Dreazen writing in Foreign Policy, although ISIS received funding from Qatar, Kuwait and other Gulf oil states, "traditional criminal techniques like kidnapping", are a key funding source for ISIS.[271] Armin Rosen writing in Business Insider, kidnapping was a "crucial early source" of funds as ISIS expanded rapidly in 2013.[272] In March, upon receiving payment from the government of Spain, ISIS released 2 Spanish hostages working for the newspaper El Mundo, correspondent Javier Espinosa and photographer Ricardo Garcia Vilanova, who had been held since September 2013.[273] Philip Balboni, CEO of GlobalPost told the press that he had spent "millions" in efforts to ransom journalist James Foley, and an American official told the Associated Press that demand from ISIS was for 100 million ($132.5).[274] In September 2014, following the release of ISIS Beheading videos of journalists James Foley and Steven Sotloff, British Prime Minister David Cameron appealed to members of the G7 to abide by their pledges not to pay ransom "in the case of terrorist kidnap".[275]

Holding foreign journalists as hostages is so valuable to ISIS that Rami Jarrah, a Syrian who has acted as go-between in efforts to ransom foreign hostages, told the Wall Street Journal that ISIS had "made it known" to other militant groups that they "would pay" for kidnapped journalists.[276] ISIS has also kidnapped foreign-aid workers and Syrians who work for foreign-funded groups and reconstruction projects in Syria.[276] By mid-2014, ISIS was holding assets valued at US$2 billion.[277]

Kidnapping as psychological warfare

Boko Haram has been described as using kidnapping as a means of intimidating the civilian population into non-resistance.[278][279]

According to psychologist Irwin Mansdorf, Hamas demonstrated effectiveness of kidnapping as a form of psychological warfare in the 2006 capture of the Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit when public pressure forced the government of Israel to release 1027 prisoners, including 280 convicted of terrorism by Israel, in exchange for his release.[280] According to The New York Times, "Hamas has recognized the pull such incidents have over the Israeli psyche and clearly has moved to grab hostages in incidents such as the death and ransoming of Oron Shaul."[281]

Internet recruiting

In the beginning of the 21st century, emerged a worldwide network of hundreds of web sites that inspire, train, educate and recruit young Muslims to engage in jihad against the United States and other Western countries, taking less prominent roles in mosques and community centers that are under scrutiny.

Examples of organizations and acts

The "black flag of Jihad", used by various Islamist organizations since the late 1990s, consists of a white-on-black shahada.

Some prominent Islamic terror groups and incidents include the following:

Africa

In the 1990s, a distinct pattern of jihadist attacks in East Africa emerged. In 2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) defeated Somali warlords which resulted in an armed jihadist movement controlling a territory of their own. The ICU was later militarily defeated and al-Shabaab was formed from its remnants. Al-Shabaab would later ally itself with al-Qaeda. In 2017, the EUISS noted an increased frequency of jihadist violence in an arc extending across borders from the Red Sea to the Gulf of Guinea.[282]

Algeria

The Armed Islamic Group, active in Algeria between 1992 and 1998, was one of the most violent Islamic terrorist groups, and is thought to have takfired the Muslim population of Algeria. Its campaign to overthrow the Algerian government included civilian massacres, sometimes wiping out entire villages in its area of operation. It also targeted foreigners living in Algeria, killing more than 100 expatriates in the country. In recent years it has been eclipsed by a splinter group, the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC), now called Al-Qaeda Organization in the Islamic Maghreb.[283]

Burkina Faso

In January 2016, terrorists from Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) shot and killed 30 people at the Splendid Hotel in Ouagadougou.[284]

In an August 2017 Ouagadougou attack, 19 people were killed, and 25 others were injured when al-Qaeda's Maghreb jihadists affiliates opened fire on a Turkish restaurant and hotel.

During the March 2018 Ouagadougou attacks, terrorists affiliated with Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb killed 8 people and injured more than 85.

The terrorist organization Ansar ul Islam is active in Burkina Faso and has conducted assassinations, looting, attacks on police and has closed hundreds of schools.[284]

Egypt

Egypt has faced Islamist violence in repeated attacks since the 2011 Arab Spring uprising.[285]

On 17 November 1997, a splinter group of the al-Jama'a al-Islamiyya, an Egyptian Islamist organization, carried out the Luxor massacre where 62 people were killed. Most of the killed were tourists.[286]

On 29 December 2017 in Cairo, a gunman opened fire at the Coptic Orthodox Church of Saint Menas and a nearby shop owned by a Coptic man. Ten citizens and a police officer were killed around ten people were injured in the attack which was claimed by the Islamic state.[287][288]

Kenya

During the 1990s, Muslims in Kenya received religious radical instruction from Al-Qaeda and Somali group l-Itihad al-Islami (AIAI). AIAI sought to create an Islamic government over Somalia and the Ogaden region in Ethiopia. In Kenya, it recruited among Somalis in Kenya living in the North Eastern Province and the Eastleigh district in Nairobi.[289]

On 7 August 1998, Al-Qaeda attacked the U.S. Embassy in Nairobi in an attack that claimed 213 lives.[289]

On 28 November 2002, Al-Qaeda militants attacked an Israeli-owned hotel in Mombasa where 15 were killed. Militants also fired shoulder-launched anti-aircraft missiles at an airliner which escaped unharmed.[289]

On Saturday 21 September 2013, four Al-Shabaab militants attacked a shopping mall in Nairobi, shooting and throwing grenades at shoppers. The civilian death toll was 61, along with six soldiers and five of the attackers.[290]

In 2015, 147 people were killed by Al-Shabaab militants during the Garissa University College attack.[291]

After Al-Shabaab abducted foreign aid workers and tourists in Kenya, Kenyan troops were sent to Somalia in October 2011 to pursue al-Shabab militants. In the wake of the intervention, Kenya has suffered a number of attacks carried out both by al-Shabaab militants as well as Kenyan Muslim recruited by radical clerics in North-Eastern and Coast provinces.[289]

Mali

Mauritius

In 2011, Mauritian shop-keeper Reaz Lauthan travelled to Syria to join Islamic State and participate in the war. In Mauritius Reaz Lauthan had established Al Muhajiroun, an organization which promoted the relinquishment of Islamic traditions that originated from India. However Lauthan's group disintegrated and he made his way to Syria. He returned to Mauritius in 2012 and befriended members of a new Islamic group called Hizb ul Tahrir. He died in 2013 in Syria soon after returning there to participate in Islamic State's activities. Four other Mauritians had attempted to join Reaz Lauthan in Syria but were refused entry at the Turkish border.[292]

In August 2014, Mauritians Mohammed Iqbal Golamaully, aged 48, and his wife, Nazimabee Golamaully, aged 45, provided financial support to their nephew Zafirr Golamaully who had left Mauritius in March 2014 to fight for Islamic State in Syria after travelling via Dubai and Turkey. The couple was eventually jailed in 2016. Zafirr Golamaully's sister Lubnaa also left Mauritius to join him in Syria. Hospital director Mohammed Iqbal Golamaully had also encouraged Lubnaa to become familiar with the new gun that Zafirr had purchased for her. Mohammed Iqbal Golamaully also instructed Lubnaa to "revolutionise the Islamic Concept amongst our close relatives". Using a pseudonym "Abu Hud" Zafirr Golamaully posted hate messages on Twitter following the terrorist attack against magazine Charlie Hebdo in Paris in January 2015. On other social media sites Zafirr Golamaully used pseudonym "Paladin of Jihad" to provide advice to would-be jihadists on how to avoid deportation by Turkish immigration officials.[293][294][295][296]

In December 2015, Islamic State issued a video on social media which showed Mauritian citizen Yogen Sundrun who used his pseudonym Abu Shuaib Al Afriqi to claim that IS fighters will liberate Mauritius soon. The video prominently featured a flag of Daesh. Yogen Sundrun also urged other Mauritians, especially nurses and doctors, to travel to the lands of Islamic State. In 2014, Yogen Sundrun had released an earlier video, intended for South Africans at the time of Eid, and encouraging them to join the "Caliphate of Daesh". In that video he held his daughter in his arms and stated "This is my fifth daughter in the Khilafah, praise be God. Brothers and sisters, I don't have the words to express myself about the happiness to be here...". Around him children held fire-arms.[297]

During the night of Sunday 29 May 2016 and the following morning, several gunshots were fired at the French Embassy located in the capital city Port Louis. Graffiti was also painted by the attackers on the front fence of the compound which referred to Islamic State and claims that their prophet Abu Bakr Baghdadi had been insulted.[298][299]

Following the murder of Manan Fakhoo in January 2021, who was shot dead in Beau-Bassin by hitmen riding a motorbike, Javed Meetoo, a resident of Vallee Pitôt and member of Daesh (Islamic State), was arrested and charged with "harbouring terrorist" on 14 March 2022.[300][301] In March 2021, Yassiin Meetou had confessed that he had assisted shooter Ajmal Aumeeruddy and Ajam Beeharry of Camp Yoloff by transporting them and their motorbike to shoot Manan Fakhoo.[302]

Morocco

The majority of the perpetrators directly and indirectly involved in the 2004 Madrid train bombings were Moroccans. In the aftermath of that attack, Morocco became a focus of attention for anti-terrorist authorities in Spain.[303]

While Morocco is generally seen as a secure destination for tourists as the last terrorist attack happened in 2011 where 17 people were killed by bomb at a restaurant in Marrakesh, over 1600 people have travelled from Morocco to join the Islamic State in the Syrian Civil War. Moroccan authorities initially ignored the people who joined ISIS but later on realised they could return to commit terrorist offences in Morocco. As a result, the Bureau Central d'Investigations Judiciaires (BCIJ) was formed.[304]

In the 2013–2017 period, anti-terrorist authorities in Morocco, in cooperation with their counterparts in Spain, conducted up to eleven joint operations against jihadist cells and networks.[303]

In 2016, the government developed a strategy to further adherence to the Maliki Islamic school of thought. The authorities removed Quranic passages that were deemed too violent from religious education textbooks. As a result, the textbooks were reduced to 24 lessons from the 50 lessons they had before.[303][305]

In 2017, it was estimated that 1623 Moroccans and 2000 Moroccan-Europeans had travelled to join the Islamic State caliphate in the Syrian Civil War, which along with other fighters from MENA countries contributed a significant force to ISIS.[303]

According to a researcher at the Danish Institute for International Studies, Moroccan authorities appear to have a good grip on the jihadist situation and cooperates with European and US authorities. Moroccans are overrepresented in "diaspora terrorism", that is terrorism which takes place outside the borders of Morocco. For example, two Moroccans were behind the 2017 London Bridge attack and a Moroccan killed people by driving his van into pedestrians in La Rambla in the 2017 Barcelona terrorist attacks.[304]

Mozambique

Mozambique has seen an Islamist insurgency and terror attacks, by Ansar al-Sunna and ISIL, starting with October 2017, in the Cabo Delgado Province. By December 2020, more than 3,500 people have been killed and more than 400,000 people have been displaced.

Nigeria, Niger, Chad and Cameroon insurgency by Boko Haram

Boko Haram is an Islamic extremist group based in northeastern Nigeria which began violent attacks in 2009, also active in Chad, Niger and northern Cameroon. In the 2009–2018 period, more than 27,000 people have been killed in the fighting in the countries around Lake Chad.[306][307]

A study from June 2021 by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) estimates that nearly 350,000 have been killed by the Boko Haram insurgency.[308]

Boko Haram consists of two factions, one is led by Abubakar Shekau and it uses suicide bombings and kill civilians indiscriminately. The other is named Islamic State West Africa Province and it generally attacks military and government installations.[307]

Somalia and the Horn of Africa

Al-Shabaab is a militant jihadist terrorist group based in East Africa, which emerged in 2006 as the youth wing of the Islamic Courts Union. A number of foreign jihadists[who?] have gone to Somalia to support al-Shabaab. In 2012, it pledged allegiance to the militant Islamist organization Al-Qaeda. It is a participant in the Somali Civil War, and is reportedly being used by Egypt to destabilize Ethiopia, and attracting converts from predominantly Christian Kenya.[306]

In 2010, the group killed 76 people watching the 2010 World Cup in Uganda.[309]

In 2017, al-Shabaab was estimated to have about 7000–9000 fighters. It has imposed a strict Sharia law in areas it controls, such as stoning adulterers and amputating hands of thieves.[306]

Sudan

Tanzania

Tunisia

On 11 April 2002, a Tunisian Al-Qaeda operative used a truck bomb to attack the El Ghriba synagogue on Djerba island. The attack killed 19 people and injured 30 and was planned by Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and financed by a Pakistani resident of Spain.[310][311]

On 18 March 2015, three militants attacked the Bardo National Museum in the Tunisian capital city of Tunis, and took hostages. Twenty-one people, mostly European tourists, were killed at the scene, and an additional victim died ten days later. Around fifty others were injured.[312][313][314] Two of the gunmen, Tunisian citizens Yassine Labidi and Saber Khachnaoui were killed by police. Police treated the event as a terrorist attack.[315][316]

In June 2015, a mass shooting claimed by the Islamic State was carried out at a hotel by Seifeddine Rezgui. Thirty-eight people were killed, the majority of whom were tourists from the United Kingdom.[317]

Uganda

Central Asia

Afghanistan

According to Human Rights Watch, Taliban and Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin forces have "sharply escalated bombing and other attacks" against civilians since 2006. In 2006, "at least 669 Afghan civilians were killed in at least 350 armed attacks, most of which appear to have been intentionally launched at civilians or civilian objects".[318]

Kyrgyzstan

Kyrgyz-American brothers Dzhokhar Tsarnaev and Tamerlan Tsarnaev were responsible for the Boston Marathon bombing.

Tajikistan

The government blamed the IMU (Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan) for training those responsible for carrying out a suicide car bombing of a police station in Khujand on 3 September 2010. Two policemen were killed and 25 injured.[319]

Uzbekistan

On 16 February 1999, six car bombs exploded in Tashkent, killing 16 and injuring more than 100, in what may have been an attempt to assassinate President Islam Karimov. The IMU was blamed.[320]

The IMU launched a series of attacks in Tashkent and Bukhara in March and April 2004. Gunmen and female suicide bombers took part in the attacks, which mainly targeted police. The violence killed 33 militants, 10 policemen, and four civilians.[321] The government blamed Hizb ut-Tahrir,[322] though the Islamic Jihad Union (IJU) claimed responsibility.[323]

Furkat Kasimovich Yusupov was arrested in the first half of 2004, and charged as the leader of a group that had carried out the 28 March bombing on behalf of Hizb ut-Tahrir.[324]

On 30 July 2004, suicide bombers struck the entrances of the US and Israeli embassies in Tashkent. Two Uzbek security guards were killed in both bombings.[325] The IJU again claimed responsibility.[323]

Foreign commentators on Uzbek affairs speculated that the 2004 violence could have been the work of the IMU, Al-Qaeda, Hizb ut-Tahrir, or some other radical Islamic organization.[326][327]

East Asia

China

South Asia

Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, the group Jamaat-ul-Mujahideen Bangladesh was formed sometime in 1998, and gained prominence in 2001.[328] The organization was officially banned in February 2005 after attacks on NGOs, but struck back in August when 300 bombs were detonated almost simultaneously throughout Bangladesh, targeting Shahjalal International Airport, government buildings and major hotels.[329][330]

The Ansarullah Bangla Team (ABT), also called Ansar Bangla is an Islamic extremist organization in Bangladesh, implicated in crimes including some brutal attacks and murders of atheist bloggers from 2013 to 2015 and a bank heist in April 2015.[331]

Harkat-ul-Jihad-al-Islami (Arabic: حركة الجهاد الإسلامي, Ḥarkat al-Jihād al-Islāmiyah, meaning "Islamic Jihad Movement", HuJI) is an Islamic fundamentalist organization most active in South Asian countries of Pakistan, Bangladesh and India since the early 1990s. It was banned in Bangladesh in 2005.

India

Lashkar-e-Taiba, Jaish-e-Mohammed, Al Badr & Hizbul Mujahideen are militant groups seeking accession of Kashmir to Pakistan from India.[332] The Lashkar leadership describes Indian and Israel regimes as the main enemies of Islam and Pakistan.[333] Lashkar-e-Toiba, along with Jaish-e-Mohammed, another militant group active in Kashmir are on the United States' foreign terrorist organizations list, and are also designated as terrorist groups by the United Kingdom,[334] India, Australia[335] and Pakistan.[336] Jaish-e-Mohammed was formed in 1994 and has carried out a series of attacks all over India.[337][338] The group was formed after the supporters of Maulana Masood Azhar split from another Islamic militant organization, Harkat-ul-Mujahideen. Jaish-e-Mohammed is viewed by some as the "deadliest" and "the principal terrorist organization in Jammu and Kashmir".[339] The group was also implicated in the kidnapping and murder of American journalist Daniel Pearl.[339] All these groups coordinate under leadership of Syed Salahuddin's United Jihad Council.

Some major bomb blasts and attacks in India were perpetrated by Islamic militants from Pakistan, e.g., the 2008 Mumbai attacks and 2001 Indian Parliament attack.

2006 Mumbai train bombings killed 209 people and injured 700 more. It was carried out by banned Students Islamic Movement of India terrorist groups.[340]

Pakistan

Sri Lanka

The 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings, orchestrated by the National Thowheeth Jama'ath,[341] were the deadliest terrorist attack in the country since its civil war ended on 16 May 2009. The bombings killed 269 people and injured more than 500.

Southeast Asia

Indonesia

Philippines

The Abu Sayyaf Group, also known as al-Harakat al-Islamiyya, is one of several militant Islamic-separatist groups based in and around the southern islands of the Philippines, in Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (Jolo, Basilan, and Mindanao) where for almost 30 years various Muslim groups have been engaged in an insurgency for a state, independent of the predominantly Christian Philippines. The name of the group is derived from the Arabic ابو, abu ("father of") and sayyaf ("Swordsmith").[342] Since its inception in the early 1990s, the group has carried out bombings, assassinations, kidnappings and extortion in their fight for an independent Islamic state in western Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago with the stated goal of creating a pan-Islamic superstate across southeast Asia, spanning from east to west; the island of Mindanao, the Sulu Archipelago, the island of Borneo (Malaysia, Indonesia), the South China Sea, and the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and Myanmar).[343] The U.S. Department of State has branded the group a terrorist entity by adding it to the list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations.[343]

Thailand

Most of the terrorist incidents in Thailand are related to the South Thailand insurgency.

Europe

Planned and foiled Jihadist terror attacks in Europe. Numbers for 2017 and 2018 are preliminary.[344]

Lethal attacks on civilians in Europe which have been credited to Islamist terrorism include the 2004 bombings of commuter trains in Madrid, where 191 people were killed, the 7 July 2005 London bombings, also of public transport, which killed 52 commuters, and the 2015 Charlie Hebdo shooting, in Paris, where 12 people were killed in response to the satirical weekly newspaper Charlie Hebdo depicting cartoons of Muhammad. On 13 November 2015 the French capital suffered a series of coordinated attacks, claimed by ISIS, that killed 129 people in restaurants, the Bataclan theatre and the Stade de France.[345]

Out of 1,009 arrests for terrorism in 2008, 187 were in relation to Islamist terrorism. The report showed that the majority of Islamist terror suspects were second or third generation immigrants.[346] It also showed that more than 99% of attempted terrorist attacks in Europe over the last three years were, carried out by non-Muslims.[346]: 48 

Swedish economist Tino Sanandaji has criticised the use of statistics where the number of attacks are counted instead of the number of killed, since 79% of terrorist deaths 2001–2011 in Europe were due to Islamic terrorism. Therefore, statistics focusing on the number of attacks instead of the number killed are exploited by those who wish to trivialise the phenomenon.[347] The great difference in the number of attacks versus the number of killed is that separatist attacks in Spain, typically involve vandalism and not killing. So in statistics, the global terrorist plot leading to the 9/11 attack and a party headquarters being vandalised and painted with slogans by domestic terrorists each count as one terrorist attack.[347] According to a report by Europol on terrorism in the European Union, in 2016 "nearly all reported fatalities and most of the casualties were the result of jihadist terrorist attacks." A majority of about two-thirds of all terrorist-related arrests in the EU were also jihadist-related.[348]

The majority of deaths by terrorism in Europe from 2001 to 2014 were caused by Islamic terrorism, not including Islamic terrorist attacks in European Russia.[349]

According to the British think tank[350] ICSR, up to 40% of terrorist plots in Europe are part-financed through petty crime such as drug-dealing, theft, robberies, loan fraud and burglaries. Jihadists use ordinary crime as a way to finance their activity and have also argued this to be the "ideologically correct" way to wage jihad in non-Muslim lands.[351]

The pattern of jihadist attacks in 2017 led Europol to conclude that terrorists preferred to attack people rather than causing property damage or loss of capital.[352]

According to Europol, the jihadist attacks in 2017 had three patterns:[353]

The agency's report also noted that jihadist attacks had caused more deaths and casualties than any other type of terrorist attack, that such attacks had become more frequent, and that there had been a decrease in the sophistication and preparation of the attacks.[352]

According to Susanne Schröter, the 2017 attacks in European countries showed that the military defeat of the Islamic State did not mean the end of Islamist violence. Schröter also wrote that the events in Europe looked like a delayed implementation of jihadist strategy formulated by Abu Musab al-Suri in 2005, where an intensification of terror should destabilise societies and encourage Muslim youth to revolt. The expected civil war never materialised Europe, but did occur in other regions such as North Africa and the Philippines.[354]

In April 2018, EU anti-terror coordinator estimated there to be 50,000 radicalized Muslims living in Europe.[355]

Austria

Belgium

In the 1990s Belgium was a transit country for Islamist terrorist groups like the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria (GIA) and the Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM).[356]

Belgium has a population of 11 million including large numbers of immigrants from Muslim countries. 100,000 Moroccan citizens live in Belgium, often descended from Moroccans recruited to work in the mining industry in the 1960s; a small fraction of the children and grandchildren of the immigrant generation have been attracted to Militant Islamism and jihad. A tiny fraction of this large Muslim population has participated in terrorist attacks.[357] In a report by the Combating Terrorism Center, of the 135 individuals surveyed in connection with terrorism, there were 12 different nationalities. Of those 65% had Belgian citizenship and 33% were either Moroccan citizens or had ancestral roots there.[358]

In 2016, Belgian researcher estimated that about 562 individuals had travelled to become foreign fighters in the Syrian and Iraqi Civil Wars, the majority of whom joined the Islamic State with others joining the al-Qaida-affiliated group Al-Nusra Front.[359] The majority of those who went to the Syria in the 2012-2016 time span were of Moroccan descent according to U.S. and Belgian authorities.[360]

Belgium has been the base of operations for a number of terrorist attacks in the 2010s, including the November 2015 Paris attacks.[357] It has also been the place where some Islamist militants developed militant views before going to the Middle East to fight with ISIS.[357]

In June 2016, with 451 fighters having travelled to join the Syrian Civil War, Belgium had the highest number of foreign fighters per capita.[356]

The November 2015 Paris attacks in France were coordinated and planned from Belgium. The overall leader of that terrorist cell was believed to be Mohamed Belkaid, an Islamic State operative from Algeria who previously had lived in Sweden. Belkaid was killed in a shootout in the Foret district of Brussels, during which Belkaid was firing on police to allow Salah Abdeslam to escape. Salah Abdeslam was arrested a few days later and the surviving members of the cell, including brothers Najim Laachraoui and Khalid and Ibrahim Bakraoui (previously armed robbers) launched the 2016 Brussels bombings targeting Brussels airport and metro killing 32.[356]

Terrorism experts regard Islamic State activities in Europe's Francophone area as a single, French-Belgian junction of ISIS activity and attacks.[361]

Finland

The ICCT report from April 2016 showed that at least 70 individuals had left Finland to enter the conflict zone and the majority joined jihadist groups in Syria and Iraq. They started leaving in the 2012-13 time span and the male-female ratio was about 80-20%.[362]

The first terrorist attack in Finland was the 2017 Turku attack where Abderrahman Bouanane, a failed asylum seeker from Morocco, stabbed two women to death and wounded eight other people in his stabbing attack.[363]

Islamist militants constituted the majority of those under surveillance by the Finnish Security Intelligence Service (SUPO) in 2020 and Finland is portrayed as an enemy state in ISIS propaganda. The Foreign fighters in the Syrian and Iraqi Civil Wars movement has amplified transnational contacts for the Islamist movements in Finland. A number of militants have arrived from the conflict zone in Syria and the Al-Hawl refugee camp and constitute both a short and long term security threat.[364][365]

France

France had its first occurrences with religious extremism in the 1980s due to French involvement in the Lebanese Civil War. In the 1990s, a series of attacks on French soil were executed by the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria (GIA).

In the 1990–2010 time span, France experienced repeated attacks linked to international jihadist movements.[303] Le Monde reported on 26 July 2016 that "Islamist Terrorism" had caused 236 dead in France in the preceding 18-month period.[366]

In the 2015–2018 timespan in France, 249 people were killed and 928 wounded in a total of 22 terrorist attacks.[367]

The deadly attacks in 2015 in France changed the issue of Islamist radicalization from a security threat to also constitute a social problem. Prime minister François Hollande and prime minister Manuel Valls saw the fundamental values of the French republic being challenged and called them attacks against secular, enlightenment and democratic values along with "what makes us who we are".[303]

Although jihadists in the 2015-onward timeframe legitimized their attacks with a narrative of reprisal for France's participation in the international coalition fighting the Islamic State, Islamic terrorism in France has other, deeper and older causes. The main reasons France suffers frequent attacks are, in no particular order:[368]

  • France's secular domestic policies (Laïcité) which jihadists perceive to be hostile towards Islam. Also, France's status as an officially secular nation and jihadists label France as "the flagship of disbelief".[368]
  • France has a strong cultural tradition in comics, which in the context of Muhammad cartoons is a question of freedom of expression.[369]
  • France has a large Muslim minority[369]
  • France's foreign policy towards Muslim countries and jihadist fronts. France is seen as the spearhead directed against jihadist groups in Africa, just as the United States is seen as the main force opposing jihadist groups elsewhere. France's former foreign policies such as that as its colonization of Muslim countries is also brought up in jihadist propaganda, for example, that the influence of French education, culture and political institutions had served to erase the Muslim identity of those colonies and their inhabitants.[370]
  • Jihadists consider France as a strong proponent of disbelief. For instance, Marianne, the national emblem of France, is considered as "a false idol" by jihadists and the French to be "idol worshippers". France also has no law against blasphemy and an anticlerical satirical press which is less respectful towards religion than that of the US or the United Kingdom[dubious – discuss]. The French nation state is also perceived as an obstacle towards establishing a caliphate.[370]

In 2020 two Islamic terrorist attacks were foiled by authorities, bringing the total to 33 since 2017 according to Laurent Nuñez, the director of CNRLT, who declared that Sunni Islamist terrorism was a prioritised threat. Nuñez drew parallels between the three attacks of 2020 which all were attacks on "blasphemy and the will to avenge their prophet".[371]

Germany

In the 2015–2020 time span, there were 9 Islamic terrorist attacks and thwarted terrorist plots where at least one of the perpetrators had entered Germany as an asylum seeker during the European migrant crisis. The Islamic terrorists entered Germany either without identity documents or with falsified documents. The number of discovered plots began to decline in 2017. In 2020 German authorities noted that the majority of the asylum seekers entered Germany without identification papers during the crisis and security agencies considered unregulated immigration as problematic from a security aspect.[372]

Italy

Despite its proximity to the Middle East and North Africa, relatively porous borders, and a large influx of migrants from Muslim majority countries, Italy has not experienced the same surge in radicalization as other European countries. Just 125 individuals with ties to Italy left to join jihadist groups, compared with Belgium's 470 and Sweden's 300 such individuals in the same period from their much smaller populations. Since the September 11 attacks in 2001, there have been a small number of plots either thwarted or failed. Two individuals born in Italy have been involved in terrorist attacks, Youssef Zaghba one of the trio of attackers in the June 2017 London Bridge attack while ISIS sympathizer Tomasso Hosni attacked soldiers at Milan's Central station in May 2017.[303]

Deportation (expulsion) of suspects who are foreign nationals has been the cornerstone of Italy's preventive counter-terrorism strategy against jihadists.[373] Deportees are prohibited from re-entering Italy and the entire Schengen Area for at least five years. This measure is particularly effective because in Italy, unlike in other Western European countries, many radicalized Muslims are first-generation immigrants without Italian citizenship. As elsewhere in Europe, prison inmates show signs of radicalization while incarcerated. In 2018, 41 individuals were deported upon release.[373] Of the 147 people deported from 2015 to 2017, all were related to Islamist radicalization and 12 were imams.[374] From January 2015 to April 2018, 300 individuals were expelled from Italian soil.[303] The vast majority of the deportees come from North Africa, with most of the deportees come from Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt. A noted group came from the Balkans, with 13 individuals from Albania, 14 from Kosovo and 12 from Macedonia. A smaller group were from Asia, with Pakistanis constituting the largest group.[374]

Netherlands

Jihadists oppose Dutch society and the Dutch government[375] and hold intolerant and anti-democratic views.[376]

In 2009, the AIVD reported that armed Islamic extremists in Somalia received support from individuals in the Netherlands. In the years leading up to 2006, there was an increase in radical activity which among other events manifested itself in the assassination of Theo van Gogh in 2004 by the Hofstad Network. In the years after 2006 radical activities diminished despite continued military presence by Dutch forces in Afghanistan and material deemed provocative by Muslims, such as Geert Wilder's film Fitna. While Islamist networks earlier had a strong local base of support centered around charismatic leaders, several of those leaders were arrested and deported by Dutch authorities or they left the country voluntarily. This led to reduced recruiting to those networks.[377]

According to the Dutch General Intelligence and Security Service (AIVD) in 2018, there are about 500 active supporters and thousands of sympathisers in the Netherlands.[378]

In 2015 the AIVD reported that jihadists exploited the boundaries in the Dutch legal framework, by testing the limits of civil rights such as freedom of speech.[376]

In 2017 AIVD approximated the number of female jihadists in the Netherlands to be about 100 and at least 80 women had left the Netherlands to join the conflict, the majority of whom joined ISIS.[379] Jihadist women in the Netherlands encourage both men and women to believe in their ideology by entering into discussions online and offline as well as spreading jihadist propaganda. Jihadist women also help travellers to conflict zones by providing material support or putting them in touch with facilitators. They also help by hiding the fact that someone has left to join a conflict zone.[375]

In the 2012 – November 2018 period, above 310 individuals had travelled from the Netherlands to the conflict in Syria and Iraq. Of those 85 had been killed and 55 returned to the Netherlands. Of the surviving Dutch foreign fighters in the region, 135 are fighters in the conflict zone and three quarters are members of ISIS. The remaining quarter have joined Al-Qaeda affiliated groups such as Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham or Tanzim Hurras al-Deen.[380]

Attacks in the Netherlands

Norway

In 2012, two men were sentenced in Oslo to seven and a half years in jail for an attack against Mohammad-cartoonist Kurt Westergaard. This was the first sentence under the new anti-terror legislation. A third man was freed from the accusation of terrorism, but was sentenced for helping with explosives and he received a fourth-month prison sentence.[386]

Poland

In 2015, the terrorist threat level was zero, on its scale which has four levels plus the "zero level". About 20–40 Polish nationals had travelled to the conflict zone in Syria-Iraq.[387]

Russia

Beslan school victim photos

Politically and religiously motivated attacks on civilians in Russia have been traced to separatist sentiment among the largely Muslim population of its North Caucasus region, particularly in Chechnya, where the central government of the Russian Federation has waged two bloody wars against the local secular separatist government since 1994. In the Moscow theater hostage crisis in October 2002, three Chechen separatist groups took an estimated 850 people hostage in the Russian capital; at least 129 hostages died during the storming by Russian special forces, all but one killed by the chemicals used to subdue the attackers (whether this attack would more properly be called a nationalist rather than an Islamist attack is in question). In the September 2004 Beslan school hostage crisis more than 1,000 people were taken hostage after a school in the Russian republic of North Ossetia–Alania was seized by a pro-Chechen multi-ethnic group aligned to Riyad-us Saliheen Brigade of Martyrs; hundreds of people died during the storming by Russian forces.[388]

Since 2000, Russia has also experienced a string of suicide bombings that killed hundreds of people in the Caucasian republics of Chechnya, Dagestan and Ingushetia, as well as in Russia proper including Moscow. Responsibility for most of these attacks was claimed by either Shamil Basayev's Islamic-nationalist rebel faction or, later, by Dokka Umarov's pan-Islamist movement Caucasus Emirate which is aiming to unite most of Russia's North Caucasus as an emirate since its creation in 2007.[389] Since the creation of the Caucasus Emirate, the group has abandoned its secular nationalist goals and fully adopted the ideology of Salafist-takfiri Jihadism[390] which seeks to advance the cause of Allah on the earth by waging war against the Russian government and non-Muslims in the North Caucasus, such as the local Sufi Muslim population, whom they view as mushrikeen (polytheists) who do not adhere to true Islamic teachings. In 2011, the U.S. Department of State included the Caucasus Emirate on its list of terrorist organizations.[391]

Spain

Jihadists were present in Spain from 1994, when an al-Qaeda cell was established.[392] In 1996, the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria (GIA), an organisation affiliated with al-Qaeda, founded a cell in the province of Valencia.[393] In the 1995–2003 period, slightly over 100 people were arrested for offences related to militant salafism, an average of 12 per year.[392]

In 2004, Madrid commuters suffered the 2004 Madrid train bombings, which were perpetrated by remnants of the first al-Qaeda cell, members of the Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM) plus a gang of criminals turned into jihadists.[392]

In the period 2004–2012, there were 470 arrests, an average of 52 per year and four times the pre-Madrid bombings average which indicated that the jihadist threat persisted after the Madrid attack. In the years after the Madrid attack, 90% of all jihadists convicted in Spain were foreigners, mainly from Morocco, Pakistan and Algeria, while 7 out of 10 resided in the metropolitan areas of Madrid or Barcelona. The vast majority were involved in cells linked to organisations such as al-Qaeda, the GICM, the Algerian Salafist group Group for Preaching and Combat which had replaced the GIA, and Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan.[392]

In the period 2013, jihadism in Spain transformed to be less overwhelmingly associated with foreigners. Arrests 2013–2017 show that 4 out of 10 arrested were Spanish nationals and 3 out of 10 were born in Spain. Most others had Morocco as a country of nationality or birth with its main focus among Moroccan descendants residing in the North African cities of Ceuta and Melilla. The most prominent jihadist presence was the province of Barcelona.[392] In 2013 and 2014 there were cells associated with Al-Nusra Front, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.[392]

In 2017, a terrorist cell based in the province of Barcelona carried out the vehicle-ramming 2017 Barcelona attacks, even if their original plans were on a larger scale.[392]

The 2023, Algeciras church attacks was treated as Islamic terrorism by the Audiencia Nacional.[394]

Sweden

According to the Swedish Defence University, since the 1970s, a number of residents of Sweden have been implicated in providing logistical and financial support to or joining various foreign-based transnational Islamic militant groups. Among these organizations are Hezbollah, Hamas, the GIA, Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State, Al-Shabaab, Ansar al-Sunna and Ansar al-Islam.[395]

In the 2000s, Islamists in Sweden were not primarily seeking to commit attacks in Sweden, but were rather using Sweden as a base of operations against other countries and for providing logistical support for groups abroad.[396]

In 2010, the Swedish Security Service estimated that a total of 200 individuals were involved in the Swedish Islamist extremist environment. According to the Swedish Defence University, most of these militants were affiliated with the Islamic State, with around 300 people traveling to Syria and Iraq to join the group and Al-Qaeda associated outfits like Jabhat al-nusra in the 2012–2017 period[395] and some have financed their activities with funds from the Swedish state welfare systems.[397] In 2017, Swedish Security Service director Anders Thornberg stated that the number of violent Islamic extremists residing in Sweden to number was estimated to be "thousands".[398] The Danish Security and Intelligence Service judged the number of jihadists in Sweden to be a threat against Denmark since two terrorists arriving from Sweden had already been sentenced in the 2010 Copenhagen terror plot.[399] Security expert Magnus Ranstorp has argued that efforts to improve anti-terror legislation has been hampered by human rights activists such as Ywonne Ruwaida, Mehmet Kaplan and the organisation Charta 2008. A change in the activism occurred in the 2013–2014 time frame due to the number of Swedish citizens travelling to join the Islamic State. He also stated that some of the loudest activists have withdrawn from public debate after being exposed for harassing women in the metoo campaign.[400]

The issue has also led to problematic relationship between Sweden and Turkey in the context of Swedish decision to join NATO in 2022, a request that has been delayed by Turkey due to Turkish view that Sweden is not doing enough to prevent organizations Turkey sees as terrorist from operating in Sweden (see Swedish anti-terrorism bill (2023)).[401][402][403][404]

Islamic terror attacks in Sweden

In 2010, Taimour Abdulwahab al-Abdaly, an Iraqi-born Swedish citizen, attempted to kill Christmas shoppers in Stockholm in the 2010 Stockholm bombings. According to investigations by FBI, the bombing would likely have killed between 30 and 40 people had it succeeded, and it is thought that al-Abdaly operated with a network.[405]

In April 2017 Rakhmat Akilov, a 39-year-old rejected asylum seeker born in the Soviet Union and a citizen of Uzbekistan, drove a truck down a pedestrian area in Stockholm and killed five people and injured dozens of others in the 2017 Stockholm truck attack. He has expressed sympathy with extremist organizations, among them the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).[406]

Balkans

Middle East/West Asia

Turkey

Historians have said that militant Islamism first gained ground among Kurds before its appeal grew among ethnic Turks and that the two most important radical Islamist organizations have been an outgrowth of Kurdish Islamism rather than Turkish Islamism.[407] The Turkish or Kurdish Hizbullah is a primarily Kurdish group has its roots in the predominantly Kurdish southeast of Turkey and among Kurds who migrated to the cities in Western Turkey.[407] The members of the İBDA-C were predominantly Kurds, most members if not all are ethnic Kurds like its founder, as in the Hizbullah. The İBDA-C stressed its Kurdish roots, and is fighting Turkish secularism, and is also anti-Christian. The Hizbula reestablished in 2003 in southeastern Turkey and "today its ideology might be more widespread than ever among Kurds there".[407] The influence of these groups confirms "the continuing Kurdish domination of Turkish islamism". Notable Kurdish Islamists include also[408](an Iraqi Kurd born in Sudan) co-founder of the Islamist terrorist network al-Qaeda. There is a strong Kurdish element in Turkish radical Islamism.[407] Kurdish and Turkish Islamists have also co-operated together, one example being the 2003 Istanbul bombings, and this co-operation has also been observed in Germany, as in the case of the Sauerland terror cell. Political scientist Guido Steinberg stated that many top leaders of Islamist organizations in Turkey fled to Germany in the 2000s, and that the Turkish Hizbullah has also "left an imprint on Turkish Kurds in Germany".[407] Also many Kurds from Iraq (there are about 50,000 to 80,000 Iraqi Kurds in Germany) financially supported Kurdish-Islamist groups like Ansar al Islam.[407] Many Islamists in Germany are ethnic Kurds (Iraqi and Turkish Kurds) or Turks. Before 2006, the German Islamist scene was dominated by Iraqi Kurds and Palestinians, but since 2006 Kurds and Turks from Turkey are dominant.[407]

Hezbollah in Turkey (unrelated to the Shia Hezbollah in Lebanon) is a Sunni terrorist group accused of a series of attacks, including the November 2003 bombings of two synagogues, the British consulate in Istanbul and HSBC bank headquarters that killed 58.[409] Hizbullah's leader, Hüseyin Velioğlu, was killed in action by Turkish police in Beykoz on 17 January 2000. Besides Hizbullah, other Islamic groups listed as a terrorist organization by Turkish police counter-terrorism include Great Eastern Islamic Raiders' Front, al-Qaeda in Turkey, Tevhid-Selam (also known as al-Quds Army), and Kalifatstaat ("Caliphate State", Hilafet Devleti). Islamic Party of Kurdistan and Hereketa İslamiya Kurdistan are also Islamist groups active against Turkey, however unlike Hizbullah they're yet to be listed as active terrorist organizations in Turkey by Turkish police counter-terrorism.[410]

Iraq

The area that has seen some of the worst terror attacks in modern history has been Iraq as part of the Iraq War. In 2005, there were more than 400 incidents of suicide bombing attacks, killing more than 2,000 people.[411] In 2006, almost half of all reported terrorist attacks in the world (6,600), and more than half of all terrorist fatalities (13,000), occurred in Iraq, according to the National Counterterrorism Center of the United States.[412]

Israel and the Palestinian territories

Hamas ("zeal" in Arabic and an acronym for Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya) grew in power and began attacks on military and civilian targets in Israel at the beginning of the First Intifada in 1987.[413] The 1988 charter of Hamas calls for the destruction of Israel.[414] Hamas's armed wing, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, was established in mid 1991[415] and claimed responsibility for numerous attacks against Israelis, principally suicide bombings and rocket attacks. Hamas has been accused of sabotaging the Israeli-Palestine peace process by launching attacks on civilians during Israeli elections to anger Israeli voters and facilitate the election of harder-line Israeli candidates.[416] Hamas has been designated as a terrorist group by Canada, the United States, Israel, Australia, Japan, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights and Human Rights Watch. It is banned in Jordan. Russia does not consider Hamas a terrorist group as it was "democratically elected".[417] During the Second Intifada (September 2000 through August 2005) 39.9 percent of the suicide attacks were carried out by Hamas.[418] The first Hamas suicide attack was the Mehola Junction bombing in 1993.[419] Hamas claims its aims are "To contribute in the effort of liberating Palestine and restoring the rights of the Palestinian people under the sacred Islamic teachings of the Holy Quran, the Sunna (traditions) of Prophet Mohammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and the traditions of Muslims rulers and scholars noted for their piety and dedication."[415]

Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine is a Palestinian Islamist group based in the Syrian capital, Damascus, and dedicated to waging jihad to eliminate the state of Israel. It was formed by Palestinian Fathi Shaqaqi in the Gaza Strip following the Iranian Revolution which inspired its members. From 1983 onward, it engaged in "a succession of violent, high-profile attacks" on Israeli targets. The Intifada which "it eventually sparked" was quickly taken over by the much larger Palestine Liberation Organization and Hamas.[420] Beginning in September 2000, it started a campaign of suicide bombing attacks against Israeli civilians. The PIJ's armed wing, the Al-Quds brigades, has claimed responsibility for numerous terrorist attacks in Israel, including suicide bombings. The group has been designated as a terrorist organization by several Western countries.

Other groups linked with Al-Qaeda operate in the Gaza Strip including: Army of Islam, Abdullah Azzam Brigades, Jund Ansar Allah, Jaljalat and Tawhid al-Jihad.

Lebanon

Hezbollah first emerged in 1982, as a militia during the 1982 Lebanon War.[421][422] Its leaders were inspired by the Ayatollah Khomeini, and its forces were trained and organized by a contingent of Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.[423] Hezbollah's 1985 manifesto listed its three main goals as "putting an end to any colonialist entity" in Lebanon, bringing the Phalangists to justice for "the crimes they [had] perpetrated", and the establishment of an Islamic regime in Lebanon.[424][425] Hezbollah leaders have also made numerous statements calling for the destruction of Israel, which they refer to as a "Zionist entity... built on lands wrested from their owners."[424][425]

Hezbollah, which started with only a small militia, has grown to an organization with seats in the Lebanese government, a radio and a satellite television-station, and programs for social development.[426] They maintain strong support among Lebanon's Shi'a population, and gained a surge of support from Lebanon's broader population (Sunni, Christian, Druze) immediately following the 2006 Lebanon War,[427] and are able to mobilize demonstrations of hundreds of thousands.[428] Hezbollah along with some other groups began the 2006–2008 Lebanese political protests in opposition to the government of Prime Minister Fouad Siniora.[429] A later dispute over Hezbollah preservation of its telecoms network led to clashes and Hezbollah-led opposition fighters seized control of several West Beirut neighborhoods from Future Movement militiamen loyal to Fouad Siniora. These areas were then handed over to the Lebanese Army.[430]

A national unity government was formed in 2008, in Lebanon, giving Hezbollah and its opposition allies control of 11 of 30 cabinets seats; effectively veto power.[431] Hezbollah receives its financial support from the governments of Iran and Syria, as well as donations from Lebanese people and foreign Shi'as.[432][433] It has also gained significantly in military strength in the 2000s.[434] Despite a June 2008 certification by the United Nations that Israel had withdrawn from all Lebanese territory,[435] in August, Lebanon's new Cabinet unanimously approved a draft policy statement which secures Hezbollah's existence as an armed organization and guarantees its right to "liberate or recover occupied lands". Since 1992, the organization has been headed by Hassan Nasrallah, its Secretary-General. The United States, Canada, Israel, Bahrain,[436][437][438] France,[439] Gulf Cooperation Council,[440] and the Netherlands regard Hezbollah as a terrorist organization, while the United Kingdom, the European Union[441] and Australia consider only Hezbollah's military wing or its external security organization to be a terrorist organization. Many consider it, or a part of it, to be a terrorist group[442][443] responsible for blowing up the American embassy[444] and later its annex, as well as the barracks of American and French peacekeeping troops and dozens of kidnappings of foreigners in Beirut.[445][446] It is also accused of being the recipient of massive aid from Iran,[447] and of serving "Iranian foreign policy calculations and interests",[445] or serving as a "subcontractor of Iranian initiatives"[446] Hezbollah denies any involvement or dependence on Iran.[448] In 2006, in most of the Arab and Muslim worlds, Hezbollah was regarded as a legitimate resistance movement.[449] In 2005, the Lebanese Prime Minister said of Hezbollah, it "is not a militia. It's a resistance."[450]

Fatah al-Islam is an Islamist group operating out of the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp in northern Lebanon. It was formed in November 2006, by fighters who broke off from the pro-Syrian Fatah al-Intifada, itself a splinter group of the Palestinian Fatah movement, and is led by a Palestinian fugitive militant named Shaker al-Abssi.[451] The group's members have been described as militant jihadists,[452] and the group itself has been described as a terrorist movement that draws inspiration from al-Qaeda.[451][452][453] Its stated goal is to reform the Palestinian refugee camps under Islamic sharia law,[454] and its primary targets are the Lebanese authorities, Israel and the United States.[451]

Saudi Arabia

Syria

Yemen

North America

Canada

According to recent government statements, Islamic terrorism is the biggest threat to Canada.[455] The Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) reported that terrorist radicalization at home is now the chief preoccupation of Canada's spy agency.[456] The most notorious arrest in Canada's fight on terrorism, was the 2006 Ontario terrorism plot in which 18 Al-Qaeda-inspired cell members were arrested for planning a mass bombing, shooting, and hostage taking terror plot throughout Southern Ontario. There have also been other arrests mostly in Ontario involving terror plots.[457]

United States

United Airlines Flight 175 explodes after being flown into the South Tower of the World Trade Center during the 11 September terrorist attacks.

Between 1993 and 2001, the major attacks or attempts against U.S. interests stemmed from militant Islamic jihad extremism except for the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing.[458] On 11 September 2001, nearly 3,000 people were killed in New York City, Washington, DC, and Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, during the September 11 attacks organized by 19 al-Qaeda members and largely perpetrated by Saudi nationals, sparking the War on Terror. Former CIA Director Michael Hayden considers homegrown terrorism to be the most dangerous threat and concern faced by American citizens today.[459] As of July 2011, there have been 52 homegrown jihadist extremist plots or attacks in the United States since the 11 September attacks.[460]

One of the worst mass shootings in U.S. history was committed by a Muslim against LGBT people. Omar Mateen, in an act motivated by the terrorist group Islamic State, shot and murdered 49 people and wounded more than 50 in a gay nightclub, Pulse, in Orlando, Florida.[461]

Oceania

Australia

New Zealand

South America

Argentina

The 1992 attack on Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires, was a suicide bombing attack on the building of the Israeli embassy of Argentina, located in Buenos Aires, which was carried out on 17 March 1992. Twenty-nine civilians were killed in the attack and 242 additional civilians were injured. A group called Islamic Jihad Organization, which has been linked to Iran and possibly Hezbollah,[462] claimed responsibility.

An incident from 1994, known as the AMIA bombing, was an attack on the Asociación Mutual Israelita Argentina (Argentine Israelite Mutual Association) building in Buenos Aires. It occurred on 18 July and killed 85 people and injured hundreds more.[463] A suicide bomber drove a Renault Trafic van bomb loaded with about 275 kilograms (606 lb) of ammonium nitrate fertilizer and fuel oil explosive mixture,[464][465] into the Jewish Community Center building located in a densely constructed commercial area of Buenos Aires. Prosecutors Alberto Nisman and Marcelo Martínez Burgos formally accused the government of Iran of directing the bombing, and the Hezbollah militia of carrying it out.[466][467] The prosecution claimed that Argentina had been targeted by Iran after Buenos Aires' decision to suspend a nuclear technology transfer contract to Tehran.[468]

On 18 January 2015, Nisman was found dead at his home in Buenos Aires,[469][470] one day before he was scheduled to report on his findings, with supposedly incriminating evidence against high-ranking officials of the then-current Argentinian government including former president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.[471][472][473]

Transnational

Al-Qaeda's stated aim is the use of jihad to defend and protect Islam against Zionism, Christianity, the secular West, and Muslim governments such as Saudi Arabia, which it sees as insufficiently Islamic and too closely tied to the United States.[474][475][476][477]

Organizations

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ which is encapsulated in the formula "Islam is exalted and nothing is exalted above it".[21] Also World Assembly of Muslim Youth "which has publicly stated that one of its educational goals is to arm the Muslim youth with full confidence in the supremacy of the Islamic system over other systems."[22]
  2. ^ An indication that Islamic terrorism has at least paced the general decline in deaths from terror is that "one of the more worrying trends" in terrorism over the five year period from 2014–2019, is (non-Islamic) far-right terrorism.[46]
  3. ^ Shia Muslims have been involved in violence primarily at the state level[61] (Hezbollah attacks on Israeli targets and Iran's use of shaheeds against Saddam Hussien's Iraq for example). The small Quranist (Muslims who follow only Quran) and Ahmadi groups (who believe jihad should be peaceful) have "zero history of violence".
  4. ^ Faizal calls these groups "sects", Wikipedia calls them "movements".
  5. ^ Kepel wrote that "the modern Islamist movement"[67] was "rebuilt" around "the ideas" of Qutb, rebuilt because the Muslim Brotherhood was crushed after 1954 by the regime of Gamal Abdel Nasser. In 1954 another a second unsuccessful assassination was attempted against Egypt's prime minister (Gamal Abdel Nasser), and blamed on the "secret apparatus" of the Brotherhood. The Brotherhood was again banned and this time thousands of its members were imprisoned.
  6. ^ Qutbism has been used as a close relative,[69][70] or variety of Salafi jihadism.
  7. ^ (Qutb wrote Milestones in prison and "died before he could fully explain his theories" and clear up "his use of the term jahiliyya and its dire consequence, takfir")[82]
  8. ^ One estimate is that during the reign of King Fahd (1982 to 2005), over $75 billion was spent in efforts to spread Wahhabi Islam. The money was used to establish 200 Islamic colleges, 210 Islamic centers, 1,500 mosques, and 2,000 schools for Muslim children in Muslim and non-Muslim majority countries.[109] According to diplomat and political scientist Dore Gold, this funding was for non-Muslim countries alone.[110]
  9. ^ (The punishment is agreed on by all the schools of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) both Sunni and Shia,[139] and has traditionally been undisputed.)[140]
  10. ^ according to Jamileh Kadivar based on estimates from Global Terrorism Database, 2020; Herrera, 2019; Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights & United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI) Human Rights Office, 2014; Ibrahim, 2017; Obeidallah, 2014; 2015[158]
  11. ^ (This claim seems to be based on incorrect facts — the price of wheat did not increase three fold from 1973–1997 — and the questionable assumption that the demand and price for oil would continue to rise at a steady rate after the Arab Oil Embargo raised it by four fold in a short period.)[190][192]

Citations

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  107. ^ Lacey, Robert (2009). Inside the Kingdom: Kings, Clerics, Modernists, Terrorists, and the Struggle for Saudi Arabia. Viking. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-670-02118-5. The Kingdom's 70 or so embassies around the world already featured cultural, educational, and military attaches, along with consular officers who organized visas for the hajj. Now they were joined by religious attaches, whose job was to get new mosques built in their countries and to persuade existing mosques to propagate the dawah wahhabiya.
  108. ^ Abou El Fadl, Khaled (2005). The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists. Harper San Francisco. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-06-056339-4. A wide range of institutions, whether schools, book publishers, magazines, newspapers, or even governments, as well as individuals, such as imams, teachers, or writers, learned to shape their behavior, speech, and thought in such a way as to incur and benefit from Saudi largesse. In many parts of the Muslim world, the wrong type of speech or conduct (such as failing to veil or advocate the veil) meant the denial of Saudi largesse or the denial of the possibility of attaining Saudi largesse, and in numerous contexts this meant the difference between enjoying a decent standard of living or living in abject poverty.
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Bibliography

  • Kepel, Gilles (2002). Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01090-1. Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam.
  • Bin Laden, Osama; Lawrence, Bruce (2005). Messages to the world: the statements of Osama Bin Laden. Verso. ISBN 978-1-84467-045-1.
  • Cooper, William Wager; Yue, Piyu (2008). Challenges of the muslim world: present, future and past. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 978-0-444-53243-5.
  • Dreyfuss, Robert (2006). Devil's Game: How the United States Helped Unleash Fundamentalist Islam. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-8050-8137-4.
  • Sageman, Marc (2004). Understanding terror networks. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3808-2.
  • Scheuer, Michael; Anonymous (2004). Imperial Hubris: Why the West Is Losing the War on Terror. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books (formerly Brassey's, Inc.). ISBN 978-0-9655139-4-4.

Further reading

  • Ishaq, Ibn; Guillaume, A. (18 July 2002). The Life of Muhammad. United States: Oxford University Press. p. 860. ISBN 978-0-19-636033-1. OCLC 911693736.
  • Amir, Taheri (1987). Holy Terror: Inside the World of Islamic Terrorism. Adler & Adler. ISBN 978-0-917561-45-0.
  • Atran, Scott (2010). Talking to the Enemy. Ecco Press / HarperCollins, US; Allen Lane/Penguin, UK. ISBN 978-0-06-134490-9.
  • Bostom, Andrew (2005). The Legacy of Jihad. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-59102-307-4. OCLC 900607541.
  • Dennis, Anthony J. (1996). The Rise of the Islamic Empire and the Threat to the West. Wyndham Hall Press, Ohio. ISBN 978-1-55605-268-2.
  • Dennis, Anthony J. (2002). Osama Bin Laden: A Psychological and Political Portrait. Wyndham Hall Press, Ohio. ISBN 978-1-55605-341-2.
  • Durie, Mark (2010). The Third Choice: Islam, Dhimmitude and Freedom. Deror Books. ISBN 978-0-9807223-0-7. OCLC 695930410.
  • Esposito, John L. (1995). The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality?. Oxford University Press, US. ISBN 978-0-19-510298-7.
  • Esposito, John L. (2003). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press, US. ISBN 978-0-19-516886-0.
  • Falk, Avner (2008). Islamic Terror: Conscious and Unconscious Motives. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Security International. ISBN 978-0-313-35764-0.
  • Fregosi, Paul (1998). Jihad in the West: Muslim Conquests from the 7th to the 21st Centuries. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-57392-247-0. OCLC 248903444.
  • Gabriel, Brigitte. (2006). Because They Hate: A Survivor of Islamic Terror Warns America. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312358377
  • Halliday, Fred (2003). Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics of the Middle East. I.B. Tauris, New York. ISBN 978-1-86064-868-7.
  • Hirsi Ali, Ayaan (2007). Infidel. Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-9503-1.
  • Ibrahim, Raymond (2007). The Al Qaeda Reader. Broadway, US. ISBN 978-0-7679-2262-3. OCLC 150386218.
  • Besenyo, Janos (2017). "ATACURI PUŢIN COSTISITOARE, COMPLOTURI IMPERCEPTIBILE? PREZENTARE GENERALĂ PRIVIND CARACTERUL ECONOMIC AL TERORISMULUI ACTUAL" [Low Cost Attacks, Imperceptible Plots? General Presentation on the Economic Character of Current Terrorism]. Impact Strategic (in Romanian). 62 (1): 84–101. ISSN 1582-6511..
  • Kepel, Gilles. Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam.
  • Kepel, Gilles. The War for Muslim Minds.
  • Swarup, Ram (1982). Understanding Islam through Hadis. Arvind Ghosh. ISBN 978-0-682-49948-4.
  • Tahir-ul-Qadri, Muhammad (2011). Fatwa on Terrorism and Suicide Bombings. London: Minhaj-ul-Quran. ISBN 978-0-9551888-9-3.
  • Ibn Warraq (1995). Why I Am Not a Muslim. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0-87975-984-1.
  • Ibn Warraq (2017). The Islam in Islamic Terrorism: The Importance of Beliefs, Ideas, and Ideology. New English Review. ISBN 978-1-943003-08-2. OCLC 990505503.
  • Ye'or, Bat (1996). The Decline of Eastern Christianity. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-3678-7. OCLC 876802597.
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