India , oficialmente la República de India, mantiene relaciones diplomáticas plenas con 201 estados, incluyendo Palestina , la Santa Sede , Niue y las Islas Cook . [ nota 1 ] [ ...
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Según el Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores de la India, los principales objetivos de la diplomacia india incluyen la protección de los intereses nacionales de la India, la promoción de relaciones amistosas con otros estados y la prestación de servicios consulares a "extranjeros y ciudadanos indios en el extranjero". [ 4 ] En las últimas décadas, la India ha seguido una política exterior expansiva, que incluye la política de "primero los vecinos " plasmada en la SAARC , así como la política de "mirar hacia el este " para forjar relaciones económicas y estratégicas más amplias con los países del este y sureste asiático. También ha mantenido una política de ambigüedad estratégica , que incluye su política nuclear de " no primer uso " y su postura neutral en la guerra ruso-ucraniana .
Las relaciones de la India con el mundo han evolucionado desde el Raj británico (1857-1947), cuando el Imperio británico asumió la responsabilidad de las relaciones exteriores y de defensa. Cuando la India obtuvo la independencia en 1947, pocos indios tenían experiencia en la formulación o ejecución de la política exterior. Sin embargo, el partido político más antiguo del país, el Congreso Nacional Indio , había establecido un pequeño departamento de asuntos exteriores en 1925 para establecer contactos en el extranjero y dar a conocer su lucha por la independencia. Desde finales de la década de 1920, Jawaharlal Nehru , quien tenía un interés de larga data en los asuntos mundiales entre los líderes de la independencia, formuló la postura del Congreso sobre cuestiones internacionales junto con V. K. Krishna Menon ; después de 1947, articularon la visión del mundo de la India como Primer Ministro y Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores de facto .
La influencia internacional de la India varió a lo largo de los años posteriores a la independencia. El prestigio y la autoridad moral de la India eran elevados en la década de 1950 y facilitaron la obtención de ayuda para el desarrollo tanto de Oriente como de Occidente. Si bien este prestigio provenía de la postura de no alineación de la India, y en particular de la posición que otorgaba a diplomáticos indios, como Menon, para mediar o conciliar en disputas ajenas, el país no pudo evitar que la política de la Guerra Fría se entrelazara con las relaciones interestatales en el sur de Asia. En el controvertido tema de Cachemira con Pakistán, la India perdió credibilidad al rechazar los llamamientos de las Naciones Unidas a un plebiscito en la zona en disputa. [ 12 ]
En las décadas de 1960 y 1970, la posición internacional de la India entre los países desarrollados y en desarrollo se debilitó durante las guerras con China y Pakistán, las disputas con otros países del sur de Asia y el intento de la India de igualar el apoyo que Pakistán recibía de Estados Unidos y China mediante la firma del Tratado de Amistad y Cooperación Indo-Soviético en agosto de 1971. Si bien la India obtuvo una importante ayuda militar y económica soviética, que contribuyó a fortalecer la nación, su influencia se vio mermada a nivel regional e internacional por la percepción de que su amistad con la Unión Soviética impedía una condena más contundente de la presencia soviética en Afganistán. A finales de la década de 1980, la India mejoró sus relaciones con Estados Unidos, otros países desarrollados y China, al tiempo que mantenía estrechos lazos con la Unión Soviética. Las relaciones con sus vecinos del sur de Asia, especialmente Pakistán, Sri Lanka y Nepal, acapararon gran parte de los esfuerzos del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. [ 13 ]
Aunque India continúa teniendo una relación militar con Rusia, [ 29 ] Israel se ha convertido en el segundo socio militar más importante de India [ 26 ] mientras que India ha construido una sólida asociación estratégica con Estados Unidos. [ 18 ] [ 30 ] La política exterior de Narendra Modi indicó un cambio hacia el enfoque en la región asiática y, más ampliamente, en los acuerdos comerciales.
Política
La política exterior de la India siempre ha considerado el concepto de vecindad como uno de círculos concéntricos que se expanden alrededor de un eje central de similitudes históricas y culturales. [ 31 ]
Hasta 44 millones de personas de origen indio viven y trabajan en el extranjero, constituyendo un vínculo importante con la madre patria. Un papel fundamental de la política exterior de la India ha sido garantizar su bienestar dentro del marco legal del país donde residen. [ 32 ]
Papel del Primer Ministro
Jawaharlal Nehru , el primer ministro de la India , promovió un papel personal destacado para el cargo. Nehru desempeñó simultáneamente los cargos de primer ministro y ministro de Asuntos Exteriores; tomaba personalmente todas las decisiones importantes de política exterior tras consultar con sus asesores y luego delegaba la gestión de los asuntos internacionales a altos funcionarios del Servicio Exterior de la India. Fue el principal impulsor de los Panchsheel, o los Cinco Principios de la Coexistencia Pacífica .
Sus sucesores continuaron ejerciendo un control considerable sobre las relaciones internacionales de la India, aunque nombraron ministros de asuntos exteriores independientes. [ 33 ] [ 34 ] [ 35 ]
Jawaharlal Nehru , el primer ministro de la India, dirigiéndose a las Naciones Unidas (1948)
El segundo primer ministro de la India, Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964-1966), amplió la Oficina del Primer Ministro (a veces denominada Secretaría del Primer Ministro) y aumentó sus poderes. Para la década de 1970, la Oficina del Primer Ministro se había convertido en el coordinador de facto y supraministerio del gobierno indio. El papel reforzado de la oficina fortaleció el control del primer ministro sobre la formulación de la política exterior, a expensas del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. Los asesores de la oficina proporcionaban canales de información y recomendaciones políticas adicionales a las ofrecidas por el Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. Una parte subordinada de la oficina, el Ala de Investigación y Análisis (RAW), funcionaba de manera que ampliaba significativamente la información disponible para el primer ministro y sus asesores. El RAW recopilaba inteligencia, proporcionaba análisis de inteligencia a la Oficina del Primer Ministro y llevaba a cabo operaciones encubiertas en el extranjero.
El control y la dependencia del primer ministro sobre sus asesores personales en la Oficina del Primer Ministro fueron particularmente fuertes durante los mandatos de Indira Gandhi (1966-1977 y 1980-1984) y su hijo, Rajiv (1984-1989), quien la sucedió, y más débiles durante los períodos de gobiernos de coalición. A los observadores les resulta difícil determinar si la autoridad para la toma de decisiones sobre cualquier asunto reside en el Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, el Consejo de Ministros, la Oficina del Primer Ministro o el propio primer ministro. [ 36 ]
El ministro de Asuntos Exteriores de la India, Dr. S. Jaishankar, se reunió con el secretario de Defensa de Estados Unidos, Lloyd Austin, en el Pentágono el 29 de septiembre de 2023.
En la era posterior a la Guerra Fría , un aspecto significativo de la política exterior de la India es la política de "Mirar hacia el Este". Durante la Guerra Fría, las relaciones de la India con sus vecinos del sudeste asiático no eran sólidas. Tras el fin de la guerra, el gobierno indio comprendió la importancia de corregir este desequilibrio en su política exterior. En consecuencia, a principios de la década de 1990, el gobierno de Narsimha Rao presentó la política de "Mirar hacia el Este". Inicialmente, esta política se centró en renovar los contactos políticos y económicos con los países del este y sureste de Asia.
Actualmente, en el marco de la Política de Mirar hacia el Este , el Gobierno de la India pone especial énfasis en el desarrollo económico de la región nororiental, una zona atrasada, aprovechando el enorme mercado de la ASEAN y los recursos energéticos disponibles en algunos de sus países miembros, como Birmania. [ 44 ] Esta política se puso en marcha en 1991, justo después del fin de la Guerra Fría, tras la disolución de la Unión Soviética. Tras el inicio de la liberalización, representó una decisión política estratégica clave para el gobierno en materia de política exterior. En palabras del Primer Ministro Manmohan Singh: «También supuso un cambio estratégico en la visión que la India tenía del mundo y en su papel dentro de la economía global en evolución».
La política recibió un impulso inicial con la visita del entonces Primer Ministro Narasimha Rao a China, Japón, Corea del Sur, Vietnam y Singapur, y con la India convirtiéndose en un importante socio de diálogo con la ASEAN en 1992. Desde principios de este siglo, la India ha dado un gran impulso a esta política al convertirse en socio de alto nivel de la ASEAN (2002) y participar en algunas iniciativas regionales como la BIMSTEC y la Cooperación Ganga-Mekong, y ahora convertirse en miembro de la Cumbre de Asia Oriental (EAS) en diciembre de 2005. [ 45 ]
Vínculos con países occidentales
Desde la disolución de la Unión Soviética, India ha forjado una alianza más estrecha con las potencias occidentales. En la década de 1990, los problemas económicos de India y el colapso del sistema político mundial bipolar la obligaron a reevaluar su política exterior y ajustar sus relaciones internacionales. Las políticas anteriores resultaron insuficientes para afrontar los graves problemas internos e internacionales que enfrentaba India. El fin de la Guerra Fría desvirtuó el significado esencial del no alineamiento y dejó la política exterior india sin una dirección clara. Las consideraciones pragmáticas y rigurosas de principios de la década de 1990 aún se enmarcaban dentro del contexto del no alineamiento del pasado, pero la desintegración de la Unión Soviética redujo considerablemente la influencia internacional de India, una pérdida que las relaciones con Rusia y los demás estados postsoviéticos no pudieron compensar. Tras la disolución de la Unión Soviética, India mejoró sus relaciones con Estados Unidos, Canadá, Francia, Japón y Alemania. En 1992, India estableció relaciones diplomáticas formales con Israel, relación que se fortaleció durante los mandatos del gobierno de la Alianza Democrática Nacional (NDA) y los posteriores gobiernos de la Alianza Progresista Unida (UPA) . [ 46 ]
A mediados de la década de 1990, India atrajo la atención mundial hacia el terrorismo respaldado por Pakistán en Cachemira . La guerra de Kargil resultó en una importante victoria diplomática para India. Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea reconocieron que el ejército pakistaní se había infiltrado ilegalmente en territorio indio y presionaron a Pakistán para que se retirara de Kargil. Varios grupos militantes anti-India con base en Pakistán fueron catalogados como grupos terroristas por Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea .
En 1998, India realizó su segunda prueba nuclear (véase Pokhran-II ), lo que dio lugar a varias sanciones impuestas por Estados Unidos, Japón y Europa. El entonces ministro de Defensa de India, George Fernandes , afirmó que el programa nuclear indio era necesario, ya que disuadía la posible amenaza nuclear china. La mayoría de las sanciones impuestas a India se levantaron en 2001. [ 47 ]
Tras los atentados del 11 de septiembre de 2001, las agencias de inteligencia indias proporcionaron a Estados Unidos información relevante sobre las actividades de Al-Qaeda y grupos afines en Pakistán y Afganistán. La amplia contribución de la India a la lucha contra el terrorismo , junto con el auge de su economía, ha favorecido sus relaciones diplomáticas con diversos países. En los últimos tres años, la India ha llevado a cabo numerosos ejercicios militares conjuntos con Estados Unidos y naciones europeas, lo que ha fortalecido las relaciones bilaterales entre Estados Unidos e India y entre la Unión Europea e India . El comercio bilateral de la India con Europa y Estados Unidos se ha duplicado con creces en los cinco años transcurridos desde 2003. [ 48 ]
La creciente economía de la India, su ubicación estratégica, una combinación de política exterior amistosa y diplomática, y una diáspora numerosa y dinámica le han granjeado más aliados que enemigos. [ 58 ] La India mantiene relaciones amistosas con varios países del mundo en desarrollo . Si bien la India no forma parte de ninguna alianza militar importante, mantiene una estrecha relación estratégica y militar con la mayoría de las demás grandes potencias.
Entre los países considerados más cercanos a la India se encuentran los Emiratos Árabes Unidos , [ 59 ] la Federación Rusa , [ 60 ] Israel , [ 61 ] Afganistán, [ 62 ] Francia, [ 63 ] Bután, [ 64 ] Bangladesh, [ 65 ] y los Estados Unidos. Rusia es el mayor proveedor de equipo militar a la India, seguida de Israel y Francia. [ 66 ] Según algunos analistas, Israel está a punto de superar a Rusia como el mayor socio militar y estratégico de la India . [ 67 ] Los dos países también colaboran ampliamente en el ámbito de la lucha contra el terrorismo y la tecnología espacial. [ 68 ] La India también mantiene fuertes relaciones militares con otros países, como el Reino Unido, los Estados Unidos, [ 69 ] Japón, [ 70 ] Singapur, Brasil, Sudáfrica e Italia. [ 71 ] Además, India opera una base aérea en Tayikistán, [ 72 ] firmó un acuerdo de defensa histórico con Qatar en 2008, [ 73 ] y arrendó la isla Assumption a Seychelles para construir una base naval en 2015. [ 74 ]
India también ha forjado relaciones con países en desarrollo, especialmente Sudáfrica, Brasil, [ 75 ] y México. [ 76 ] Estos países a menudo representan los intereses de los países en desarrollo a través de foros económicos como el G8+5 , IBSA y OMC . India fue vista como uno de los abanderados del mundo en desarrollo y afirmó hablar en nombre de un conjunto de más de otras 30 naciones en desarrollo en la Ronda de Doha para el Desarrollo . [ 77 ] [ 78 ] La política india de Mirar hacia el Este le ha ayudado a desarrollar mayores asociaciones económicas y estratégicas con los países del Sudeste Asiático , Corea del Sur, Japón y Taiwán. India también disfruta de relaciones amistosas con los países del Golfo Pérsico y la mayoría de los miembros de la Unión Africana .
La Fundación para la Investigación de la Seguridad Nacional en Nueva Delhi publicó « Socios estratégicos de la India: una evaluación comparativa» y clasificó a los principales socios estratégicos de la India con una puntuación de 90 puntos: Rusia ocupa el primer lugar con 62, seguida de Estados Unidos (58), Francia (51), Reino Unido (41), Alemania (37) y Japón (34). [ 79 ] Uno de los resultados de la cumbre del G20 de 2023 es un proyecto de transporte que facilitaría el comercio de la India con Oriente Medio y Europa. [ 80 ]
acuerdos de asociación
India ha firmado acuerdos de asociación estratégica con más de 40 países/entidades supranacionales, que se enumeran aquí en orden cronológico:
Acuerdos futuros
A partir de 2025, India está tomando medidas para establecer alianzas estratégicas con Canadá [ 127 ] y Colombia [ 128 ] . Aunque India no ha firmado ningún acuerdo formal de alianza estratégica con Bután , su Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores suele describir las relaciones con Bután como «estratégicas» [ 129 ] .
Relaciones diplomáticas
Lista de países con los que India mantiene relaciones diplomáticas:
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 18 de agosto de 1947. [ 307 ]
Abdel Nasser y sus hijos con Jawaharlal Nehru. En 1955, Egipto, bajo el liderazgo de Gamal Abdel Nasser, e India, bajo el de Jawaharlal Nehru, fundaron el Movimiento de Países No Alineados. Durante la guerra de 1956, Nehru apoyó a Egipto hasta el punto de amenazar con retirar a su país de la Commonwealth.
Las relaciones modernas entre Egipto e India se remontan a los contactos entre Saad Zaghloul y Mohandas Gandhi sobre los objetivos comunes de sus respectivos movimientos independentistas. [ 308 ] En 1955, Egipto, bajo Gamal Abdel Nasser , e India, bajo Jawaharlal Nehru, se convirtieron en los fundadores del Movimiento de Países No Alineados . Durante la guerra de 1956, Nehru apoyó a Egipto hasta el punto de amenazar con retirar a su país de la Commonwealth . En 1967, tras el conflicto árabe-israelí , India apoyó a Egipto y a los árabes. En 1977, Nueva Delhi describió la visita del presidente Anwar al-Sadat a Jerusalén como una medida "valiente" y consideró el tratado de paz entre Egipto e Israel un paso fundamental en el camino hacia una solución justa del problema de Oriente Medio. Las principales exportaciones egipcias a India incluyen algodón en rama, fertilizantes crudos y manufacturados, petróleo y productos derivados del petróleo, productos químicos orgánicos e inorgánicos, y productos de cuero y hierro. Las principales importaciones de Egipto procedentes de la India son hilo de algodón, sésamo, café, hierbas, tabaco, lentejas, productos farmacéuticos y equipos de transporte. El Ministerio de Petróleo egipcio también está negociando actualmente la construcción de una planta de fertilizantes alimentada con gas natural con otra empresa india. En 2004, la Autoridad de Gas de la India limitada compró el 15% de la empresa egipcia de distribución y comercialización de gas natural. En 2008, la inversión egipcia en la India ascendió a unos 750 millones de dólares, según el embajador egipcio. [ 309 ] Tras la Primavera Árabe de 2011, con el derrocamiento de Hosni Mubarak, Egipto solicitó la ayuda de la India para la celebración de elecciones nacionales.
Gabón
Gabón mantiene una embajada en Nueva Delhi. La Embajada de la India en Kinshasa , República Democrática del Congo, está acreditada conjuntamente ante Gabón. [ 310 ]
Ghana
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 6 de marzo de 1957. [ 311 ]
Las relaciones entre Ghana e India son generalmente estrechas y cordiales, con vínculos económicos y culturales. El comercio entre India y Ghana ascendió a 818 millones de dólares estadounidenses en 2010-11 y se espera que alcance los 1.000 millones de dólares estadounidenses para 2013. [ 312 ] Ghana importa automóviles y autobuses de India, y empresas como Tata Motors y Ashok Leyland tienen una presencia significativa en el país. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] Las exportaciones ghanesas a India consisten en oro , cacao y madera, mientras que las exportaciones indias a Ghana comprenden productos farmacéuticos , maquinaria agrícola, equipos eléctricos, plásticos, acero y cemento. [ 315 ]
El Gobierno de la India ha otorgado a Ghana líneas de crédito por valor de 228 millones de dólares , que se han utilizado para proyectos en sectores como el procesamiento agroindustrial, el procesamiento de pescado, la gestión de residuos, la electrificación rural y la expansión de los ferrocarriles de Ghana. [ 316 ] India también se ha ofrecido a establecer un Instituto de Tecnología de la Información India-África (IAIIT) y un Centro de Incubación de Empresas de Procesamiento de Alimentos en Ghana en el marco de la Cumbre del Foro India-África . [ 315 ]
India se encuentra entre los mayores inversores extranjeros en la economía de Ghana . A finales de 2011, las inversiones indias en Ghana ascendieron a 550 millones de dólares, abarcando unos 548 proyectos. [ 316 ] Las inversiones indias se concentran principalmente en los sectores agrícola y manufacturero de Ghana, mientras que las empresas ghanesas fabrican medicamentos en colaboración con empresas indias. El sector de las tecnologías de la información en Ghana también cuenta con una importante presencia india. India y Ghana también tienen un Acuerdo Bilateral de Protección de Inversiones entre ellos. [ 317 ] La empresa india Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilisers está en proceso de establecer una planta de fertilizantes en Ghana, en Nyankrom, en el distrito de Shama de la Región Occidental de Ghana . El proyecto implica una inversión de 1.300 millones de dólares estadounidenses y la planta tendría una capacidad de producción anual de 1,1 millones de toneladas, la mayor parte de las cuales se exportaría a India. [ 318 ] [ 319 ] También existen planes para desarrollar una planta procesadora de azúcar que implica una inversión de 36 millones de dólares estadounidenses. [ 320 ] Bank of Baroda , Bharti Airtel , Tata Motors y Tech Mahindra se encuentran entre las principales empresas indias en Ghana. [ 321 ]
Actualmente, en Ghana viven entre siete y ocho mil indios y personas de origen indio, algunos de los cuales llevan allí más de 70 años. [ 315 ] Ghana alberga una creciente población hindú autóctona que hoy cuenta con 3000 familias. El hinduismo llegó a Ghana a finales de la década de 1940 con los comerciantes sindhi que emigraron tras la partición de la India . Ha ido creciendo en Ghana y en el vecino Togo desde mediados de la década de 1970, cuando se estableció un monasterio hindú africano en Accra. [ 322 ] [ 323 ]
Guinea
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 8 de julio de 1960. [ 194 ]
Costa de Marfil
Las relaciones bilaterales entre India y Costa de Marfil se han expandido considerablemente en los últimos años, a medida que India busca desarrollar una amplia asociación comercial y estratégica en la región de África Occidental . La misión diplomática india en Abiyán se inauguró en 1979. Costa de Marfil abrió su misión residente en Nueva Delhi en septiembre de 2004. [ 324 ] Ambas naciones están impulsando actualmente esfuerzos para aumentar el comercio, las inversiones y la cooperación económica. [ 325 ]
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 14 de diciembre de 1963 [ 326 ].
Como estados ribereños del Océano Índico, los vínculos comerciales entre India y Kenia se remontan a varios siglos. Kenia cuenta con una importante minoría de indios y personas de origen indio que son descendientes de trabajadores traídos por los británicos para la construcción del Ferrocarril de Uganda y de comerciantes gujaratis . [ 327 ] India y Kenia mantienen crecientes lazos comerciales. El comercio bilateral ascendió a 2400 millones de dólares en 2010-2011, pero dado que las importaciones kenianas procedentes de India representaron 2300 millones de dólares, la balanza comercial favoreció en gran medida a India. India es el sexto socio comercial más importante de Kenia y el mayor exportador a Kenia. Las exportaciones indias a Kenia incluyen productos farmacéuticos , acero , maquinaria y automóviles, mientras que las exportaciones kenianas a India son productos básicos como carbonato de sodio , verduras y té . Las empresas indias tienen una presencia significativa en Kenia, con corporaciones indias como el Grupo Tata , el Grupo Essar , Reliance Industries y Bharti Airtel operando allí.
Lesoto
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 8 de junio de 1971. [ 328 ]
India mantiene una Alta Comisión en Pretoria que presta servicios a Lesotho, y Lesotho mantiene una misión diplomática en India. Lesotho e India mantienen fuertes lazos. Lesotho ha respaldado la candidatura de India para un puesto permanente en la ONU y también ha reconocido a Jammu y Cachemira como parte de India. India exportó 11 millones de dólares estadounidenses a Lesotho en el año 2010-2011, mientras que solo importó 1 millón de dólares estadounidenses en bienes de Lesotho. Desde 2001, un equipo de entrenamiento del Ejército indio ha capacitado a varios soldados de las Fuerzas de Defensa de Lesotho (LDF) .
Liberia
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 7 de julio de 1960. [ 329 ]
Las relaciones bilaterales entre la República de la India y la República de Liberia se han expandido gracias al creciente comercio bilateral y la cooperación estratégica. La India está representada en Liberia a través de su embajada en Abiyán ( Costa de Marfil ) y un consulado honorario activo en Monrovia desde 1984. Liberia estaba representada en la India a través de su misión residente en Nueva Delhi, que posteriormente cerró debido a restricciones presupuestarias. [ 330 ]
Libia
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 20 de julio de 1952. [ 331 ]
Malawi
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 19 de octubre de 1964. [ 218 ]
Malí
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 24 de enero de 1962. [ 332 ]
Mauritania
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 22 de octubre de 1965. [ 333 ]
Las relaciones entre India y Mauricio existen desde 1730; las relaciones diplomáticas se establecieron en 1948, antes de que Mauricio se convirtiera en un estado independiente. [ 338 ] La relación es muy cordial debido a las afinidades culturales y los largos lazos históricos que existen entre las dos naciones. Más del 68% de la población mauriciana es de origen indio , la mayoría conocida como indo-mauriciana . La cooperación económica y comercial ha ido en aumento a lo largo de los años. India se ha convertido en la principal fuente de importaciones de Mauricio desde 2007, y Mauricio importó bienes por valor de 816 millones de dólares estadounidenses en el año fiscal de abril de 2010 a marzo de 2011. Mauricio ha sido la principal fuente de IED para India durante más de una década, con entradas de capital de IED que totalizaron 55.200 millones de dólares estadounidenses en el período de abril de 2000 a abril de 2011. India y Mauricio cooperan en la lucha contra la piratería, que se ha convertido en una gran amenaza en la región del Océano Índico , y apoyan la postura de India contra el terrorismo. [ 339 ]
En las Naciones Unidas, India apoyó la descolonización de Marruecos y el movimiento independentista marroquí. India reconoció a Marruecos el 20 de junio de 1956 y estableció relaciones en 1957. [ 341 ] El Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores del Gobierno de la India afirma que «India y Marruecos han mantenido relaciones cordiales y amistosas, y a lo largo de los años las relaciones bilaterales han experimentado una profundidad y un crecimiento significativos». [ 342 ]
El Consejo Indio de Relaciones Culturales promueve la cultura india en Marruecos. [ 343 ] Marruecos busca aumentar sus lazos comerciales con India y busca inversión india en varios sectores. [ 344 ] Las relaciones bilaterales entre India y Marruecos se fortalecieron después de que el embajador marroquí en India pasara una semana en Srinagar , la capital de Jammu y Cachemira . Esto demostró la solidaridad marroquí con India respecto a Cachemira. [ 344 ]
Mozambique
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 25 de junio de 1975. [ 345 ]
En 2008-09, el comercio entre los dos países se situó en aproximadamente US$80 millones. Las principales importaciones de Namibia procedentes de la India fueron medicamentos y productos farmacéuticos, productos químicos, maquinaria agrícola, automóviles y piezas de automóviles, vidrio y cristalería, y productos de plástico y linóleo. La India importó principalmente metales no ferrosos, minerales y chatarra metálica. Los productos indios también se exportan a la vecina Sudáfrica y se reimportan a Namibia como importaciones sudafricanas. Los diamantes namibios a menudo se exportan a los mercados de diamantes europeos antes de ser importados nuevamente a la India. En 2009, tuvo lugar la primera venta directa de diamantes namibios a la India. [ 347 ] En 2008, dos empresas indias ganaron un contrato de US$105 millones de NamPower para tender una línea bipolar de corriente continua de alta tensión desde Katima Mulilo hasta Otjiwarongo . [ 347 ] Namibia es beneficiaria del programa de Cooperación Técnica y Económica de la India (ITEC) para profesionales de las telecomunicaciones de países en desarrollo.
India tiene un alto comisionado en Windhoek [ 348 ] y Namibia tiene un alto comisionado en Nueva Delhi . El alto comisionado de Namibia también está acreditado ante Bangladesh, Maldivas y Sri Lanka. [ 349 ]
Níger
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 18 de julio de 1977. [ 258 ]
Nigeria
India mantiene estrechas relaciones con Nigeria. Nigeria abastece el 20% de las necesidades de petróleo crudo de India. India recibe 40 000 barriles diarios (6400 m³ / d) de Nigeria. El comercio entre ambos países alcanzó los 875 millones de dólares en 2005-2006. Las empresas indias también han invertido en manufactura, productos farmacéuticos , mineral de hierro, acero, tecnología de la información y comunicaciones, entre otros sectores. Tanto India como Nigeria son miembros de la Commonwealth , del Grupo de los 77 (G-77 ) y del Movimiento de Países No Alineados (MPNA) . El expresidente nigeriano Olusegun Obasanjo fue el invitado de honor en el desfile del Día de la República de 1999, y el primer ministro indio Manmohan Singh visitó Nigeria en 2007 y se dirigió al Parlamento nigeriano.
Las relaciones indo-ruandesas son las relaciones exteriores entre la República de la India y la República de Ruanda . La India está representada en Ruanda a través de su consulado honorario en Kigali . Ruanda mantiene su embajada en Nueva Delhi desde 1998 y nombró a su primer embajador residente en 2001. [ 350 ]
India y Sudáfrica siempre han mantenido relaciones sólidas, a pesar de que India rompió relaciones diplomáticas en protesta contra el régimen del apartheid a mediados del siglo XX. La historia del dominio británico une a ambos países. Existe una numerosa comunidad de indios sudafricanos . Mahatma Gandhi pasó muchos años en Sudáfrica, donde luchó por los derechos de la población de origen indio. Nelson Mandela se inspiró en Gandhi. Tras la independencia de India, este país condenó enérgicamente el apartheid y rechazó las relaciones diplomáticas mientras el apartheid se practicaba como política de Estado en Sudáfrica.
Mahatma Gandhi (fila central, en el centro) con los líderes del movimiento de resistencia no violenta en Sudáfrica.
Los dos países mantienen ahora estrechas relaciones económicas, políticas y deportivas. El comercio bilateral creció de 3 millones de dólares en 1992-1993 a 4 mil millones de dólares en 2005-2006, con el objetivo de alcanzar los 12 mil millones de dólares para 2010. Un tercio de las importaciones de la India procedentes de Sudáfrica son lingotes de oro . Los diamantes, extraídos en Sudáfrica, se pulen en la India. Nelson Mandela recibió el Premio Gandhi de la Paz . Ambos países también son miembros del Foro de Diálogo IBSA , junto con Brasil. La India espera obtener grandes cantidades de uranio de Sudáfrica, país rico en recursos, para su creciente sector de energía nuclear civil.
Sudán del Sur
India reconoció a Sudán del Sur el 10 de julio de 2011, un día después de que Sudán del Sur se convirtiera en un estado independiente. Actualmente, las relaciones son económicas. Pramit Pal Chaudhuri escribió en el Hindustan Times que Sudán del Sur "tiene otros atractivos". Como señala la documentación del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores de la India, se informa que Sudán del Sur posee "algunas de las mayores reservas de petróleo de África fuera de Nigeria y Angola". [ 352 ] Un artículo en The Telegraph informó que Sudán del Sur es "uno de los países más pobres del mundo, [pero] es rico en petróleo. Funcionarios del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores dijeron que Nueva Delhi tiene un gran interés en aumentar sus inversiones en los campos petrolíferos de Sudán del Sur, que ahora posee más de dos tercios de los campos petrolíferos del antiguo Sudán unificado". [ 353 ]
A cambio de los recursos petroleros que Sudán del Sur puede proporcionar, India afirmó estar dispuesta a ayudar en el desarrollo de infraestructuras y en la capacitación de funcionarios en materia de salud, educación y desarrollo rural. «Hemos elaborado una hoja de ruta definitiva mediante la cual India puede ayudar a Sudán del Sur» . [ 353 ]
Sudán
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 7 de mayo de 1956. [ 354 ]
Las relaciones entre India y Sudán siempre se han caracterizado por ser duraderas, estrechas y amistosas, incluso desde las primeras etapas de desarrollo de sus países. En el momento de la independencia de la India, Sudán aportó 70.000 libras esterlinas, que se utilizaron para construir parte de la Academia Nacional de Defensa en Pune. El edificio principal de la Academia se llama Bloque Sudán. Las dos naciones establecieron relaciones diplomáticas poco después de que la India se convirtiera en uno de los primeros países asiáticos en reconocer al recién independizado país africano. India y Sudán también comparten similitudes geográficas e históricas, así como intereses económicos. Ambos países son antiguas colonias británicas y limitan remotamente con Arabia Saudí a través de un cuerpo de agua. India y Sudán mantienen relaciones cordiales, a pesar de cuestiones como la estrecha relación de la India con Israel , la solidaridad de la India con Egipto en los problemas fronterizos con Sudán y los estrechos lazos de Sudán con Pakistán y Bangladesh. La India también aportó tropas como fuerza de mantenimiento de la paz de las Naciones Unidas en Darfur .
Ir
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 31 de agosto de 1962. [ 211 ]
Togo abrió su embajada en Nueva Delhi en octubre de 2010. La Alta Comisión de la India en Accra, Ghana, está acreditada simultáneamente ante Togo. El presidente togolés Gnassingbé Eyadéma realizó una visita de Estado oficial a la India en septiembre de 1994. Durante la visita, ambos países acordaron establecer una Comisión Conjunta. [ 355 ]
Uganda
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 9 de octubre de 1962. [ 356 ]
India y Uganda establecieron relaciones diplomáticas en 1965 y cada una mantiene un Alto Comisionado en la capital de la otra. La Alta Comisión de la India en Kampala tiene acreditación concurrente ante Burundi y Ruanda. Uganda alberga una importante comunidad india y las relaciones entre India y Uganda abarcan una amplia gama de sectores, incluyendo la cooperación política, económica, comercial, cultural y científica. [ 357 ]
Las relaciones entre India y Uganda comenzaron con la llegada de más de 30.000 indios a Uganda en el siglo XIX, quienes fueron traídos allí para construir la línea ferroviaria Mombasa-Kampala . Los activistas por la independencia de Uganda se inspiraron en su lucha por la independencia de Uganda por el éxito del movimiento independentista indio y también fueron apoyados en su lucha por el Primer Ministro de la India , Jawaharlal Nehru . [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Las relaciones indo-ugandesas han sido buenas desde la independencia de Uganda, excepto durante el régimen de Idi Amin . Amin en 1972 expulsó a más de 55.000 personas de origen indio y 5.000 indios que habían formado la columna vertebral comercial y económica del país, acusándolos de explotar a los ugandeses nativos. [ 359 ] [ 360 ] Desde mediados de la década de 1980, cuando el presidente Yoweri Museveni llegó al poder, las relaciones han mejorado constantemente. Hoy en día, unos 20.000 indios y personas de origen indio viven o trabajan en Uganda. [ 359 ] Las tensiones étnicas entre indios y ugandeses han sido un problema recurrente en las relaciones bilaterales, dado el papel de los indios en la economía ugandesa. [ 361 ] [ 362 ]
Zambia
Zimbabue
Unión Africana
En 2011, el comercio total de India con África superaba los 46.000 millones de dólares estadounidenses y su inversión total superaba los 11.000 millones de dólares estadounidenses, con una línea de crédito de 5.700 millones de dólares estadounidenses para la ejecución de diversos proyectos en África. [ 363 ]
India ha mantenido buenas relaciones con la mayoría de las naciones del África subsahariana durante gran parte de su historia. En la visita del Primer Ministro a Mauricio en 1997, ambos países lograron un acuerdo para un nuevo Acuerdo de Crédito por 105 millones de rupias indias (3 millones de dólares estadounidenses) para financiar la importación por parte de Mauricio de bienes de capital, servicios de consultoría y bienes de consumo duraderos de la India. El gobierno de la India logró un acuerdo de arroz y medicinas con el pueblo de Seychelles. India continuó fortaleciendo sus históricas y estrechas relaciones con Etiopía, Kenia, Uganda y Tanzania. Las visitas de ministros políticos de Etiopía brindaron oportunidades para fortalecer la cooperación bilateral entre ambos países en los campos de la educación y la formación técnica, la gestión de los recursos hídricos y el desarrollo de pequeñas industrias. Esto ha permitido a India obtener beneficios de naciones que han sido olvidadas por otras naciones occidentales. El presidente sudafricano, Thabo Mbeki, abogó por una relación estratégica entre India y Sudáfrica para evitar la imposición de las naciones occidentales. India continuó fortaleciendo sus estrechas y amistosas relaciones con Angola, Botsuana, Lesoto, Malaui, Mozambique, Namibia, Suazilandia, Zambia y Zimbabue. El Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores dispuso el envío de Enviados Especiales a cada uno de estos países durante 1996-1997 como reafirmación del compromiso de la India de fortalecer la cooperación con ellos en el marco de una asociación Sur-Sur. Estas relaciones han creado una posición de fortaleza con las naciones africanas que otras naciones quizás no posean. [ 364 ]
América
El primer ministro Narendra Modi se reúne con la presidenta de México, Claudia Sheinbaum, en el marco de la 51ª Cumbre del G7.
Las afinidades de la India con las naciones en desarrollo de América Latina, especialmente Brasil y México, han seguido creciendo. India y Brasil continúan trabajando juntos en la reforma del Consejo de Seguridad a través de las naciones del G4, al tiempo que han incrementado la cooperación estratégica y económica mediante el Foro de Diálogo IBSA . El proceso de finalización de un Acuerdo Comercial Preferencial (ACP) con el MERCOSUR (Brasil, Argentina, Uruguay y Paraguay) está en la agenda y se están llevando a cabo negociaciones con Chile. [ 365 ] El presidente brasileño Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva fue el invitado de honor en las celebraciones del Día de la República de 2004 en Nueva Delhi. [ 366 ]
Norte
Antigua y Barbuda
El primer ministro indio, Narendra Modi, se reúne con la primera ministra de Barbados, Mia Mottley, en la COP26 en Glasgow, Escocia; noviembre de 2021
Ambos países han establecido relaciones diplomáticas y tienen un acuerdo de extradición. [ 367 ] [ 368 ]
Barbados
India y Barbados establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 30 de noviembre de 1966 (fecha de la independencia nacional de Barbados). [ 369 ] En esa fecha, el gobierno de India le regaló a Barbados el trono en la Cámara de la Asamblea nacional de Barbados . [ 370 ] India está representada en Barbados a través de su embajada en Surinam [ 371 ] [ 372 ] [ 373 ] y un consulado indio en Holetown , St. James . [ 374 ] En 2011-12, la empresa india Era's Lucknow Medical College and Hospital, estableció la American University of Barbados (AUB), como la primera escuela de medicina de la isla para estudiantes internacionales. En 2015, los gobiernos de Barbados e India firmaron un Acuerdo de Cielos Abiertos conjunto. [ 375 ] Hoy en día, alrededor de 3000 personas de India llaman a Barbados su hogar. Dos tercios son del distrito indio de Surat en Gujarat, conocidos como Suratis. La mayoría de los Suratis se dedican al comercio. El resto son de ascendencia sindhi.
Ambas naciones comparten un estrecho vínculo cultural debido a la numerosa población de origen indio de Belice, que se estima en un 4% de la población total.
Las relaciones indo-canadienses son las relaciones bilaterales de larga data entre India y Canadá, basadas en un "compromiso mutuo con la democracia", el "pluralismo" y los "vínculos entre los pueblos", según el gobierno de Canadá. En 2004, el comercio bilateral entre India y Canadá alcanzó aproximadamente los 2450 millones de dólares canadienses. Sin embargo, la gestión deficiente de la investigación de Air India y del caso en general supusieron un revés para las relaciones indo-canadienses. La prueba nuclear india del "Buda Sonriente" provocó la congelación de las relaciones entre ambos países, con acusaciones de que India había incumplido los términos del Plan Colombo . Si bien Jean Chrétien y Roméo LeBlanc visitaron India a finales de la década de 1990, las relaciones se interrumpieron nuevamente tras las pruebas de Pokhran-II.
Las relaciones entre Canadá e India han seguido una trayectoria ascendente desde 2005. Los gobiernos de todos los niveles, las organizaciones del sector privado, las instituciones académicas de ambos países y los contactos entre personas —especialmente las redes de la diáspora— han contribuido, mediante esfuerzos individuales y conjuntos, a mejoras significativas en la relación bilateral.
Sello de la India - 2017 - Diwali - Emisión conjunta con Canadá
Los dos gobiernos han acordado marcos políticos importantes para impulsar la relación bilateral. En particular, el Acuerdo de Cooperación Nuclear (firmado en junio de 2010) y las actuales negociaciones exitosas del Acuerdo de Asociación Económica Integral (CEPA) constituyen un hito en las relaciones entre Canadá e India.
Los dos gobiernos han intentado recuperar el tiempo perdido y están deseosos de concluir las negociaciones del CEPA para 2013 y asegurar su ratificación para 2014. Tras la conclusión del CEPA, Canadá e India deben definir las áreas de su asociación, que dependerán de su capacidad para convertir los intereses comunes en acciones conjuntas y responder eficazmente para una cooperación constante. Por ejemplo, durante las reuniones informales entre el Primer Ministro Manmohan Singh y Stephen Harper en la cumbre del G-20 en México en junio de 2012, y una reunión anterior en Toronto entre el Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores, S.M. Krishna, y John Baird, los líderes discutieron el desarrollo de una asociación más integral que fuera más allá de la seguridad alimentaria e incluyera la posibilidad de alianzas en el sector energético y de hidrocarburos.
Cuba
Las relaciones entre India y Cuba son estrechas y cordiales. Ambas naciones forman parte del Movimiento de Países No Alineados . Cuba ha pedido reiteradamente una representación más democrática del Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas y apoya la candidatura de India como miembro permanente de un Consejo de Seguridad reformado. [ 376 ] Fidel Castro afirmó que «La madurez de India, su adhesión incondicional a los principios que fundamentan el Movimiento de Países No Alineados nos da la seguridad de que, bajo el sabio liderazgo de Indira Gandhi (la ex primera ministra de India ), los países no alineados seguirán avanzando en su papel inalienable como baluarte de la paz, la independencia nacional y el desarrollo…» [ 377 ]
India tiene una embajada en La Habana, la capital de Cuba, que abrió sus puertas en enero de 1960. Esto tuvo una importancia particular, ya que simbolizaba la solidaridad de la India con la Revolución Cubana. [ 378 ] India fue uno de los primeros países del mundo en reconocer al nuevo gobierno cubano tras la Revolución Cubana . [ 379 ]
Cuba tiene una embajada en Nueva Delhi , la capital de la India. [ 380 ]
Jamaica
Las relaciones entre India y Jamaica son generalmente cordiales y estrechas. Existen numerosos vínculos culturales y políticos heredados del dominio colonial británico, como la pertenencia a la Commonwealth , la democracia parlamentaria, el idioma inglés y el críquet. [ 381 ] [ 382 ]
Durante la época británica, muchos indios emigraron voluntariamente a Jamaica y las Indias Occidentales para trabajar. Esto ha generado una considerable población de origen indio en Jamaica. India cuenta con una Alta Comisión en Kingston, [ 381 ] mientras que Jamaica tiene un consulado en Nueva Delhi [ 383 ] y planea convertirlo pronto en una Alta Comisión.
Las relaciones bilaterales entre India y Nicaragua se han limitado al diálogo del SICA y a las visitas de ministros nicaragüenses a India. India mantiene un cónsul general honorario en Nicaragua, [ 387 ] acreditado simultáneamente ante la embajada de India en Ciudad de Panamá y Nicaragua solía mantener una embajada en India, pero se redujo a un consulado general honorario en Nueva Delhi. [ 388 ] El actual ministro de Relaciones Exteriores, Samuel Santos López, visitó India en 2008 para la reunión de ministros de Relaciones Exteriores del SICA e India y en 2013 [ 389 ] para conversaciones de alto nivel con el entonces ministro de Relaciones Exteriores, Salman Khurshid, que también ampliaron el comercio bilateral con los dos países, alcanzando un total de US$60,12 millones durante 2012-13.
Panamá
El Vicepresidente , Shri M. Venkaiah Naidu, es despedido por el Viceministro de Relaciones Exteriores, Sr. Luis Miguel Hincapie, en su partida, en Panamá el 10 de mayo de 2018.
Las relaciones bilaterales entre Panamá e India han crecido de manera constante, lo que refleja el papel crucial que desempeña el Canal de Panamá en el comercio mundial. Además, con más de 15 000 indios residentes en Panamá, los lazos diplomáticos se han fortalecido considerablemente en la última década.
Se espera que la apertura del Canal ampliado en 2016 brinde nuevas perspectivas para la conectividad marítima. Con el objetivo de fortalecer rápidamente las relaciones comerciales, como la triplicación del flujo comercial entre ambos países, India está interesada en aprovechar estas instalaciones de tránsito comercial en Panamá para acceder al mercado latinoamericano . Además de buscar un acuerdo de libre comercio, India desea promover la inversión en diversos sectores de la economía panameña, incluyendo la banca, la industria marítima y el centro multimodal de la Zona Franca de Colón . [ 390 ]
Las relaciones bilaterales entre la República de la India y Paraguay han sido tradicionalmente sólidas debido a una fuerte cooperación comercial, cultural y estratégica. India está representada en Paraguay a través de su embajada en Buenos Aires, Argentina. India también cuenta con un Cónsul General Honorario en Asunción. Paraguay abrió su embajada en India en 2005. [ 391 ] En mayo de 2012, Fernando Lugo se convirtió en el primer presidente paraguayo en visitar India. Estuvo acompañado por los ministros de Relaciones Exteriores, Agricultura y Ganadería y Comercio, y otros altos funcionarios del gobierno. [ 392 ]
Paraguay apoyó la candidatura de India para ser elegido miembro del Consejo de Derechos Humanos de la ONU para el período 2015-17. [ 392 ]
El primer ministro de Paraguay, Santiago Peña, visitó la India en junio de 2025 y sostuvo conversaciones a nivel de delegaciones con el primer ministro indio, Narendra Modi, durante las cuales Paraguay informó sobre su postura con la India en la lucha contra el terrorismo. [ 395 ] Ambos países acordaron una perspectiva estratégica y un compromiso con un futuro compartido de crecimiento sostenible y estrecha cooperación económica. También acordaron cooperar en sectores como la tecnología digital, los minerales críticos, la energía, la agricultura, la salud y el espacio. [ 396 ]
Las relaciones bilaterales entre la República de la India y la República de Trinidad y Tobago se han expandido considerablemente en los últimos años, y ambas naciones han forjado lazos estratégicos y comerciales. Ambas naciones establecieron formalmente relaciones diplomáticas en 1962. [ 397 ]
Ambas naciones formaron parte del Imperio Británico ; India apoyó la independencia de Trinidad y Tobago del dominio británico y estableció su misión diplomática en 1962, año en que Trinidad y Tobago obtuvo oficialmente su independencia. Poseen diversos recursos naturales y económicos y son las mayores economías de sus respectivas regiones. Ambas son miembros de la Commonwealth, las Naciones Unidas, el G-77 y el Movimiento de Países No Alineados (MPNA).
La República de la India mantiene una Alta Comisión en Puerto España , mientras que la República de Trinidad y Tobago mantiene una Alta Comisión en Nueva Delhi.
Antes y durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Estados Unidos, bajo la presidencia de Roosevelt, brindó un fuerte apoyo al movimiento independentista indio a pesar de ser aliado de Gran Bretaña. [ 398 ] [ 399 ] Las relaciones entre India y Estados Unidos fueron tibias tras la independencia india, ya que India asumió una posición de liderazgo en el Movimiento de Países No Alineados y recibió apoyo de la Unión Soviética . Estados Unidos brindó apoyo a India en 1962 durante su guerra con China. Durante la mayor parte de la Guerra Fría , Estados Unidos tendió a tener relaciones más cordiales con Pakistán, principalmente como una forma de contener a India, afín a la Unión Soviética, y de utilizar a Pakistán para respaldar a los muyahidines afganos contra la ocupación soviética de Afganistán . Un Tratado de Amistad y Cooperación Indo-Soviético , firmado en 1971, también posicionó a India en contra de Estados Unidos.
Tras la guerra sino-india y la guerra indo-pakistaní de 1965 , India modificó considerablemente su política exterior. Desarrolló una estrecha relación con la Unión Soviética y comenzó a recibir un gran suministro de equipo militar y asistencia financiera de la URSS. Esto perjudicó las relaciones entre India y Estados Unidos. Este último veía a Pakistán como un contrapeso a la India prosoviética y comenzó a brindarle asistencia militar. Esto generó un clima de recelo entre India y Estados Unidos. Las relaciones indo-estadounidenses sufrieron un revés considerable cuando los soviéticos ocuparon Afganistán e India apoyó abiertamente a la Unión Soviética.
Las relaciones entre India y Estados Unidos alcanzaron su punto más bajo a principios de la década de 1970. A pesar de los informes de atrocidades en Pakistán Oriental y de haber sido informados, sobre todo en el Telegrama de Sangre , de actividades genocidas perpetradas por las fuerzas pakistaníes, el Secretario de Estado de EE. UU., Henry Kissinger, y el Presidente de EE. UU. , Richard Nixon, no hicieron nada para disuadir al entonces Presidente de Pakistán, Yahya Khan , y al Ejército de Pakistán . Kissinger estaba particularmente preocupado por la expansión soviética en el sur de Asia como resultado de un tratado de amistad que se había firmado recientemente entre India y la Unión Soviética, y buscaba demostrar a la República Popular China el valor de una alianza tácita con Estados Unidos. [ 400 ] Durante la guerra indo-pakistaní de 1971 , las Fuerzas Armadas de la India , junto con el Mukti Bahini , lograron liberar Pakistán Oriental , que pronto declaró su independencia. Nixon temía que una invasión india de Pakistán Occidental significara la dominación soviética total de la región y que socavara seriamente la posición global de Estados Unidos y la posición regional de su nuevo aliado tácito, China. Para demostrar a China la buena fe de Estados Unidos como aliado, y en violación directa de las sanciones impuestas por el Congreso a Pakistán, Nixon envió suministros militares a Pakistán, haciéndolos pasar por Jordania e Irán, [ 401 ] al tiempo que alentaba a China a aumentar sus suministros de armas a Pakistán.
Cuando la derrota de Pakistán en el sector oriental parecía segura, Nixon envió al USS Enterprise a la Bahía de Bengala , una acción que los indios consideraron una amenaza nuclear. El Enterprise llegó a la estación el 11 de diciembre de 1971. El 6 y el 13 de diciembre, la Armada Soviética envió dos grupos de buques, armados con misiles nucleares, desde Vladivostok ; estos siguieron a la Fuerza de Tarea 74 de EE. UU. en el Océano Índico desde el 18 de diciembre de 1971 hasta el 7 de enero de 1972. Los soviéticos también enviaron submarinos nucleares para contrarrestar la amenaza que representaba el USS Enterprise en el Océano Índico. [ 402 ]
Aunque los esfuerzos estadounidenses no lograron cambiar el rumbo de la guerra, el incidente del USS Enterprise se considera el detonante del posterior interés de la India en desarrollar armas nucleares . [ 403 ] La política estadounidense hacia el final de la guerra estuvo dictada principalmente por la necesidad de restringir la escalada del conflicto en el sector occidental para evitar la «desmembración» de Pakistán Occidental. [ 404 ] Años después de la guerra, muchos escritores estadounidenses criticaron las políticas de la Casa Blanca durante la guerra por considerarlas gravemente defectuosas y perjudiciales para los intereses de Estados Unidos. [ 405 ] La India realizó pruebas nucleares unos años después, lo que provocó la imposición de sanciones por parte de Estados Unidos, distanciando aún más a los dos países. En los últimos años, Kissinger fue criticado por comentarios realizados durante la guerra indo-pakistaní en los que describió a los indios como «bastardos». [ 406 ] Desde entonces, Kissinger ha expresado su arrepentimiento por dichos comentarios. [ 407 ]
Después de la Guerra Fría
Desde el fin de la Guerra Fría , las relaciones entre India y Estados Unidos han mejorado notablemente. Esto se ha visto favorecido por el hecho de que ambos países son democracias y mantienen una relación comercial amplia y en constante crecimiento. Durante la Guerra del Golfo , la economía de India atravesó una fase extremadamente difícil. El Gobierno de India adoptó sistemas económicos liberalizados . Tras la disolución de la Unión Soviética, India mejoró sus relaciones diplomáticas con los miembros de la OTAN , en particular con Canadá, Francia y Alemania. En 1992, India estableció relaciones diplomáticas formales con Israel.
El primer ministro Narendra Modi en una reunión bilateral con el presidente estadounidense Joe Biden, en la Casa Blanca.
Pokhran pone a prueba la reacción
En 1998, India realizó pruebas nucleares, lo que provocó varias sanciones por parte de Estados Unidos, Japón y Europa. El entonces ministro de Defensa de India, George Fernandes , afirmó que el programa nuclear indio era necesario, ya que disuadía algunas posibles amenazas nucleares. La mayoría de las sanciones impuestas a India se levantaron en 2001. India ha declarado categóricamente que nunca usará armas nucleares primero, pero que se defenderá si es atacada.
Las sanciones económicas impuestas por Estados Unidos en respuesta a las pruebas nucleares de la India en mayo de 1998 parecieron, al menos inicialmente, dañar gravemente las relaciones indo-estadounidenses. El presidente Bill Clinton impuso sanciones de amplio alcance en virtud de la Ley de Prevención de la Proliferación Nuclear de 1994. Estas sanciones se aplicaron a entidades indias involucradas en la industria nuclear y a la oposición a los préstamos de instituciones financieras internacionales para proyectos de asistencia no humanitaria en la India. Estados Unidos instó a la India a firmar el Tratado de Prohibición Completa de los Ensayos Nucleares (TPCEN) de inmediato y sin condiciones. Asimismo, Estados Unidos pidió moderación en las pruebas y el despliegue de misiles y armas nucleares tanto por parte de la India como de Pakistán. El diálogo sobre no proliferación iniciado tras las pruebas nucleares de 1998 ha superado muchas de las diferencias de entendimiento entre ambos países.
Las relaciones formales entre ambos países se establecieron por primera vez en 1949. India tiene una embajada en Buenos Aires y Argentina tiene una embajada en Nueva Delhi. A enero de 2025, el embajador de la India en Argentina (acreditado simultáneamente ante Uruguay y Paraguay) es Shri Ajaneesh Kumar . [ 410 ]
Según el Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores del Gobierno de la India , «En virtud del acuerdo de visados de 1968, se abolieron las tasas (argentinas) para los visados de tránsito y de turista. Conforme al nuevo acuerdo de visados firmado durante la visita presidencial argentina en octubre de 2009, se acordó que los visados de negocios de entrada múltiple con una validez de cinco años se expedirían sin coste alguno. La Embajada de la India en Buenos Aires ofrece el programa "Café con Visa" a los visitantes argentinos. Se invita a los solicitantes a tomar un café y se les concede el visado de inmediato. Esta iniciativa ha sido elogiada por los medios de comunicación argentinos, el público y el propio Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores». [ 411 ]
Brasil
Las relaciones entre Brasil e India se han extendido a diversos ámbitos como la ciencia y la tecnología, la industria farmacéutica y el sector espacial, dado que ambos países son miembros de los BRICS . El comercio bilateral en 2007 casi se triplicó, pasando de 1.200 millones de dólares en 2004 a 3.120 millones de dólares. India otorga una enorme importancia a su relación con este gigante latinoamericano y espera que las áreas de cooperación se amplíen en los próximos años.
Ambos países desean la participación de los países en desarrollo en el Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU como miembros permanentes, ya que la filosofía subyacente para ambos es que el Consejo de Seguridad debe ser más democrático, legítimo y representativo; el G4 es una agrupación novedosa para lograr este objetivo.
Brasil e India están profundamente comprometidos con las iniciativas de cooperación Sur-Sur ( IBSA ) y otorgan suma importancia a esta cooperación trilateral entre los tres grandes países en desarrollo, multiétnicos, multirraciales y multirreligiosos, que están unidos por el principio común de pluralismo y democracia.
Bolivia
Chile
Colombia
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 19 de enero de 1959. Desde entonces, la relación entre ambos países se ha fortalecido gradualmente con visitas diplomáticas más frecuentes para promover intercambios políticos, comerciales, culturales y académicos. Actualmente, Colombia es el punto de entrada comercial a Latinoamérica para las empresas indias. [ 412 ]
Las relaciones diplomáticas entre India y Venezuela se establecieron el 1 de octubre de 1959. [ 413 ] India mantiene una embajada en Caracas , mientras que Venezuela mantiene una embajada en Nueva Delhi .
Se han producido varias visitas de jefes de Estado y de Gobierno, y otros altos funcionarios entre los países. El presidente Hugo Chávez visitó Nueva Delhi del 4 al 7 de marzo de 2005. [ 413 ] Chávez se reunió con el presidente indio APJ Abdul Kalam y el primer ministro Manmohan Singh . Los dos países firmaron seis acuerdos, entre ellos uno para establecer una Comisión Conjunta para promover las relaciones bilaterales y otro sobre cooperación en el sector de los hidrocarburos. El ministro de Relaciones Exteriores Nicolás Maduro visitó la India para asistir a la Primera Reunión de Ministros de Relaciones Exteriores de la Troika India-CELAC en Nueva Delhi el 7 de agosto de 2012. [ 414 ]
La Comisión Electoral de la India (ECI) y el Consejo Nacional Electoral (CNE) de Venezuela firmaron un Memorando de Entendimiento durante una visita del Comisionado Electoral de la India, V.S. Sampath, a Caracas en 2012. El Ministro de Estado para Asuntos Corporativos visitó Venezuela para asistir al funeral de Estado del Presidente Chávez en marzo de 2013. [ 414 ] El Presidente y el Primer Ministro de la India expresaron sus condolencias por la muerte de Chávez. El Rajya Sabha , la cámara alta del Parlamento, guardó un minuto de silencio en memoria de su fallecimiento. La Embajadora Smita Purushottam representó a la India en la ceremonia de investidura del sucesor de Chávez, Nicolás Maduro, el 19 de abril de 2013. [ 415 ]
El primer ministro indio, Narendra Modi, recibe una guardia de honor durante su visita a Kazajistán en julio de 2015.
Central
Kazajistán
India está trabajando para desarrollar relaciones sólidas con este país de Asia Central, rico en recursos. La compañía petrolera india, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, ha obtenido subvenciones para la exploración y el desarrollo de petróleo en Kazajstán. Ambos países colaboran en petroquímica , tecnología de la información y tecnología espacial. Kazajstán ha ofrecido a India cinco bloques para la exploración de petróleo y gas. India y Kazajstán establecerán proyectos conjuntos en construcción, minería y metalurgia. India también firmó otros cuatro pactos, incluido un tratado de extradición, en presencia de la presidenta Prathibha Patil y su homólogo kazajo, Nursultan Nazarbayev . Kazajstán suministrará uranio y productos relacionados en virtud del memorando de entendimiento entre Nuclear Power Corp. of India y Kazatomprom. Estos memorandos de entendimiento también abren la posibilidad de una exploración conjunta de uranio en Kazajstán, que posee las segundas mayores reservas del mundo, y de que India construya centrales nucleares en el país de Asia Central.
Se establecieron relaciones diplomáticas entre India y Tayikistán tras la independencia de este último país, después de la disolución de la Unión Soviética en 1991, que había mantenido relaciones amistosas con India. Tayikistán ocupa una posición estratégica en Asia Central, limitando con Afganistán y la República Popular China, y separado de Pakistán por una pequeña franja de territorio afgano. El papel de India en la lucha contra los talibanes y Al Qaeda, así como su rivalidad estratégica con China y Pakistán, han hecho que sus lazos con Tayikistán sean cruciales para sus políticas estratégicas y de seguridad. A pesar de sus esfuerzos conjuntos, el comercio bilateral ha sido relativamente bajo, con un valor de 12,09 millones de dólares estadounidenses en 2005; las exportaciones de India a Tayikistán ascendieron a 6,2 millones de dólares y sus importaciones a 5,89 millones de dólares. La presencia y las actividades militares de India han sido significativas, comenzando con su amplio apoyo a la Alianza del Norte Afgana (ANA), que lucha contra los talibanes. India inició la renovación de la base aérea de Farkhor y estacionó allí aeronaves de la Fuerza Aérea India. La base aérea de Farkhor entró en pleno funcionamiento en 2006, y está previsto que allí se estacionen 12 bombarderos MiG-29 y aviones de entrenamiento.
Turkmenistán
El primer ministro Narendra Modi en Turkmenistán
Uzbekistán
India tiene una embajada en Tashkent. Uzbekistán tiene una embajada en Nueva Delhi. Uzbekistán ha tenido una gran influencia en la cultura india, principalmente debido al Imperio mogol , fundado por Babur de Ferganá (en el actual Uzbekistán), quien expandió su imperio hacia el sur, primero en Afganistán y luego en la India.
Este
Porcelana
Un buque portacontenedores chino descarga mercancía en el puerto Jawaharlal Nehru de la India. El comercio bilateral entre ambos países superó los 65.000 millones de dólares estadounidenses en 2015, lo que convirtió a China en el principal socio comercial de la India. [ 417 ]
A pesar de las sospechas que persisten desde la guerra sino-india de 1962 , los incidentes de Nathu La y Cho La de 1967 , y las continuas disputas fronterizas sobre Aksai Chin y Arunachal Pradesh , las relaciones sino-indias han mejorado gradualmente desde 1988. Ambos países han buscado reducir las tensiones a lo largo de la frontera, expandir los lazos comerciales y culturales, y normalizar las relaciones. [ 418 ] Una serie de visitas de alto nivel entre las dos naciones han ayudado a mejorar las relaciones. En diciembre de 1996, el presidente chino Jiang Zemin visitó la India durante una gira por el sur de Asia. Mientras estaba en Nueva Delhi, firmó con el primer ministro indio una serie de medidas de fomento de la confianza para las fronteras en disputa. Las relaciones sino-indias sufrieron un breve revés en mayo de 1998 cuando el ministro de Defensa indio justificó las pruebas nucleares del país citando posibles amenazas de China. Sin embargo, en junio de 1999, durante la crisis de Kargil , el entonces ministro de Asuntos Exteriores, Jaswant Singh , visitó Pekín y declaró que la India no consideraba a China una amenaza. Para 2001, las relaciones entre la India y China habían mejorado, y ambas partes gestionaron con delicadeza y tacto el traslado del 17.º Karmapa del Tíbet a la India en enero de 2000. En 2003, la India reconoció formalmente al Tíbet como parte de China, y China reconoció a Sikkim como parte formal de la India en 2004.
El actual Primer Ministro de la India, Narendra Modi, y el Presidente de China, Xi Jinping , en la Cumbre del G7, China (2016).
Desde 2004, el auge económico tanto de China como de India también ha contribuido a forjar relaciones más estrechas entre ambos países. El comercio sino-indio alcanzó los 65.470 millones de dólares estadounidenses en 2013-14, lo que convirtió a China en el principal socio comercial de India. [ 419 ] La creciente dependencia económica entre India y China también ha acercado a las dos naciones políticamente, con India y China deseosas de resolver su disputa fronteriza. [ 420 ] También han colaborado en varios asuntos, desde la Ronda de Doha de la OMC en 2008 [ 421 ] hasta el acuerdo regional de libre comercio . [ 422 ] De forma similar al acuerdo nuclear indo-estadounidense , India y China también han acordado cooperar en el campo de la energía nuclear civil . [ 423 ] Sin embargo, los intereses económicos de China han chocado con los de India. [ 424 ] Ambos países son los mayores inversores asiáticos en África [ 425 ] y han competido por el control de sus grandes recursos naturales. [ 426 ] Hubo una situación tensa debido al enfrentamiento de los soldados en Doklam , Bután; pero se resolvió pronto. [ 427 ]
Las relaciones se deterioraron debido a las escaramuzas del valle de Galwan [ 429 ] [ 430 ] y su desarrollo . India cesó las importaciones de productos chinos. [ 431 ] Se tomaron diversas medidas, como la cancelación de varios contratos con empresas chinas dedicadas a ferrocarriles, redes y producción de diversos artículos. [ 432 ]
El brote de la pandemia de coronavirus desde Wuhan también obstaculizó las relaciones. [ 433 ] Tras el deterioro de los lazos, ambas partes se culparon mutuamente del conflicto en la LAC. [ 434 ] El 29 y 30 de agosto, se informó que China supuestamente había intentado cruzar la LAC para alcanzar importantes cimas, lo cual fue denunciado por las tropas indias, ya que representaba una ventaja adquirir cimas importantes cerca de la LAC. [ 435 ] India prohibió más de 250 aplicaciones chinas, [ 436 ] y el 16 de octubre, prohibió la importación de aires acondicionados, refrigeradores y enfriadores de China. [ 437 ] Se llevaron a cabo varias negociaciones y conversaciones de comandantes principales, [ 438 ] que no resultaron en nada más que vagas promesas. La culpabilización cruzada en los medios era común.
Incluso se celebró una conferencia en Moscú , Rusia, el 5 de septiembre entre el Ministro de Defensa de la India, Rajnath Singh, y el General del Ejército chino, Wei Fenghe , pero tampoco tuvo éxito. [ 439 ] La reciente reunión de la Alianza Cuadrilateral también fue cuestionada por China, [ 440 ] pero luego fue rechazada por la India. [ 441 ]
A mediados de enero de 2021, se informó que ambos países finalmente habían acordado la desescalada de sus posiciones. Se difundieron imágenes de tropas chinas retirando tiendas de campaña y cuarteles. Ambos países también acordaron que India retrocedería hasta Finger-3, mientras que China mantendría su posición hasta Finger-8, y además declararon la zona comprendida entre Finger-3 y Finger-8 como " tierra de nadie ". [ 442 ]
Dos buques de guerra de la Armada japonesa participaron en Malabar 2007 frente a la costa occidental de la India, uno de los pocos ejercicios multilaterales de este tipo en los que Japón ha participado, lo que simboliza la estrecha cooperación militar entre India y Japón.
Japón
Las relaciones entre India y Japón siempre han sido sólidas. India ha influido culturalmente en Japón a través del budismo . Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial , el Ejército Imperial Japonés ayudó al Ejército Nacional Indio de Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose . Las relaciones se han mantenido cordiales desde la independencia de India, a pesar de que Japón impuso sanciones a India tras las pruebas nucleares de Pokhran-II en 1998 (las sanciones se levantaron en 2001). [ 443 ] Empresas japonesas, como Sony , Toyota y Honda , tienen instalaciones de fabricación en India, y con el crecimiento de la economía india, India es un gran mercado para las empresas japonesas. La empresa japonesa más destacada con una gran inversión en India es el gigante automovilístico Suzuki, que está asociado con la empresa automovilística india Maruti Suzuki , el mayor fabricante de automóviles de India. Honda también fue socio de " Hero Honda ", uno de los mayores vendedores de motocicletas del mundo (las empresas se separaron en 2011 [ 444 ] ).
Sello de la India - 2002 - Colnect 834423 - Relaciones diplomáticas entre India y Japón por el 50.º aniversario
Según la teoría del arco de la libertad del ex primer ministro Shinzō Abe , a Japón le conviene desarrollar lazos más estrechos con la India, la democracia más poblada del mundo, mientras que sus relaciones con China siguen siendo frías. Con este fin, Japón ha financiado muchos proyectos de infraestructura en la India, sobre todo en el sistema de metro de Nueva Delhi . [ 445 ] En diciembre de 2006, la visita del entonces primer ministro Manmohan Singh a Japón culminó con la firma de la "Declaración Conjunta para la Asociación Estratégica y Global Japón-India". Los solicitantes indios fueron recibidos en 2006 en el Programa JET, comenzando con solo una plaza disponible en 2006 y 41 en 2007. También en 2007, las Fuerzas de Autodefensa de Japón participaron en un ejercicio naval en el Océano Índico, conocido como Malabar 2007 , en el que también participaron las fuerzas navales de la India, Australia, Singapur y Estados Unidos.
El ex primer ministro Shinzo Abe y el primer ministro Narendra Modi
En octubre de 2008, Japón firmó un acuerdo con India en virtud del cual otorgaría a esta última un préstamo a bajo interés por valor de 4.500 millones de dólares estadounidenses para la construcción de una línea ferroviaria de alta velocidad entre Delhi y Bombay. Este es el mayor proyecto en el extranjero financiado por Japón y refleja una creciente asociación económica entre ambos. [ 446 ] India y Japón firmaron un acuerdo de cooperación en materia de seguridad [ 447 ] en el que ambos realizarán ejercicios militares, patrullarán el Océano Índico y llevarán a cabo intercambios militares en la lucha contra el terrorismo , lo que convierte a India en uno de los tres únicos países, junto con Estados Unidos y Australia, con los que Japón tiene un pacto de seguridad de este tipo. [ 448 ] En 2008, había 25.000 indios en Japón.
Mongolia
El primer ministro Narendra Modi y el presidente de Mongolia, Khurelsukh Ukhnaa, presenciaron el intercambio de memorandos de entendimiento entre India y Mongolia.
Las relaciones entre India y Mongolia aún se encuentran en una fase incipiente, y la cooperación indo-mongola se limita a visitas diplomáticas, la concesión de préstamos blandos y ayuda financiera, así como a colaboraciones en el sector de las tecnologías de la información.
India estableció relaciones diplomáticas con Mongolia en diciembre de 1955. Fue el primer país fuera del bloque soviético en hacerlo. Desde entonces, se han firmado tratados de amistad y cooperación mutua entre ambos países en 1973, 1994, 2001 y 2004.
Corea del Norte
India y Corea del Norte mantienen crecientes relaciones comerciales y diplomáticas. India contaba con una embajada en pleno funcionamiento en Pyongyang, la cual fue clausurada debido a la pandemia de COVID-19 en el país anfitrión , mientras que Corea del Norte aún mantiene una embajada en Nueva Delhi . India ha manifestado su deseo de lograr la reunificación de Corea. [ 449 ]
Corea del Sur
El Primer Ministro, Shri Narendra Modi, y el Presidente de la República de Corea del Sur, el Sr. Moon Jae-in, viajaron en el metro de Delhi de camino a inaugurar la planta de fabricación de Samsung, la fábrica de móviles más grande del mundo, en Noida , Uttar Pradesh .
La cordial relación entre ambos países se remonta al año 48 d. C., cuando la reina Suro, o princesa Heo , viajó del reino de Ayodhya a Corea. [ 450 ] Según el Samguk Yusa , la princesa soñó con un rey celestial que esperaba el viaje elegido por el cielo. Tras el sueño, la princesa Heo pidió permiso a sus padres, el rey y la reina, para partir en busca de él, a lo que estos accedieron, convencidos de que Dios había orquestado todo el destino. [ 451 ] Tras recibir la aprobación, zarpó en barco, llevando consigo oro, plata, una planta de té y una piedra que calmaba las aguas. [ 450 ] Los arqueólogos descubrieron una piedra con dos peces besándose, símbolo del reino de Gaya , exclusivo de la familia real Mishra de Ayodhya , India. Este vínculo real proporciona más pruebas de que existía un activo intercambio comercial entre India y Corea desde la llegada de la reina a Corea. [ 450 ] Los descendientes actuales viven en la ciudad de Gimhae, así como en el extranjero, en los estados estadounidenses de Nueva Jersey y Kentucky. Muchos de ellos alcanzaron gran prominencia y reconocimiento mundial, como el presidente Kim Dae Jung y el primer ministro Kim Jong-pil . Las relaciones entre ambos países han sido relativamente limitadas, aunque se han logrado importantes avances durante las últimas tres décadas.
Sello de la India - 2019 - Emisión conjunta con Corea del Sur que conmemora la relación cuando la reina Suro, o princesa Heo , viajó del reino de Ayodhya a Corea.
Desde el establecimiento formal de relaciones diplomáticas entre los dos países en 1973, se han alcanzado varios acuerdos comerciales. El comercio entre las dos naciones ha aumentado exponencialmente, ejemplificado por los 530 millones de dólares durante el año fiscal 1992-1993 y los 10 mil millones de dólares durante 2006-2007. [ 452 ] Durante la crisis financiera asiática de 1997 , las empresas surcoreanas buscaron aumentar el acceso a los mercados globales y comenzaron inversiones comerciales con la India. [ 452 ] Las dos últimas visitas presidenciales de Corea del Sur a la India fueron en 1996 y 2006, [ 453 ] y se considera que las obras de la embajada entre los dos países necesitan mejoras. [ 454 ] Recientemente, ha habido reconocimientos en las esferas pública y política coreanas de que expandir las relaciones con la India debería ser una prioridad económica y política importante para Corea del Sur. Gran parte de las inversiones económicas de Corea del Sur se han canalizado hacia China; [ 455 ] Sin embargo, Corea del Sur es actualmente la quinta mayor fuente de inversión en India. [ 456 ] En declaraciones a The Times of India , el presidente Roh Moo-hyun expresó su opinión de que la cooperación entre las industrias de software de India y las de TI de Corea traería resultados muy eficientes y exitosos. [ 453 ] Los dos países acordaron centrar su atención en la revisión de las políticas de visas entre los dos países, la expansión del comercio y el establecimiento de un acuerdo de libre comercio para fomentar una mayor inversión entre los dos países. Empresas coreanas como LG , Hyundai y Samsung han establecido instalaciones de fabricación y servicios en India, y varias empresas constructoras coreanas obtuvieron subvenciones para una parte de los numerosos planes de construcción de infraestructura en India, como el "Proyecto Nacional de Desarrollo de Carreteras". [ 456 ] La compra de Daewoo Commercial Vehicles por parte de Tata Motors a un costo de 102 millones de dólares destaca las inversiones de India en Corea, que consisten principalmente en subcontratación. [ 456 ]
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 10 de diciembre de 1947. [ 147 ]
Las relaciones bilaterales entre India y Afganistán han sido tradicionalmente fuertes y amistosas. Si bien India fue el único país del sur de Asia que reconoció a la República Democrática de Afganistán, respaldada por la Unión Soviética , en la década de 1980, sus relaciones se deterioraron durante las guerras civiles afganas y el gobierno de los talibanes islamistas en la década de 1990. [ 457 ] India ayudó al derrocamiento de los talibanes y se convirtió en el mayor proveedor regional de ayuda humanitaria y de reconstrucción. [ 62 ] [ 458 ] El nuevo gobierno afgano elegido democráticamente fortaleció sus lazos con India a raíz de las persistentes tensiones y problemas con Pakistán, que continúa dando refugio y apoyo a los talibanes. [ 62 ] [ 458 ] India persigue una política de estrecha cooperación para reforzar su posición como potencia regional y contener a su rival Pakistán, al que sostiene que apoya a militantes islámicos en Cachemira y otras partes de India. [ 62 ] India es el mayor inversor regional en Afganistán, habiendo comprometido más de 3 mil millones de dólares estadounidenses para fines de reconstrucción. [ 459 ] Tras el colapso de la República Islámica de Afganistán , India participó en la evacuación de las minorías no musulmanas y proporcionó ayuda alimentaria al Afganistán gobernado por los talibanes. [ 460 ]
India fue el segundo país en reconocer a Bangladesh como un estado separado e independiente, el 6 de diciembre de 1971. India luchó junto a los bangladesíes para liberar a Bangladesh de Pakistán Occidental en 1971.
La relación de Bangladesh con India ha sido difícil debido a los asesinatos en la frontera , los problemas de irrigación y las disputas territoriales posteriores a 1976. Sin embargo, India ha mantenido una relación favorable con Bangladesh durante los gobiernos formados por la Liga Awami en 1972 y 1996. Las recientes soluciones a las disputas terrestres y marítimas han mitigado las tensiones en las relaciones bilaterales.
Desde el principio, las relaciones de la India con Bangladesh no podrían haber sido más sólidas debido al apoyo incondicional de la India a la independencia y su oposición a Pakistán en 1971. Durante la guerra de independencia, muchos refugiados huyeron a la India. Cuando la lucha de resistencia alcanzó su punto álgido en noviembre de 1971, la India también intervino militarmente y pudo haber contribuido a que la comunidad internacional prestara atención al asunto gracias a la visita de Indira Gandhi a Washington, D.C. Posteriormente, la India proporcionó ayuda humanitaria y para la reconstrucción. La India reconoció a Bangladesh antes del fin de la guerra en 1971 (el segundo país en hacerlo después de Bután [ 461 ] ) y, posteriormente, presionó a otros para que hicieran lo mismo. La India también retiró sus fuerzas militares del territorio de Bangladesh cuando el jeque Mujibur Rahman se lo solicitó a Indira Gandhi durante la visita de esta última a Daca en 1972.
Las relaciones entre India y Bangladesh han sido algo menos amistosas desde la caída del gobierno de Mujib en agosto de 1975. [ 462 ] a lo largo de los años por cuestiones como la isla de South Talpatti , el corredor de Tin Bigha y el acceso a Nepal, la presa de Farakka y el reparto del agua, los conflictos fronterizos cerca de Tripura y la construcción de una valla a lo largo de la mayor parte de la frontera que India explica como medida de seguridad contra migrantes, insurgentes y terroristas. Muchos bangladesíes sienten que a India le gusta jugar a ser el "hermano mayor" de sus vecinos más pequeños, incluido Bangladesh. Las relaciones bilaterales mejoraron en 1996, debido a una política exterior india más flexible y al nuevo gobierno de la Liga Awami . En diciembre de 1996 se firmó un acuerdo de reparto de agua de 30 años para el río Ganges , después de que un acuerdo bilateral anterior para el mismo río expirara en 1988. Ambas naciones también han cooperado en el tema de las alertas y la preparación ante inundaciones. El Gobierno de Bangladesh y los insurgentes tribales firmaron un acuerdo de paz en diciembre de 1997, que permitió el retorno de los refugiados tribales que habían huido a la India desde 1986 para escapar de la violencia causada por la insurgencia en su tierra natal, en los Chittagong Hill Tracts . El Ejército de Bangladesh mantiene una fuerte presencia en la zona hasta el día de hoy. El ejército está cada vez más preocupado por el creciente problema del cultivo de drogas ilegales .
También existen pequeños territorios a lo largo de la región fronteriza que Bangladesh intenta reclamar diplomáticamente. Padua, que formaba parte de la División de Sylhet antes de 1971, ha estado bajo control indio desde la guerra de 1971. Esta pequeña franja de tierra fue reocupada por la BDR en 2001 , pero posteriormente fue devuelta a la India después de que el gobierno de Bangladesh decidiera resolver el problema mediante negociaciones diplomáticas. La isla india de Nueva Moore ya no existe, pero Bangladesh la reclama repetidamente [ 463 ] como parte del distrito de Satkhira de Bangladesh.
En los últimos años, India se ha quejado cada vez más de que Bangladesh no asegura adecuadamente su frontera. Teme un flujo creciente de bangladesíes pobres y acusa a Bangladesh de albergar a grupos separatistas indios como ULFA y supuestos grupos terroristas. El gobierno de Bangladesh se ha negado a aceptar estas acusaciones. [ 464 ] [ 465 ] India estima que más de 20 millones de bangladesíes viven ilegalmente en India . [ 466 ] Un funcionario bangladesí respondió que "no hay un solo migrante bangladesí en India". [ 467 ] Desde 2002, India ha estado construyendo una valla entre India y Bangladesh a lo largo de gran parte de la frontera de 2500 millas. [ 468 ] La falta de resolución de las disputas migratorias tiene un costo humano para los migrantes ilegales, como el encarcelamiento y los riesgos para la salud (principalmente el VIH/SIDA ). [ 469 ]
El primer ministro de la India, Narendra Modi, y su homóloga bangladesí, Sheikh Hasina, han cerrado un acuerdo histórico que redibuja su compleja frontera compartida, resolviendo así las disputas entre India y Bangladesh. Bangladesh también ha otorgado a la India una ruta de tránsito para viajar a través de su territorio hacia sus estados del noreste. India y Bangladesh también firmaron un acuerdo de libre comercio el 7 de junio de 2015. [ 470 ]
Ambos países resolvieron su disputa fronteriza el 6 de junio de 2015. [ 471 ]
El enlace ferroviario Agartala - Akhaura , entre los ferrocarriles indios y los de Bangladesh, reducirá la distancia actual por carretera de 1700 km entre Calcuta y Agartala, pasando por Siliguri, a tan solo 350 kilómetros por ferrocarril. Para conectar Calcuta con Tripura a través de Bangladesh por ferrocarril, el Gobierno central aprobó el 10 de febrero de 2016 un presupuesto de aproximadamente 580 millones de rupias. Se prevé que el proyecto, cuya finalización está prevista para 2017, atraviese Bangladesh.
Históricamente, Bután ha mantenido estrechos lazos con la India. Ambos países firmaron un tratado de amistad en 1949, mediante el cual la India se comprometía a asistir a Bután en sus relaciones exteriores. El 8 de febrero de 2007, el Tratado de Amistad Indo-Butanesa fue revisado sustancialmente durante el reinado del rey de Bután, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck . En el Tratado de 1949, el artículo 2 establecía: «El Gobierno de la India se compromete a no interferir en la administración interna de Bután. Por su parte, el Gobierno de Bután se compromete a seguir el consejo del Gobierno de la India en materia de relaciones exteriores».
En el tratado revisado, ahora se lee: «En consonancia con los lazos perdurables de estrecha amistad y cooperación entre Bután e India, el Gobierno del Reino de Bután y el Gobierno de la República de India cooperarán estrechamente en asuntos relacionados con sus intereses nacionales. Ninguno de los gobiernos permitirá el uso de su territorio para actividades perjudiciales para la seguridad nacional y los intereses del otro». El tratado revisado también incluye el preámbulo «Reafirmando su respeto mutuo por la independencia, la soberanía y la integridad territorial», un elemento que no figuraba en la versión anterior. El Tratado de Amistad Indo-Butanés de 2007 fortalece el estatus de Bután como nación independiente y soberana.
India sigue siendo el principal socio comercial y de desarrollo de Bután. Los esfuerzos de desarrollo planificados en Bután comenzaron a principios de la década de 1960. El Primer Plan Quinquenal (PFQ) de Bután se lanzó en 1961. Desde entonces, India ha brindado asistencia financiera a los PFQ de Bután. El 10.º PFQ finalizó en junio de 2013. La asistencia total de India al 10.º PFQ fue de poco más de 5000 millones de rupias, sin incluir las subvenciones para proyectos hidroeléctricos. India ha comprometido 4500 millones de rupias para el 11.º PFQ de Bután, junto con 500 millones de rupias como paquete de estímulo económico. [ 472 ]
The hydropower sector is one of the main pillars of bilateral cooperation, exemplifying mutually beneficial synergy by providing clean energy to India and exporting revenue to Bhutan (power contributes 14% to the Bhutanese GDP, comprising about 35% of Bhutan's total exports). Three hydroelectric projects (HEPs) totalling 1416 MW, (336 MW Chukha HEP, the 60 MW Kurichu HEP, and the 1020 MW Tala HEP), are already exporting electricity to India. In 2008 the two governments identified ten more projects for development with a total generation capacity of 10,000 MW. Of these, three projects totalling 2940 MW (1200 MW Punatsangchu-I, 1020 MW Punatsangchu-II and 720 MW Mangdechu HEPs) are under construction and are scheduled to be commissioned in the last quarter of 2017–2018. Out of the remaining 7 HEPs, 4 projects totalling 2120 MW (600 MW Kholongchhu, 180 MW Bunakha, 570 MW Wangchu and 770 MW Chamkarchu) will be constructed under a Joint Venture model, for which a Framework Inter-Governmental Agreement was signed between both governments in 2014. Of these 4 JV-model projects, pre-construction activities for Kholongchhu HEP have commenced.[472]Tata Power is also building a hydroelectric dam in Bhutan.
India had assisted Bhutan by deploying its troops in Doklam in 2017- a territory claimed and controlled by the Bhutanese government- to resist a Chinese army's control and construction of military structures.[427]
India enjoys a considerable influence over Maldives' foreign policy and provides extensive security cooperation, especially after Operation Cactus in 1988 during which India repelled Tamil mercenaries who invaded the country.
As a founder member in 1985 of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, SAARC, which brings together Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, the country plays a very active role in SAARC. The Maldives has taken the lead in calling for a South Asian Free Trade Agreement, the formulation of a Social Charter, the initiation of informal political consultations in SAARC forums, the lobbying for greater action on environmental issues, the proposal of numerous human rights measures such as the regional convention on child rights and for setting up a SAARC Human Rights Resource Centre. The Maldives is also an advocate of greater international profile for SAARC such as through formulating common positions at the UN.
India is starting the process to bring the island country into India's security grid. The move comes after the moderate Islamic nation approached New Delhi earlier this year over fears that one of its island resorts could be taken over by terrorists given its lack of military assets and surveillance capabilities.[473] India also signed an agreement with the Maldives in 2011 which is centred around the following:
India shall permanently base two helicopters in the country to enhance its surveillance capabilities and ability to respond swiftly to threats. One helicopter from the Coast Guard was handed over during A. K. Antony's visit while another from the Navy will be cleared for transfer shortly.
Maldives has coastal radars on only two of its 26 atolls. India will help set up radars on all 26 for seamless coverage of approaching vessels and aircraft.
The coastal radar chain in the Maldives will be networked with the Indian coastal radar system. India has already undertaken a project to install radars along its entire coastline. The radar chains of the two countries will be interlinked and a central control room in India's Coastal Command will get a seamless radar picture.
The Indian Coast Guard (ICG) will carry out regular Dornier sorties over the island nation to look out for suspicious movements or vessels. The Southern Naval Command will facilitate the inclusion of Maldives into the Indian security grid.
Military teams from Maldives will visit the tri-services Andaman & Nicobar Command (ANC) to observe how India manages security and surveillance of the critical island chain.
Relations faced a strain in January 2024 due to derogatory remarks by Maldivian officials and concerns over racism, targeted towards Indian prime minister Narendra Modi as well as India, triggering the 2024 India-Maldives diplomatic row.[474]
This was seen very negatively in India, with citizens calling for a boycott of vacations in Maldives, with many renowned Bollywood actors and personalities criticising the Maldivian government. This also led to the death of a young Maldivian teenager,[475] who had to be taken to India via an air ambulance, after the request at the last minute was denied by Maldivian authorities due to the ongoing tensions against the country.[476]
Relations between India and Nepal are close yet fraught with difficulties stemming from border disputes, geography, economics, the problems inherent in big power-small power relations, and common ethnic and linguistic identities that overlap the two countries borders. In 1950 New Delhi and Kathmandu initiated their intertwined relationship with the Treaty of Peace and Friendship and accompanying secret letters that defined security relations between the two countries, and an agreement governing both bilateral trade and trade transiting Indian soil. The 1950 treaty and letters stated that "neither government shall tolerate any threat to the security of the other by a foreign aggressor" and obligated both sides "to inform each other of any serious friction or misunderstanding with any neighboring state likely to cause any breach in the friendly relations subsisting between the two governments", and also granted the Indian and Nepali citizens right to get involved in any economic activity such as work and business-related activity in each other's territory. These accords cemented a "special relationship" between India and Nepal that granted Nepalese in India the same economic and educational opportunities as Indian citizens.
Local Nepalese and Army persons are being evacuated by the Indian Air Force (IAF) Mi-17 V5 helicopter at the directions of Nepalese authority as part of relief & rescue operations following the 2015 Kathmandu Earthquake.
Relations between India and Nepal reached their lowest in 1989 when India imposed a 13-month-long economic blockade on Nepal. Indian PM Narendra Modi visited Nepal in 2014, the first by an Indian PM in nearly 17 years.
In 2015, a blockade of the India-Nepal border affected relations. The blockade is led by ethnic communities angered by Nepal's recently promulgated new constitution.[477] However, the Nepalese government accuses India of deliberately worsening the embargo, but India denies it.[477]
Indian media stated that the actions of the Oli government were souring the relations, "and these were being done on the direction of China and propelled by Chinese ambassador Hou Yanqi". Speculations were made that since China could not handle India directly, in the aftermath of the LAC skirmish, it was lurking and trapping its neighbouring countries and provoking them against India. In August, there were reports about the Chinese "illegal occupations" in Nepal's border states' areas.[485]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 August 1947.[486]
Despite historical, cultural and ethnic links between them, relations between India and Pakistan have been "plagued" by years of mistrust and suspicion ever since the partition of India in 1947. The principal source of contention between India and its western neighbour has been the Kashmir conflict. After an invasion by Pashtun tribesmen and Pakistani paramilitary forces, the Hindu Maharaja of the Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, and its Muslim Prime Minister, Sheikh Abdullah, signed an Instrument of Accession with New Delhi. The First Kashmir War started after the Indian Army entered Srinagar, the capital of the state, to secure the area from the invading forces. The war ended in December 1948 with the Line of Control dividing the erstwhile princely state into territories administered by Pakistan (northern and western areas) and India (southern, central and northeastern areas). Pakistan contested the legality of the Instrument of Accession since the Dogra Kingdom has signed a standstill agreement with it. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 started following the failure of Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against rule by India. The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides. It ended in a United Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration. India and Pakistan went to war again in 1971, this time the conflict being over East Pakistan. The large-scale atrocities committed there by the Pakistan army led to millions of Bengali refugees pouring over into India. India, along with the Mukti Bahini, defeated Pakistan and the Pakistani forces surrendered on the eastern front. The war resulted in the creation of Bangladesh. In 1998, India carried out the Pokhran-II nuclear tests which was followed by Pakistan's Chagai-I tests. Following the Lahore Declaration in February 1999, relations briefly improved. A few months later, however, Pakistani paramilitary forces and Pakistan Army, infiltrated in large numbers into the Kargil district of Indian Kashmir. This initiated the Kargil War after India moved in thousands of troops to successfully flush out the infiltrators. Although the conflict did not result in a full-scale war between India and Pakistan, relations between the two reached an all-time low which worsened even further following the involvement of Pakistan-based terrorists in the hijacking of the Indian Airlines Flight 814 in December 1999. Attempts to normalise relations, such as the Agra summit held in July 2001, failed. An attack on the Indian Parliament in December 2001, which was blamed on Pakistan, which had condemned the attack[487] caused a military standoff between the two countries which lasted for nearly a year raising fears of nuclear warfare. However, a peace process, initiated in 2003, led to improved relations in the following years.
Since the initiation of the peace process, several confidence-building measures (CBMs) between India and Pakistan have taken shape. The Samjhauta Express and Delhi–Lahore Bus service are two of these successful measures which have played a crucial role in expanding people-to-people contact between the two countries.[488] The initiation of the Srinagar–Muzaffarabad Bus service in 2005 and the opening of a historic trade route across the Line of Control in 2008 further reflects increasing eagerness between the two sides to improve relations. Although bilateral trade between India and Pakistan was a modest US$1.7 billion in March 2007, it is expected to cross US$10 billion by 2010. After the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, India sent aid to affected areas in Pakistani Kashmir and Punjab as well as Indian Kashmir.[489]
The 2008 Mumbai attacks seriously undermined the relations between the two countries. India alleged Pakistan harbouring militants on their soil, while Pakistan vehemently denied such claims.
A new chapter started in India-Pakistan relations when a new NDA government took charge in Delhi after victory in the 2014 election and invited SAARC members' leaders to an oath-taking ceremony. Subsequently, the visit of the Indian prime minister on 25 December informally wished Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif on his Birthday and participate in his daughter's wedding. It was hoped that the relationship between the neighbour will improve but an attack on an Indian army camp by Pakistani infiltrators on 18 September 2016[490] and a subsequent surgical strike by India[491] aggravated the already strained relationship between the nations.
A SAARC summit scheduled in Islamabad was called off because of a boycott by India and other SAARC members subsequently.[492]
The relationship took a further nosedive after another attack on CRPF in February 2019 by a terrorist associated with the Pakistan-based terror organisation, Jaish-e-Mohammed, when the terrorist rammed his vehicle packed with explosives against a bus carrying CRPF soldiers in Pulwama, Kashmir, killing 40.[493] India blamed Pakistan which was denied by the Pakistani establishment. India retaliated with an airstrike on Balakot, a region claimed and controlled by Pakistan.[494]
A new chapter in peace was ignited when it was suddenly declared that a back-door peace settlement over ceasing the cross-border firing across LOC was signed between the armies of both sides, and a steady growth in the countries coming together was observed.[495]
Sri Lanka
Bilateral relations between Sri Lanka and India have enjoyed historically a good relationship. The two countries share near-identical racial and cultural ties. According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles (Dipavamsa), Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka in the 4th century BCE by Venerable Mahinda, the son of Indian Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of Sri Lanka's King Devanampiya Tissa. During this time, a sapling of the Bodhi Tree was brought to Sri Lanka and the first monasteries and Buddhist monuments were established.
Nevertheless, relations post-independence were affected by the Sri Lankan Civil War and by the failure of Indian intervention during the civil war as well as India's support for Tamil Tiger militants. India is Sri Lanka's only neighbour, separated by the Palk Strait; both nations occupy a strategic position in South Asia and have sought to build a common security umbrella in the Indian Ocean.[496]
India-Sri Lanka relations have undergone a qualitative and quantitative transformation in the recent past. Political relations are close, trade and investments have increased dramatically, infrastructural linkages are constantly being augmented, defence collaboration has increased and there is a general, broad-based improvement across all sectors of bilateral cooperation. India was the first country to respond to Sri Lanka's request for assistance after the tsunami in December 2004. In July 2006, India evacuated 430 Sri Lankan nationals from Lebanon, first to Cyprus by Indian Navy ships and then to Delhi and Colombo by special Air India flights.
There exists a broad consensus within the Sri Lankan polity on the primacy of India in Sri Lanka's external relations matrix. Both the major political parties in Sri Lanka, the Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the United Nationalist Party have contributed to the rapid development of bilateral relations in the last ten years. Sri Lanka has supported India's candidature to the permanent membership of the UN Security Council.[497]
India and its neighbour countries.
SAARC
Certain aspects of India's relations within the subcontinent are conducted through the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Its members other than India are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Established in 1985, SAARC encourages cooperation in agriculture, rural development, science and technology, culture, health, population control, narcotics control and anti-terrorism.
SAARC has intentionally stressed these "core issues" and avoided more divisive political issues, although the political dialogue is often conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings. In 1993, India and its SAARC partners signed an agreement to gradually lower tariffs within the region. Forward movement in SAARC has come to a standstill because of the tension between India and Pakistan, and the SAARC Summit originally scheduled for, but not held in, November 1999 has not been rescheduled. The Fourteenth SAARC Summit was held during 3–4 April 2007 in New Delhi. The 19th SAARC summit that was scheduled to be held in Islamabad was cancelled due to terrorist acts, particularly the Uri attack.
Members of BIMSTEC.
BIMSTEC
Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation is now an "organization of member states" that are littorals of the Bay of Bengal or adjacent to it. The BIMSTEC member states – Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand – are among the major South and Southeast Asia countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal.[498] India and some other countries, frustrated by the obstacles in SAARC's efforts to promote regional cooperation, have been working to make BIMSTEC the premier vehicle in this regard.[499]
PM Narendra Modi meets Indonesian President Joko Widodo, in Jakarta (2018)
In 1950, the first President of Indonesia – Sukarno called upon the peoples of Indonesia and India to "intensify the cordial relations" that had existed between the two countries "for more than 1000 years" before they had been "disrupted" by colonial powers.[503] In the spring of 1966, the foreign ministers of both countries began speaking again of an era of friendly relations. India had supported Indonesian independence and Nehru had raised the Indonesian question in the United Nations Security Council.
India has an embassy in Jakarta[504] and Indonesia operates an embassy in Delhi.[505] India regards Indonesia as a key member of ASEAN. Today, both countries maintain cooperative and friendly relations. India and Indonesia are one of the few (and also one of the largest) democracies in the Asian region which can be projected as a real democracy.[506] Both nations had agreed to establish a strategic partnership.[507] As fellow Asian democracies that share common values, it is natural for both countries to nurture and foster strategic alliances. Indonesia and India are member states of the G-20, the E7, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the United Nations.
Laos
In recent years, India has endeavoured to build relations, with this small Southeast Asian nation. They have strong military relations, and India shall be building an Airforce Academy in Laos.[508]
Stamp of India - IOCOM Submarine Telephone Cable
Malaysia
India has a high commission in Kuala Lumpur, and Malaysia has a high commission in New Delhi. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations and the Asian Union. India and Malaysia are also connected by various cultural and historical ties that date back to antiquity. The two countries are on friendly terms with each other and Malaysia harbours a small population of Indian immigrants. Mahathir bin Mohamad the fourth and longest-serving prime minister of Malaysia is of Indian origin. His father Mohamad Iskandar, is a Malayalee Muslim who migrated from Kerala and his mother Wan Tampawan, is a Malay.[509]
India established diplomatic relations after Burma's independence from Great Britain in 1948. For many years, Indo-Burmese relations were strong due to cultural links, flourishing commerce, common interests in regional affairs and the presence of a significant Indian community in Burma.[511] India provided considerable support when Myanmar struggled with regional insurgencies. However, the overthrow of the democratic government by the Military of Burma led to strains in ties. Along with much of the world, India condemned the suppression of democracy and Myanmar ordered the expulsion of the Burmese Indian community, increasing its isolation from the world.[511][512] Only China maintained close links with Myanmar while India supported the pro-democracy movement.[511][513][514]
The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi and the State Counsellor of Myanmar, Ms. Aung San Suu Kyi at the Joint Press Statement, at Hyderabad House, in New Delhi on 19 October 2016.
However, due to geopolitical concerns, India revived its relations and recognised the military junta ruling Myanmar in 1993, overcoming strains over drug trafficking, the suppression of democracy and the rule of the military junta in Myanmar. Myanmar is situated to the south of the states of Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh in Northeast India. and the proximity of the People's Republic of China gives strategic importance to Indo-Burmese relations. The Indo-Burmese border stretches over 1,600 kilometres[515] and some insurgents in North-east India seek refuge in Myanmar. Consequently, India has been keen on increasing military cooperation with Myanmar in its counter-insurgency activities. In 2001, the Indian Army completed the construction of a major road along its border with Myanmar. India has also been building major roads, highways, ports and pipelines within Myanmar in an attempt to increase its strategic influence in the region and also to counter China's growing strides in the Indochina peninsula. Indian companies have also sought active participation in oil and natural gas exploration in Myanmar. In February 2007, India announced a plan to develop the Sittwe port, which would enable ocean access from Indian Northeastern states like Mizoram, via the Kaladan River.
India is a major customer of Burmese oil and gas. In 2007, Indian exports to Myanmar totalled US$185 million, while its imports from Myanmar were valued at around US$810 million, consisting mostly of oil and gas.[516] India has granted US$100 million credit to fund highway infrastructure projects in Myanmar, while US$57 million has been offered to upgrade Burmese railways. A further US$27 million in grants has been pledged for road and rail projects.[517] India is one of the few countries that has provided military assistance to the Burmese junta.[518] However, there has been increasing pressure on India to cut some of its military supplies to Burma.[519] Relations between the two remain close which was evident in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis, when India was one of the few countries whose relief and rescue aid proposals were accepted by Myanmar's junta.[520]
India maintains embassies in Rangoon and consulate generals in Mandalay.
Stamp of Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica) and Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus), 2009, India-Philippines joint issue.
Philippines
Through the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires, Hindu influence has been visible in Philippine history from the 10th to 14th centuries. During the 18th century, there was robust trade between Manila with the Coromandel Coast and Bengal, involving Philippine exports of tobacco, silk, cotton, indigo, sugar cane and coffee.
Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Philippines President Rodrigo Roa Duterte meeting in Manila, 2017
Formal diplomatic relations between the Philippines and India were established on 16 November 1949. The first Philippine envoy to India was the late Foreign Secretary Narciso Ramos. Seven years after India's independence in 1947, the Philippines and India signed a Treaty of Friendship on 11 July 1952 in Manila to strengthen the friendly relations existing between the two countries. Soon after, the Philippine Legation in New Delhi was established and then elevated to an embassy. However, due to foreign policy differences as a result of the bipolar alliance structure of the Cold War, the development of bilateral relations was stunted. It was only in 1976 that relations started to normalise when Aditya Birla, one of India's successful industrialists, met with then-President Ferdinand E. Marcos to explore possibilities of setting up joint ventures in the Philippines. Today, like India, the Philippines is the leading voice-operated business process outsourcing (BPO) source in terms of revenue (US$5.7) and number of people (500,000) employed in the sector. In partnership with the Philippines, India has 20 IT/BPO companies in the Philippines. Philippines-India bilateral trade stood at US$986.60 million in 2009. In 2004 it was US$600 million. Both countries aim to reach US$1 billion by 2010. 60,000 Indians are living in the Philippines. The Philippines and India signed in October 2007 the Framework for Bilateral Cooperation which created the PH-India JCBC. It has working groups in trade, agriculture, tourism, health, and renewable energy, a regular policy consultation mechanism and security dialogue.
Singapore Navy frigate RSS Formidable (68) steams alongside the Indian Navy frigate INS Brahmaputra (F-31) in the Bay of Bengal. Singapore is one of India's strongest allies in South East Asia.
Singapore
India and Singapore share long-standing cultural, commercial and strategic relations, with Singapore being a part of the "Greater India" cultural and commercial region. More than 300,000 people of Indian Tamil "தமிழ்" origin live in Singapore. Following its independence in 1965, Singapore was concerned with China-backed communist threats as well as domination from Malaysia and Indonesia and sought a close strategic relationship with India, which it saw as a counterbalance to Chinese influence and a partner in achieving regional security.[521] Singapore had always been an important strategic trading post, giving India trade access to Maritime Southeast Asia and the Far East. Although the rival positions of both nations over the Vietnam War and the Cold War caused consternation between India and Singapore, their relationship expanded significantly in the 1990s;[521] Singapore was one of the first to respond to the Indian Look East policy of expanding its economic, cultural and strategic ties in Southeast Asia to strengthen its standing as a regional power.[521] Singapore, and especially, the Singaporean Foreign Minister, George Yeo, have taken an interest, in re-establishing the ancient Indian university, Nalanda University.
India Singapore Joint Issue - 2015 - Commemorating relationship.
Singapore is the 8th largest source of investment in India and the largest among ASEAN member nations.[521][522] It is also India's 9th biggest trading partner as of 2005–06.[521] Its cumulative investment in India totals US$3 billion as of 2006 and is expected to rise to US$5 billion by 2010 and US$10 billion by 2015.[521][523][524]India's economic liberalisation and its "Look East" policy have led to a major expansion in bilateral trade, which grew from US$2.2 billion in 2001 to US$9–10 billion in 2006 – a 400% growth in five years – and to US$50 billion by 2010.[521][523][524] Singapore accounts for 38% of India's trade with ASEAN member nations and 3.4% of its total foreign trade.[521] India's main exports to Singapore in 2005 included petroleum, gemstones, jewellery, and machinery and its imports from Singapore included electronic goods, organic chemicals and metals. More than half of Singapore's exports to India are basically "re-exports" – items that had been imported from India.[521][522]
Thailand
The mural of the Temple of the Emerald Buddha depicting Ninlaphat (Nila in Ramayana) a monkey soldier, serves as a bridge during an event in Ramakien ("Glory of Rama"), a Thai version of the Hindu epic Ramayana.
India's Indian Look East policy, saw India grow relations with ASEAN countries including Thailand, and Thailand's Look West policy, also saw it grow its relations with India. Both countries are members of BIMSTEC. Indian prime minister Rajiv Gandhi, P.V. Narasimha Rao, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, and Manmohan Singh, have visited Thailand, which was reciprocated by contemporary Thai Prime Ministers Chatichai Choonhavan, Thaksin Sinawatra, and Surayud Chulanont. In 2003, a Free Trade Agreement was signed between the two countries. India is the 13th largest investor in Thailand. The spheres of trade are in chemicals, pharmaceuticals, textiles, nylon, tyre cord, real estate, rayon fibres, paper-grade pulps, steel wires, and rods. However, IT services, and manufacturing, are the main spheres. Through Buddhism, India has culturally influenced Thailand. The Indian epics, Mahabharata, and Ramayana, are popular and are widely taught in schools as part of the curriculum in Thailand. The example can also be seen in temples around Thailand, where the story of Ramayana and renowned Indian folk stories are depicted on the temple wall. Thailand has become a big tourist destination for Indians.
Moreover, India and Thailand have been culturally linked for centuries and India has had a deep influence on Thai culture. There are a substantial number of words in Thai that are borrowed from Sanskrit, India's classical language. Pali, which was the language of Magadha and is a medium of Theravada, is another important root of Thai vocabulary. Buddhism, the major religion of Thailand, itself originates from India. The Hindu story of Ramayana is also well known throughout Thailand in the name Ramakien.
Timor-Leste
Both nations have friendly and collateral relations.
Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru (left) and Vietnamese President Ho Chi Minh in Hanoi
Vietnam
India supported Vietnam's independence from France, opposed US involvement in the Vietnam War and supported the unification of Vietnam. India established official diplomatic relations in 1972 and maintained friendly relations, especially in the wake of Vietnam's hostile relations with the People's Republic of China, which had become India's strategic rival.[525]
India granted the "Most favoured nation" status to Vietnam in 1975[525] and both nations signed a bilateral trade agreement in 1978 and the Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement (BIPPA) on 8 March 1997.[526] In 2007, a fresh joint declaration was issued during the state visit of the Prime Minister of VietnamNguyen Tan Dung.[527] Bilateral trade has increased rapidly since the liberalisation of the economies of both Vietnam and India.[525] India is the 13th-largest exporter to Vietnam, with exports having grown steadily from US$11.5 million in 1985–86 to US$395.68 million by 2003.[526] Vietnam's exports to India rose to US$180 million, including agricultural products, handicrafts, textiles, electronics and other goods.[528] Between 2001 and 2006, the volume of bilateral trade expanded at 20–30% per annum to reach $1 billion by 2006.[529][530] Continuing the rapid pace of growth, bilateral trade is expected to rise to $2 billion by 2008, two years ahead of the official target.[530][531] India and Vietnam have also expanded cooperation in information technology, education and collaboration of the respective national space programmes.[527] Direct air links and lax visa regulations have been established to bolster tourism.[532]
Bilateral signing ceremony in 2011
India and Vietnam are members of the Mekong–Ganga Cooperation, created to develop to enhance close ties between India and nations of Southeast Asia. Vietnam has supported India's bid to become a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and join the Indo-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).[533] In the 2003 joint declaration, India and Vietnam envisaged creating an "Arc of Advantage and Prosperity" in Southeast Asia;[527] to this end, Vietnam has backed a more important relationship and role between India and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and its negotiation of an Indo–ASEAN free trade agreement.[525][527] India and Vietnam have also built strategic partnerships, including extensive cooperation in developing nuclear power, enhancing regional security and fighting terrorism, transnational crime and drug trafficking.[534][527][528]
ASEAN
India's interaction with ASEAN during the Cold War was very limited. India declined to get associated with ASEAN in the 1960s when full membership was offered even before the grouping was formed.[45]
It is only with the formulation of the Look East policy in the last decade (1992), India started giving this region due importance in the foreign policy. India became a sectoral dialogue partner with ASEAN in 1992, a full dialogue partner in 1995, a member of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in 1996, and a summit-level partner (on par with China, Japan and Korea) in 2002.
The first India–ASEAN Business Summit was held in New Delhi in October 2002. The then Prime Minister A. B. Vajpayee addressed this meeting and since then this business summit has become an annual feature before the India–ASEAN Summits, as a forum for networking and exchange of business experiences between policymakers and business leaders from ASEAN and India.
Four India-ASEAN Summits, first in 2002 at Phnom Penh (Cambodia), second in 2003 at Bali, Indonesia, third in 2004 at Vientiane, Laos, and the fourth in 2005 at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, have taken place.
Stamp of India - ASEAN India Summit Delhi 2018 - Shared Heritage of Ramayana.
The following agreements have been entered into with ASEAN:
Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Cooperation (for establishing an FTA in a time frame of 10 years) was concluded in Bali in 2003.
An ASEAN-India Joint Declaration for Cooperation to Combat International Terrorism has been adopted.
India acceded to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) in 2003, on which ASEAN was formed initially (in 1967).
The agreement on "India-ASEAN Partnership for Peace, Progress and Shared Prosperity" was signed at the 3rd ASEAN-India Summit in November 2004.
Setting up of Entrepreneurship Development Centres in ASEAN member states – Cambodia, Burma, Laos, and Vietnam. (The one in Laos is already functional)
The following proposals were announced by the Prime Minister at the 4th ASEAN-India Summit:
Setting up centres for English Language Training (ELT) in Cambodia, Laos, Burma and Vietnam.
Setting up a telemedicine and tele-education network for Cambodia, Burma, Laos and Vietnam.
Organising special training courses for diplomats from ASEAN countries.
Organising an India-ASEAN Technology Summit in 2006.
Organising education fairs and road shows in ASEAN countries.
Conducting an India-ASEAN IT Ministerial and Industry Forum in 2006.
The ASEAN region has an abundance of natural resources and significant technological skills. These provide a natural base for the integration between ASEAN and India in both trade and investment. The present level of bilateral trade with ASEAN of nearly US$18 billion is reportedly increasing by about 25% per year. India hopes to reach the level of US$30 billion by 2007. India is also improving its relations with the help of other policy decisions like offers of lines of credit, better connectivity through the air (open skies policy), and rail and road links.[45]
India established diplomatic relations with Armenia in December 1992. It wasn't recognised by some countries including Pakistan, while most of the nations did. As of the earliest days of the silk route, there have been strong cultural, moral and ancient other traditional relations among the nations. It fully supports India's bid for a permanent seat in UNSC and even completely supports India on Kashmir conflicts. There exists a small community of Armenians in India while there is also a small community of Indians in Armenia.
Azerbaijan
India has an embassy in Baku and Azerbaijan has an embassy in New Delhi. Both have been connected through ancient cultural links and trade routes (especially the Silk Route).
Bahrain
The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi meeting the Foreign Minister of Bahrain, Shaikh Khalid Bin Mohamed Al Khalifa, in New Delhi on 23 February 2015
India is a close ally of Bahrain, the Kingdom along with its GCC partners are (according to Indian officials) among the most prominent backers of India's bid for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council,[537] and Bahraini officials have urged India to play a greater role in international affairs. For instance, over concerns about Iran's nuclear programme Bahrain's Crown Prince appealed to India to play an active role in resolving the crisis.[538]
Ties between India and Bahrain go back generations, with many of Bahrain's most prominent figures having close connections: poet and constitutionalist Ebrahim Al-Arrayedh grew up in Bombay, while 17th-century Bahraini theologians Sheikh Salih Al-Karzakani and Sheikh Ja'far bin Kamal al-Din were influential figures in the Kingdom of Golkonda[539] and the development of Shia thought in the sub-continent.
Bahraini politicians have sought to enhance these long-standing ties, with Parliamentary Speaker Khalifa Al Dhahrani in 2007 leading a delegation of parliamentarians and business leaders to meet the then Indian president Pratibha Patil, the then opposition leader L K Advani, and take part in training and media interviews.[540] Politically, it is easier for Bahrain's politicians to seek training and advice from India than it is from the United States or other Western alternatives.
Adding further strength to the ties, Sheikh Hamad Bin Isa Al-Khalifa visited India during which MOUs and bilateral deals worth $450 million were approved.[541] India expressed its support for Bahrain's bid for a non-permanent seat in the UNSC in 2026–27.[542]
Cypriot Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with India
India supported Cyprus during its struggle for independence from British colonial rule. India supported the Greeks in Cyprus during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 and lobbied for the international recognition of the Government of Nicosia as the sole legal representative of the entire nation. India has consistently supported and voted for a peaceful resolution of the Cyprus dispute at the United Nations.
Independent India and Iran established diplomatic links on 15 March 1950.[547] After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iran withdrew from CENTO and dissociated itself from US-friendly countries, including Pakistan, which automatically meant an improved relationship with the Republic of India.
Currently, the two countries have friendly relations in many areas. There are significant trade ties, particularly in crude oil imports into India and diesel exports to Iran. Iran frequently objected to Pakistan's attempts to draft anti-India resolutions at international organisations such as the OIC. India welcomed Iran's inclusion as an observer state in the SAARC regional organisation. Lucknow continues to be a major centre of Shiite culture and Persian study in the subcontinent.
In the 1990s, India and Iran both supported the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan against the Taliban regime. They continue to collaborate in supporting the broad-based anti-Taliban government led by Hamid Karzai and backed by the United States.
However, one complex issue in Indo-Iran relations is the issue of Iran's nuclear programme. In this intricate issue, India tries to make a delicate balance. According to Rejaul Laskar, an Indian expert on international relations, "India's position on Iran's nuclear programme has been consistent, principled and balanced, and makes an endeavour to reconcile Iran's quest for energy security with the international community's concerns on proliferation. So, while India acknowledges and supports Iran's ambitions to achieve energy security and in particular, its quest for peaceful use of nuclear energy, it is also India's principled position that Iran must meet all its obligations under international law, particularly its obligations under the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and other such treaties to which it is a signatory"[548]
Following an attack on an Israeli diplomat in India in February 2012, the Delhi Police contended that the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps had some involvement in the attack. This was subsequently confirmed in July 2012, after a report by the Delhi Police found evidence that members of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps had been involved in the 13 February bomb attack in the capital.[549]
Iraq was one of the few countries in the Middle East with which India established diplomatic relations at the embassy level immediately after its independence in 1947.[550] Both nations signed the "Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship" in 1952 and an agreement of cooperation on cultural affairs in 1954.[550] India was amongst the first to recognise the Ba'ath Party-led government, and Iraq remained neutral during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. However, Iraq sided alongside other Persian Gulf states in supporting Pakistan against India during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which saw the creation of Bangladesh.[550] The eight-year-long Iran–Iraq War caused a steep decline in trade and commerce between the two nations.[550]
During the 1991 Persian Gulf War, India remained neutral but permitted refuelling for US aircraft.[550] It opposed UN sanctions on Iraq, but the period of war and Iraq's isolation further diminished India's commercial and diplomatic ties.[550] From 1999 onwards, Iraq and India began to work towards a stronger relationship. Iraq had supported India's right to conduct nuclear tests following its tests of five nuclear weapons on 11 and 13 May 1998.[550] In 2000, the then-Vice-President of IraqTaha Yassin Ramadan visited India, and on 6 August 2002 President Saddam Hussein conveyed Iraq's "unwavering support" to India over the Kashmir conflict with Pakistan.[550][551] India and Iraq established joint ministerial committees and trade delegations to promote extensive bilateral cooperation.[552][553] Although initially disrupted during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, diplomatic and commercial ties between India and the new democratic government of Iraq have since been normalised.[553]
A Beni-Israel family in BombayIsrael
The establishment of Israel at the end of World War II was a complex issue. Based on its own experience during partition, when 14 million people were displaced[554][555] and an estimated 200,000 to 500,000 people were killed in Punjab Province,[556] India had recommended a single state, as did Iran and Yugoslavia (later to undergo its genocidal partition). The state could allocate Arab- and Jewish-majority provinces to prevent the partition of historic Palestine and prevent widespread conflict.[557] But, the final UN resolution recommended the partition of Mandatory Palestine into Arab and Jewish states based on religious and ethnic majorities. India opposed this in the final vote as it did not agree with the concept of partition based on religion.[558]
Due to the security threat from a US-backed Pakistan and its nuclear programme in the 1980s, Israel and India started a clandestine relationship that involved cooperation between their respective intelligence agencies.[559] Israel shared India's concerns about the growing danger posed by Pakistan and nuclear proliferation to Iran and other Arab states.[560]
Since the establishment of full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1992, India has improved its relationship with the Jewish state. India is regarded as Israel's strongest ally in Asia, and Israel is India's second-largest arms supplier. Since India achieved its independence in 1947, it has supported Palestinian self-determination. India recognised Palestine's statehood following Palestine's declaration on 18 November 1988[561] and Indo-Palestinian relations was first established in 1974.[562] This has not adversely affected India's improved relations with Israel.
India entertained the Israeli Prime Minister in a visit in 2003,[563] and Israel has entertained Indian dignitaries such as Finance Minister Jaswant Singh in diplomatic visits. India and Israel collaborate in scientific and technological endeavours. Israel's Minister for Science and Technology has expressed interest in collaborating with the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) towards using satellites to better manage land and other resources. Israel has also expressed interest in participating in ISRO's Chandrayaan Mission involving an uncrewed mission to the moon.[564] On 21 January 2008, India successfully launched an Israeli spy satellite into orbit from the Sriharikota space station in southern India.[565]
Narendra Modi's warm visit to Israel, hugging Former President Reuven Rivlin in 2017
Israel and India share intelligence on terrorist groups. They have developed close defence and security ties since establishing diplomatic relations in 1992. India has bought more than $5 billion worth of Israeli equipment since 2002. In addition, Israel is training Indian military units and in 2008 was discussing an arrangement to give Indian commandos instruction in counter-terrorist tactics and urban warfare.[566] In December 2008, Israel and India signed a memorandum to set up an Indo-Israel Legal Colloquium to facilitate discussions and exchange programmes between judges and jurists of the two countries.[567]
The India-Israel relationship has been very close and warm under the premiership of Narendra Modi since 2014. In 2017, he was the first ever Prime Minister of India to visit Israel.[569]
Lebanon
India and Lebanon enjoy cordial and friendly relations based on many complementarities such as a political system based on parliamentary democracy, non-alignment, human rights, commitment to a just world order, regional and global peace, a liberal market economy and a vibrant entrepreneurial spirit. India has a peacekeeping force as part of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). One infantry battalion is deployed in Lebanon and about 900 personnel are stationed in the Eastern part of Southern Lebanon.[570] The force also provided non-patrol aid to citizens.[571] India and Lebanon have had very good relations since the 1950s.
India–Oman relations are foreign relations between India and the Sultanate of Oman. India has an embassy in Muscat, Oman. The Indian consulate was opened in Muscat in February 1955 and five years later it was upgraded to a consulate general and later developed into a full-fledged embassy in 1971. The first Ambassador of India arrived in Muscat in 1973. Oman established its embassy in New Delhi in 1972 and a consulate general in Mumbai in 1976.
$5.6 bn Oman-India energy pipeline plans progressing: Fox Petroleum Group envisions a roughly five-year timeframe for the execution of the pipeline project.[572]
Ajay Kumar, the chairman and managing director of Fox Petroleum, based in New Delhi, which is an associate company of Fox Petroleum FZC in the UAE, said that Mr. Modi had "fired the best weapon of economic development and growth". "He has given a red carpet for global players to invest in India," Mr. Kumar added. "It will boost all sectors of the industry – especially for small-scale manufacturing units and heavy industries too."
Bilateral relations between India and Saudi Arabia have strengthened considerably owing to cooperation in regional affairs and trade. Saudi Arabia is the one of largest suppliers of oil to India, which is one of the top seven trading partners and the 5th biggest investor in Saudi Arabia.[578]
India was one of the first nations to establish ties with the Third Saudi State. During the 1930s, India heavily funded Nejd through financial subsidies.[579]
India's strategic relations with Saudi Arabia have been affected by the latter's close ties with Pakistan.[580] Saudi Arabia supported Pakistan's stance on the Kashmir conflict during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 at the expense of its relations with India.[581] The Soviet Union's close relations with India also served as a source of consternation.[580][581] During the Persian Gulf War (1990–91), India officially maintained neutrality. Saudi Arabia's close military and strategic ties with Pakistan have also been a source of continuing strain.[580][581]
Since the 1990s, both nations have taken steps to improve ties. Saudi Arabia has supported granting observer status to India in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and has expanded its cooperation with India to fight terrorism.[582] In January 2006, King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia made a special visit to India, becoming the first Saudi monarch in 51 years to do so.[580] The Saudi king and former Prime Minister of IndiaManmohan Singh signed an agreement forging a strategic energy partnership that was termed the "Delhi Declaration".[583] The pact provides for a "reliable, stable and increased volume of crude oil supplies to India through long-term contracts."[584] Both nations also agreed on joint ventures and the development of oil and natural gas in public and private sectors.[584] An Indo-Saudi joint declaration in the Indian capital New Delhi described the king's visit as "heralding a new era in India-Saudi Arabia relations".[582]
Syria
Syrian Christian Women in Kerala (1912)
Bilateral relations between India and Syria are historic and the two have ancient civilizational ties. Both countries were on the Silk Road through which civilizational exchanges took place for centuries. Syriac Christianity, originating in ancient Syria, spread further to the East and created the first Christian communities in ancient India. The ancient Syriac language among the Syrian Christians of Kerala was also brought to Kerala by St Thomas in the 1st century CE. Even today the language continues to be taught in colleges and universities in Kerala.
A common nationalism and secular orientation, membership of NAM and similar perceptions on many issues further strengthened the bond between the two states. India supported "Syria's legitimate right to regain the occupied Golan Heights". In turn, this was reciprocated with Syrian recognition that Kashmir is a bilateral issue as well as general support of India's concerns and even candidature at various international forums.
Turkey
Due to controversial issues such as Turkey's close relationship with Pakistan, relations between the two countries have often been blistered at certain times, but better at others. India and Turkey's relationship alters from unsureness to collaboration when the two nations work together to combat terrorism in Central and South Asia, and the Middle East. India and Turkey are also connected by history, seeing as they have known each other since the days of the Ottoman Empire, and seeing as India was one of the countries to send aid to Turkey following its war of independence. The Indian real estate firm GMR has invested in and is working towards the modernisation of Istanbul's Sabiha Gökçen International Airport.
The President, Shri Pranab Mukherjee and the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi with the Chief Guest of the Republic Day, The Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi, Deputy Supreme Commander of U.A.E. Armed Forces, General Sheikh Mohammed Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, at Rajpath, on the occasion of the 68th Republic Day Parade 2017, in New Delhi.
India–United Arab Emirates relations refer to the bilateral relations that exist between the Republic of India and the United Arab Emirates. After the creation of the Federation in 1971, India-UAE relations flourished. Today UAE and India share political, economic and cultural links. There are over a million Indians in the United Arab Emirates, being by far the largest migrant group in the country.[1] A large Indian expatriate community resides and engages in the UAE in economically productive activities and has played a significant role in the evolution of the UAE. In 2008–09, India emerged as the largest trade partner of the UAE with bilateral trade between the two countries exceeding US$44.5 billion. [9] UAE and India are each other's main trading partners. The trade totals over $75 billion (AED275.25 billion).
Arab states of the Persian Gulf
India and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf enjoy strong cultural and economic ties. This is reflected in the fact that more than 50% of the oil consumed by India comes from the Persian Gulf countries[585] and Indian nationals form the largest expatriate community in the Arabian peninsula.[586] The annual remittance by Indian expatriates in the region amounted to US$20 billion in 2007.[587] India is one of the largest trading partners of the CCASG with non-oil trade between India and Dubai alone amounting to US$19 billion in 2007.[588] The Persian Gulf countries have also played an important role in addressing India's energy security concerns, with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait regularly increasing their oil supply to India to meet the country's rising energy demand. In 2005, Kuwait increased its oil exports to India by 10% increasing the net oil trade between the two to US$4.5 billion.[589] In 2008, Qatar decided to invest US$5 billion in India's energy sector.[590]
India has maritime security arrangements in place with Oman and Qatar.[591] In 2008, a landmark defence pact was signed, under which India committed its military assets to protect "Qatar from external threats".[592] There has been progress in a proposed deep-sea gas pipeline from Qatar, via Oman, to India.[593]
Europe
Albania
Austria
Austria–India relations refers to the bilateral ties between Austria and India. Indo-Austrian relations were established in May 1949 by the first Prime Minister of IndiaJawaharlal Nehru and the Chancellor of AustriaLeopold Figl.[594] Historically, Indo-Austrian ties have been particularly strong and India intervened in June 1953 in Austria's favour whilst negotiations were going on with the Soviet Union about the Austrian State Treaty.[595] There is a fully functioning Indian embassy in Vienna, Austria's capital, which is concurrently accredited to the United Nations offices in the city.[596] Austria is represented in India by its embassy and Trade Commission in New Delhi, India's capital, as well as honorary consulates in Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Goa.[597]
Bulgaria has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Kolkata.[602] India has an embassy in Sofia.[603]
Croatia
Since February 1995, Croatia has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Mumbai.[604] Since 28 April 1996, India has an embassy in Zagreb.[605]
Czech Republic
Czech-Indian relations were established in 1921 by a consulate in Bombay.[606] The Czech Republic has an embassy in New Delhi.[607] Consulates of the Czech Republic in India are in Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata. India has an embassy in Prague.[608]
Tranquebar, a town in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu, was a Danish colony in India from 1620 to 1845. It is spelled Trankebar or Tranquebar in Danish, which comes from the native Tamil, Tarangambadi, meaning "place of the singing waves". It was sold, along with the other Danish settlements in mainland India, most notably Serampore (now in West Bengal), to Great Britain in 1845. The Nicobar Islands were also colonised by Denmark until sold to the British in 1868, who made them part of the British Indian Empire.
After Independence in 1947, Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru's visit to Denmark in 1957 laid the foundation for a friendly relationship between India and Denmark that has endured ever since. The bilateral relations between India and Denmark are cordial and friendly, based on synergies in political, economic, academic and research fields. There have been periodic high-level visits between the two countries.[611]
The Denmark Tavern of Serampore in West Bengal
Anders Fogh Rasmussen, former Prime Minister of Denmark, accompanied by a large business delegation, paid a state visit to India from 4 to 8 February 2008. He visited Infosys, Biocon and IIM Bangalore in Bangalore and Agra. He launched an 'India Action Plan', which called for strengthening of the political dialogue, strengthening of cooperation in trade and investments, research in science and technology, energy, climate and environment, culture, education, student exchanges and attracting skilled manpower and IT experts to Denmark for short periods. The two countries signed an Agreement for the establishment of a Bilateral Joint Commission for Cooperation.
In July 2012, the Government of India decided to scale down its diplomatic ties with Denmark after that country's refusal to appeal in their Supreme Court against a decision of its lower court rejecting the extradition of Purulia arms drop case prime accused Kim Davy a.k.a. Niels Holck. Agitated over Denmark's refusal to act on India's repeated requests to appeal in their apex court to facilitate Davy's extradition to India, the government issued a circular directing all senior officials not to meet or entertain any Danish diplomat posted in India.[612]
Estonia
India's first recognition of Estonia came on 22 September 1921 when the former had just acquired membership in the League of Nations. India re-recognised Estonia on 9 September 1991 and diplomatic relations were established on 2 December of the same year in Helsinki. Neither country has a resident ambassador. Estonia is represented in India by an embassy in New Delhi one honorary consulate in Mumbai. India is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Helsinki (Finland) and an honorary consulate in Tallinn.
Rooster Motif 15th Century Sketch
Peacock Motif 19th Century Minakari
India France Joint Issue - 2003 - Commemorating relationship.
France
France and India established diplomatic relations before India's independence from the British Empire on 17 February 1947.[613] France's Indian possessions were returned to India after a treaty of cession was signed by the two countries in May 1956. On 16 August 1962, India and France exchanged the instruments of ratification under which France ceded to India full sovereignty over the territories it held. Pondicherry and the other enclaves of Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam came to be administered as the Union Territory of Puducherry on 1 July 1963.
France, Russia and Israel were the only countries that did not condemn India's decision to go nuclear in 1998.[614] In 2003, France became the largest supplier of nuclear fuel and technology to India and remains a large military and economic trade partner. India's candidacy for permanent membership in the UN Security Council has found very strong support from former French President Nicolas Sarkozy. The Indian Government's decisions to purchase French Scorpène-class submarines worth US$3 billion and 43 Airbus aircraft for Air India worth US$2.5 billion have further cemented the strategic, military and economic cooperation between India and France.
France's decision to ban schoolchildren from wearing headdresses and veils had the unintended consequence of affecting Sikh children who have been refused entry into public schools. The Indian Government, citing the historic traditions of the Sikh community, has requested French authorities to review the situation to not exclude Sikh children from education.
President Nicolas Sarkozy and François Hollande visited India in January 2008 and 2016 respectively as the Chief Guest of the annual Republic Day parade in New Delhi. France was the first country to sign a nuclear energy cooperation agreement with India; this was done during Prime Minister Singh's visit, following the waiver by the Nuclear Suppliers Group. During the Bastille Day celebrations on 14 July 2009, a detachment of 400 Indian troops marched alongside the French troops and the then Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh was the guest of honour.[615]
Arrival of the first Indian student to Dresden, East Germany, in 1951
Germany
During the Cold War India maintained diplomatic relations with both West Germany and East Germany. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the reunification of Germany, relations have further improved.
Germany is India's largest trade partner in Europe. Between 2004 and 2013, Indo-German trade grew in volume but dropped in importance.[618] According to Indian Ministry of Commerce MX data: Total trade between India and Germany was $5.5 billion (3.8% share of Indian trade and ranked 6) in 2004 and $21.6 billion (2.6% share of Indian trade and ranked 9) in 2013. Indian exports to Germany were $2.54 billion (3.99% ranked 6) in 2004 and $7.3billion (2.41% ranked 10) in 2013. Indian imports from Germany were $2.92 billion (3.73% ranked 6) in 2004 and $14.33 billion (2.92% ranked 10) in 2013.
Indo-German ties are transactional. The strategic relationship between Germany and India suffers from sustained anti-Asian sentiment,[619]institutionalised discrimination against minority groups,[620][621][622][623] and xenophobic incidents against Indians in Germany. The 2007 Mügeln mob attack on Indians and the 2015 Leipzig University internship controversy have clouded the predominantly commercial-oriented relationship between the two countries. Stiff competition between foreign manufactured goods within the Indian market has seen machine tools, automotive parts and medical supplies from German Mittelstand ceding ground to high-technology imports manufactured by companies located in ASEAN & BRICS countries.[624][625][626][627] The Volkswagen emissions scandal drew the spotlight on corrupt behaviour in German boardrooms[628][629][630] and brought back memories of the HDW bribery scandal surrounding the procurement of Shishumar-class submarines by the Indian Navy. The India-Germany strategic relationship is limited by the insignificance of German geopolitical influence in Asian affairs. Germany has no strategic footprint in Asia. Germany like India is working towards gaining permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council.
Greek and Indian deities on the coinage of Agathocles, circa 180 BCE. Besides the Greek god Zeus, the Indian deities have been variously identified as the Buddha, Vishnu, Shiva, Vasudeva or Balarama.
Greece
For the Ancient Greeks "India" (Greek: Ινδία) meant only the upper Indus until the time of Alexander the Great. Afterwards, "India" meant to the Greeks most of the northern half of the Indian subcontinent. The Greeks referred to the Indians as "Indói" (Greek: Ἰνδοί), literally meaning "the people of the Indus River". Indians called the Greeks Yonas or "Yavanas" from Ionians.
Indo-Greek kingdoms were founded by the successor of Alexander the Great. (Greek conquests in India) The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea was a manual written in Greek for navigators who carried trade between Roman Empire and other regions, including ancient India. It gives detailed information about the ports, routes and commodities. The Greek ethnographer and explorer of the Hellenistic period, Megasthenes was the ambassador of Seleucus I in India. In his work, Indika (Greek: Ινδικά), he wrote the history of Indians and their culture. Megasthenes also mentioned the prehistoric arrival of the God Dionysus and Herakles (Megasthenes' Herakles) in India.
There is now tangible evidence indicating that the settlement of Greek merchants in Bengal must have begun as early as the beginning of the seventeenth century.[631] Dimitrios Galanos (Greek: Δημήτριος Γαλανός, 1760–1833) was the earliest recorded Greek Indologist. His translations of Sanskrit texts into Greek made knowledge of the philosophical and religious ideas of India available to many Europeans. A "Dimitrios Galanos" Chair for Hellenic Studies was established at Jawaharlal Nehru University in New Delhi, India in September 2000.
In modern times, diplomatic relations between Greece and India were established in May 1950. The new Greek Embassy building in New Delhi was inaugurated on 6 February 2001.[632] As of 2020, the relationship between the two countries is closer than ever and is considered historical and strategic by both parties.[633][634]
Iceland and India established diplomatic relations in 1972. The Embassy of Iceland in London was accredited to India and the Embassy of India in Oslo, Norway, was accredited to Iceland. However, it was only after 2003 that the two countries began close diplomatic and economic relationships.[635] In 2003, President of IcelandÓlafur Ragnar Grímsson visited India on a diplomatic mission. This was the first visit by an Icelandic President to India. During the visit, Iceland pledged support to New Delhi's candidature for a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council thus becoming the first Nordic country to do so. This was followed by an official visit of President of IndiaA. P. J. Abdul Kalam to Iceland in May 2005.[636] Following this, a new embassy of Iceland was opened in New Delhi on 26 February 2006.[635] Soon, an Indian Navy team visited Iceland on a friendly mission.[637]Gunnar Pálsson is the ambassador of Iceland to India. The Embassy's area of accreditation, apart from India includes Bangladesh, Indonesia, the Seychelles, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius and Nepal.[638] India appointed S. Swaminathan as the first resident ambassador to Iceland in March 2008.[639]
India has an embassy established in 2006 in Reykjavík.[640]
Iceland has an embassy established in 2005 in New Delhi.[641]
Indo-Irish relations picked up steam during their respective campaigns for independence from the British Empire. Political relations between the two states have largely been based on socio-cultural ties, although political and economic ties have also helped build relations. Indo-Irish relations were greatly strengthened by Pandit Nehru, Éamon de Valera, Rabindranath Tagore, W. B. Yeats, James Joyce, and, above all, Annie Besant. Politically, relations have not been cold or warm. Mutual benefit has led to economic ties that are fruitful for both states. Visits by government leaders have kept relations cordial at regular intervals.
Since 2012 the relationship has been affected by the ongoing Enrica Lexie case: two Indian fishermen were killed on the Indian fishing vessel St. Antony as a result of gunshot wounds following a confrontation with the Italian oil tanker Enrica Lexie in international waters, off the Kerala coast.
There are around 150,000 people of Indian Origins living in Italy. Around 1,000 Italian citizens reside in India, mostly working on behalf of Italian industrial groups.
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Relations were established in 1947, following India's independence. Luxembourg operates an embassy in New Delhi whilst India operates a Consulate General in Luxembourg City. Bilateral Trade stood at US$37 Million in 2014 and trade continues to grow every year. Diplomats from both countries have visited the other several times. In 2019, Luxembourg plans to host the annual Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and open an economic mission in India.
The Indian embassy to Moldova is accredited by Bucharest, Romania. Moldova maintains an honorary consulate in New Delhi and a consulate in Mumbai. Both countries have taken steps to deepen their ties, which are still maintained at a modest level. Both countries have been found supporting each other on many international platforms like the United Nations through reciprocal support mechanisms. India-Moldova bilateral trade has been rather modest.
Monaco
Factory in Hugli-Chuchura, Dutch Bengal. Hendrik van Schuylenburgh, 1665.
Netherlands
India–Netherlands relations refer to foreign relations between India and the Netherlands. India maintains an embassy in The Hague, Netherlands and the Netherlands maintains an embassy in New Delhi and a consulate general in Mumbai. Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 April 1947.[137]
Norway
In 2012, Trond Giske met with Minister of Finance Pranab Mukherjee, to save[646]Telenor's investments to put forth Norway's "strong wish" that there must not be a waiting period between the confiscation of telecom licences and the re-sale of those.[647] The leader of Telenor attended the meeting.
North Macedonia
Mother Teresa, honoured in the Catholic Church as Saint Teresa of Calcutta became an Indian citizen in 1951, and was born in Skopje (in present-day North Macedonia) in 1910. India has an embassy in Sofia, Bulgaria jointly accredited to the Republic of Macedonia. Both Macedonia has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai and Bangalore.
Poland
Historically, relations have generally been close and friendly, characterised by understanding and cooperation on the international front.[648]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 April 1947[137]
India's ties with the Russian Federation are time-tested and based on continuity, trust and mutual understanding. There is a national consensus in both countries on the need to preserve and strengthen India-Russia relations and further consolidate the strategic partnership between the two countries. A Declaration on Strategic Partnership was signed between present Russian president Vladimir Putin and former Indian prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in October 2000 the partnership is also referred to asa "special and privileged strategic partnership".
Russia and India have decided not to renew the 1971 Indo-Soviet Peace and Friendship Treaty and have sought to follow what both describe as a more pragmatic, less ideological relationship. Russian president Yeltsin's visit to India in January 1993 helped cement this new relationship. Ties have grown stronger with President Vladimir Putin's 2004 visit. The pace of high-level visits has since increased, as discussed in major defence purchases. Russia is working on the development of the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant, which will be capable of producing 1000 MW of electricity. Gazprom is working for the development of oil and natural gas, in the Bay of Bengal. India and Russia, have collaborated extensively, on space technology. Other areas of collaboration include software, Ayurveda, etc. India and Russia, have set a determination in increasing trade to $10 billion. Cooperation between clothing manufacturers of the two countries continues to strengthen. India and Russia signed an agreement on joint efforts to increase investment and trade volumes in the textile industry in both countries. In signing the document included representatives of the Russian Union of Entrepreneurs of Textile and Light Industry Council and apparel exports of India (AEPC). A cooperation agreement provides, inter alia, the exchange of technology and know-how in textile production. For this purpose, a special Commission on Affairs Textile (Textile Communication Committee). Counter-terrorism techniques are also in place between Russia and India. In 2007 President Vladimir Putin was the guest of honour at the Republic Day celebration on 26 January 2007. 2008, has been declared by both countries as the Russia-India Friendship Year. Bollywood films are quite popular in Russia. The Indian public sector oil company ONGC bought Imperial Energy Corporation in 2008. In December 2008, during President Medvedev's visit, to New Delhi, India and Russia, signed a nuclear energy cooperation agreement. In March 2010, Russian prime minister Vladimir Putin signed an additional 19 pacts with India which included civilian nuclear energy, space and military cooperation and the final sale of Admiral Gorshkov (Aircraft Carrier) along with MiG-29K fighter jets.
Indian PM Narendra Modi with Russian President Vladimir Putin. India and Russia enjoy strong strategic and military relations. (Kazan, Russia, 2024)
During the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, India refused to support American sanctions against Russia and one of India's national security advisers Shivshankar Menon was reported to have said "There are legitimate Russian and other interests involved and we hope they are discussed and resolved."[651]
On 7 August 2014, India and Russia held a joint counter-terrorism exercise near the Moscow boundary with China and Mongolia. It involved the use of tanks and armoured vehicles.[652]
India and Russia have so far conducted three rounds of INDRA exercises. The first exercise was carried out in 2005 in Rajasthan, followed by Prshkov in Russia. The third exercise was conducted at Chaubattia in Kumaon Hills in October 2010.[652][653]
Romania
India has an embassy in Bucharest[654] and an honorary consulate in Timișoara. Romania has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Kolkata.[655]
Diplomatic ties with Spain started in 1956.[661] The first Spanish embassy was established in Delhi in 1958. India and Spain have had a cordial relationship with each other, especially after the establishment of democracy in Spain in 1978. Spain has been a main tourist spot for Indians over the years. Many presidents including Prathibha Patil visited Spain. The royal family of Spain has always liked the humble nature of the Indian government and they have thus paid several visits to India. There was no direct flight from India to Spain but it all changed in 1986 when Iberian travels started to fly directly from Mumbai to Madrid. However, it was stopped in 22 months. In 2006 this issue of the direct flight was reconsidered to improve the ties between India and Spain. "Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara" was shot completely in Spain in 2011. The tourism ministry of Spain is using this movie to promote tourism to Spain in India.
Sweden
Consulate-General of India in GenevaIndia has an embassy in Stockholm, which is also accredited to Latvia.[662]
Sweden has an embassy in New Delhi, which is also accredited to Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and the Maldives. It has three honorary consulates in Chennai, Kolkata and Mumbai.[663]
Switzerland
Switzerland has an embassy in New Delhi and a consulate in Bangalore and Mumbai.[664]
India is one of Switzerland's most important partners in Asia. Bilateral and political contacts are constantly developing, and trade and scientific cooperation between the two countries are flourishing.[666] Switzerland was the first country in the World to sign a Friendship treaty with India in 1947.[667]
Ukraine
Diplomatic relations between India and Ukraine were established in January 1992. The Indian Embassy in Kyiv was opened in May 1992 and Ukraine opened its mission in New Delhi in February 1993. The Consulate General of India in Odesa functioned from 1962 until its closure in March 1999.
Since 1947, India's relations with the United Kingdom have been bilateral, as well as through the Commonwealth of Nations framework. Although the Sterling Area no longer exists and the Commonwealth is much more an informal forum, India and the UK still have many enduring links. This is in part due to the significant number of people of Indian origin living in the UK. The large South Asian population in the UK results in steady travel and communication between the two countries. The British Raj allowed for both cultures to imbibe tremendously from the other. The English language and cricket are perhaps the two most evident British exports, whilst in the UK food from the Indian subcontinent is very popular.[674] The United Kingdom's favourite food is often reported to be Indian cuisine, although no official study reports this.[674]
Economically the relationship between Britain and India is also strong. India is the second largest investor in Britain after the US.[675][676] Britain is also one of the largest investors in India.[677]
Vatican City & the Holy See
Formal bilateral relations between India and Vatican City have existed since 12 June 1948. An Apostolic Delegation existed in India from 1881. The Holy See has a nunciature in New Delhi whilst India has accredited its embassy in Bern, Switzerland to the Holy See as well. India's Ambassador in Bern has traditionally been accredited to the Holy See.
The connections between the Catholic Church and India can be traced back to the apostle St. Thomas, who, according to tradition, came to India in 52 CE in the 9th century, the patriarch of the Nestorians in Persia sent bishops to India. There is a record of an Indian bishop visiting Rome in the early part of the 12th century.
The diplomatic mission was established as the Apostolic Delegation to the East Indies in 1881, and included Ceylon, and was extended to Malaca in 1889, then to Burma in 1920, and eventually included Goa in 1923. It was raised to an Internunciature by Pope Pius XII on 12 June 1948 and to a full Apostolic Nunciature by Pope Paul VI on 22 August 1967.
There have been three Papal visits to India. The first Pope to visit India was Pope Paul VI, who visited Mumbai in 1964 to attend the Eucharistic Congress. Pope John Paul II visited India in February 1986 and November 1999. Several Indian dignitaries have, from time to time, called on the Pope in the Vatican. These include Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1981 and Prime Minister I. K. Gujral in September 1987. Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Prime Minister, called on the Pope in June 2000 during his official visit to Italy. Vice-President Bhairon Singh Shekhawat represented the country at the funeral of Pope John Paul II.
India was one of the first countries to develop relations with the European Union. The Joint Political Statement of 1993 and the 1994 Cooperation Agreement were the foundational agreements for the bilateral partnership. In 2004, India and European Union became "Strategic Partners". A Joint Action Plan was agreed upon in 2005 and updated in 2008. India-EU Joint Statements were published in 2009 and 2012 following the India-European Union Summits.[678]
India and the European Commission initiated negotiations on a Broad-based Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA) in 2007. Seven rounds of negotiations have been completed without reaching a Free Trade Agreement.[679]
According to the Government of India, trade between India and the EU was $57.25 billion between April and October 2014 and stood at $101.5 billion for the fiscal period of 2014–2015.[680]
The European Union is India's second largest trade bloc, accounting for around 20% of Indian trade (Gulf Cooperation Council is the largest trade bloc with almost $160 billion in total trade[681]). India was the European Union's 8th largest trading partner in 2010. EU-India trade grew from €28.6 billion in 2003 to €72.7 billion in 2013.[682]
France, Germany and UK collectively represent the major part of EU-India trade.[683] Annual trade in commercial services tripled from €5.2billion in 2002 to €17.9 billion in 2010.[684] Denmark, Sweden, Finland and the Netherlands are the other more prominent European Union countries that trade with India.[685][686]
Oceania
Australia
India & Australia are both Commonwealth members. Sporting and cultural ties are significant. Australian cricketers often undertake large commercial ventures in India, enhanced with the IPL, and, to a lesser degree, the ICL. Bollywood productions enjoy a large market in Australia. In 2007, PM John Howard visited Mumbai and its entertainment industry, in efforts to increase Tourism in India to Australia.[687]
There are ongoing strategic attempts to form an "Asian NATO" with India, Japan, the US and Australia through the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue.[688][689] During the first decade of the 21st century, the deepening of strategic relations between the two nations was prevented by a range of policy disagreements, such as India's refusal to sign the NPT and Australia's consequent refusal to provide India with uranium. Australia's parliament later allowed for the sale of uranium to India, following changes in government.[690] Closer strategic cooperation between India, Japan, the United States and Australia also began during the second half of the 2010s, which some analysts attributed to a desire to balance Chinese initiatives in the Indo-Pacific region.[691]
Cook Islands
Fiji
Fiji's relationship with the Republic of India is often seen by observers against the backdrop of the sometimes tense relations between its indigenous people and the 44 per cent of the population who are of Indian descent. India has used its influence in international forums such as the Commonwealth of Nations and United Nations on behalf of ethnic Indians in Fiji, lobbying for sanctions against Fiji in the wake of the 1987 coups and the 2000 coup, both of which removed governments, one dominated and one led, by Indo-Fijians.
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
India and Nauru relations have been established since the island nation's independence in 1968. Leaders of both countries have been meeting on the sidelines of some of the international forums of which both nations are part such as the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement. India is one of the largest donors to the island by improving the education ministry and creating transportation and computer connections for the MPs and the Speaker of the Parliament of Nauru. There were numerous visits by the President of Nauru to the republic to further strengthen ties and cooperation.[692]
India Vs New Zealand One Day International, 10 December 2010. Cricket is hugely popular in both nations and is seen as a connection between them.
India–New Zealand relations were cordial but not extensive after Indian independence. More recently, New Zealand has shown interest in extending ties with India due to India's impressive GDP growth.
Niue
Palau
Papua New Guinea
India and Papua New Guinea established relations in 1975, following PNG's independence from Australia. Since 1975, relations have grown between the two nations. India maintains a High Commission in Port Moresby while Papua New Guinea maintains a High Commission in New Delhi In the 2010 Fiscal Year, Trade between the two nations grew to US$239 Million. PNG has sent numerous military officers and students to be trained and educated in India's academies and universities respectively. In recent years, India and PNG have signed an Economic Partnership Agreement, allowing India to further invest in PNG's infrastructure, telecommunications and educational institutions.
Samoa
Both countries established diplomatic relations in June 1970.[694]
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
India has its High Commission in Wellington, New Zealand, accredited to Vanuatu.
De Facto
Kosovo
Since its declaration of independence from Serbia, Kosovo sought recognition from the major of the world's most influential countries, among them, India. Indian views regarding the developments followed initial constringent to comment but dismissed to give recognition of statehood. There are almost negligible interactions.
After India achieved its independence in 1947, the country moved to support Palestinian self-determination following the partition of India. In light of a religious partition between India and Pakistan, the impetus to boost ties with Muslim states around the world was a further tie to India's support for the Palestinian cause. Though it started to waver in the late 1980s and 1990s, as the recognition of Israel led to diplomatic exchanges, the ultimate support for the Palestinian cause, was still an underlying concern. Beyond the recognition of Palestinian self-determination ties have been largely dependent upon socio-cultural bonds, while economic relations were neither cold nor warm.
India recognised Palestine's statehood following its declaration on 18 November 1988;[561] although relations were first established in 1974.[562]
PNA president Abbas paid a state visit to India in September 2012, during which India pledged $10 million as aid. Indian officials said it was the third such donation, adding that New Delhi was committed to helping other development projects. India also pledged support to Palestine's bid for full and equal membership of the UN.
Taiwan
India recognised the Republic of China (R.O.C) from 1947 to 1950. On 1 April 1950, India officially recognised the People's Republic of China (P.R.C) as "China" and continued to recognise the PRC's "One China" policy in which the island of Taiwan is a part of the Chinese territory. However, the bilateral relations between India and Taiwan have improved since the 1990s despite both nations not maintaining official diplomatic relations. Taiwan and India maintain non-governmental interaction via India-Taipei Association and Taipei Economic and Cultural Centre respectively. In July 2020, the Indian government appointed a top career diplomat, Joint Secretary Gourangalal Das, the former head of the US division in India's Ministry of External Affairs, as its new envoy to Taiwan.
International organisations
India participates in the following international organisations:[695]
ITUC – International Trade Union Confederation (the successor to ICFTU (International Confederation of Free Trade Unions) and the WCL (World Confederation of Labour))
Memorial stone plaque dedicated to Brijuni Declaration of the Non-Aligned Movement, signed on 19 July 1956, exhibited in the Brijuni Museums, Republic of Croatia
India played an important role in the multilateral movements of colonies and newly independent countries that developed into the Non-Aligned Movement. Nonalignment had its origins in India's colonial experience and the nonviolent Indian independence movement led by the Congress, which left India determined to be the master of its fate in an international system dominated politically by Cold War alliances and economically by Western capitalism and Soviet communism. The principles of nonalignment, as articulated by Nehru and his successors, were the preservation of India's freedom of action internationally through refusal to align India with any bloc or alliance, particularly those led by the United States or the Soviet Union; nonviolence and international cooperation as a means of settling international disputes. Nonalignment was a consistent feature of Indian foreign policy by the late 1940s and enjoyed strong, almost unquestioning support among the Indian elite.
The term "Non-Alignment" was coined by V K Menon in his speech at the UN in 1953 which was later used by Indian prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru during his speech in 1954 in Colombo, Sri Lanka. In this speech, Nehru described the five pillars to be used as a guide for China–India relations, which were first put forth by Chinese PremierZhou Enlai. Called Panchsheel (five restraints), these principles would later serve as the basis of the Non-Aligned Movement. The five principles were:
Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty
Jawaharlal Nehru's concept of nonalignment brought India considerable international prestige among newly independent states that shared India's concerns about the military confrontation between the superpowers and the influence of the former colonial powers. New Delhi used nonalignment to establish a significant role for itself as a leader of the newly independent world in such multilateral organisations as the United Nations (UN) and the Nonaligned Movement. The signing of the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation between India and the Soviet Union in 1971 and India's involvement in the internal affairs of its smaller neighbours in the 1970s and 1980s tarnished New Delhi's image as a nonaligned nation and led some observers to note that in practice, nonalignment applied only to India's relations with countries outside South Asia.
India was among the original members of the United Nations that signed the Declaration by United Nations at Washington on 1 January 1942 and also participated in the United Nations Conference on International Organization in San Francisco from 25 April to 26 June 1945. As a founding member of the United Nations, India strongly supports the purposes and principles of the UN and has made significant contributions to implementing the goals of the Charter and the evolution of the UN's specialised programmes and agencies.[700] India is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in all of its specialised agencies and organisations. India has contributed troops to United Nations peacekeeping efforts in Korea,[701][702] Egypt and the Congo in its earlier years and in Somalia, Angola, Haiti, Liberia, Lebanon and Rwanda in recent years, and more recently in the South Sudan conflict.[703] India has been a member of the UN Security Council for eight terms (a total of 16 years).[704] India is a member of the G4 group of nations who back each other in seeking a permanent seat on the security council and advocate in favour of the reformation of the UNSC. India is also part of the Group of 77.
World Trade Organization
Described by the WTO's former chief, Pascal Lamy, as one of the organisation's "big brothers",[705] India was instrumental in bringing down the Doha Development Round of talks in 2008.[77] It has played an important role in representing as many as 100 developing nations during WTO summits.[706]
The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) had major repercussions for Indian foreign policy. Substantial trade with the former Soviet Union plummeted after the Soviet collapse and has yet to recover. Longstanding military supply relationships were similarly disrupted due to questions over financing, although Russia continues to be India's largest supplier of military systems and spare parts.
The relationship with USSR was tested (and proven) during the 1971 war with Pakistan, which led to the subsequent liberation of Bangladesh. Soon after the victory of the Indian Armed Forces, one of the foreign delegates to visit India was Admiral S.G. Gorshkov, Chief of the Soviet Navy. During his visit to Mumbai (Bombay), he came on board INS Vikrant. During a conversation with Vice Admiral Swaraj Prakash, Gorshkov asked the Vice Admiral, "Were you worried about a battle against the American carrier?" He answered himself: "Well, you had no reason to be worried, as I had a Soviet nuclear submarine trailing the American task force all the way into the Indian Ocean."[707]
India's territorial disputes with neighbouring Pakistan and the People's Republic of China have played a crucial role in its foreign policy. India is also involved in minor territorial disputes with neighbouring Bangladesh, Nepal and Maldives. India currently maintains two staffed stations in Antarctica but has made some unofficial territorial claims, which are yet to be clarified.
India is involved in the following border disputes:
Nepal
Kalapani village of India is claimed by Nepal and Susta village in Nawalparasi district of Nepal is claimed by India.[708] The dispute between India and Nepal involves about 75km2 (30sqmi) of area in Kalapani, where China, India, and Nepal meet. Indian forces occupied the area in 1962 after China and India fought their border war. Three villages are located in the disputed zone: Kuti [Kuthi, 30°19'N, 80°46'E], Gunji, and Knabe. India and Nepal disagree about how to interpret the 1816 Sugauli treaty between the British East India Company and Nepal, which delimited the boundary along the Maha Kali River (Sarda River in India). The dispute intensified in 1997 as the Nepali parliament considered a treaty on the hydroelectric development of the river. India and Nepal differ as to which stream constitutes the source of the river. Nepal regards the Limpiyadhura as the source; India claims the Lipu Lekh. Nepal has reportedly tabled an 1856 map from the British India Office to support its position. The countries have held several meetings about the dispute and discussed jointly surveying to resolve the issue.[709] Although the Indo-Nepali dispute appears to be minor, it was aggravated in 1962 by tensions between China and India. Because the disputed area lies near the Sino-Indian frontier, it gains strategic value.[710]
Pakistan
Indus and tributaries
The unresolved Kashmir conflict and the status of Kashmir with India: Pakistan claims that it is a disputed territory with India, meanwhile Pakistan claims its side of the disputed territory and calls it "Azad Kashmir".
Dispute over Sir Creek and the maritime boundary regarding the Rann of Kachchh area of the southern tip of Sindh.
Water-sharing problems with Pakistan over the Indus River (Wular Barrage). (Indus Waters Treaty)
Two regions are claimed by both India and China. Aksai Chin is in the disputed territory of Ladakh, at the junction of India, Tibet and Xinjiang, India claims the 38,000-square-kilometre territory, currently administered by China after Sino-Indian War. India also considers the cessation of Shaksam Valley to China by Pakistan as illegal and a part of its territory. Arunachal Pradesh is a state of India in the country's northeast, bordering on Bhutan, Burma and China's Tibet, though it is under Indian administration since 1914, China claims the 90,000-square-kilometre area as South Tibet. Also, the boundary between the North Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand with China's Tibet is not properly demarcated with some portions under the de facto administration of India.[711]
Diplomatic relations with India through philately
List of countries commemorating anniversaries of diplomatic relations with India through philately
↑Including all 193 UN member countries and 8 dependencies.
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Further reading
Abraham, Itty. "From Bandung to NAM: Non-alignment and Indian foreign policy, 1947–65." Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 46.2 (2008): 195–219.
Bajpai, Kanti, Selina Ho, and Manjari Chatterjee Miller, eds. Routledge Handbook of China–India Relations (Routledge, 2020). excerptArchived 8 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
Basrur, Rajesh. Subcontinental Drift: Domestic Politics and India's Foreign Policy (Georgetown University Press, 2023). ISBN9781647122843
Brands, H. W. India and the United States: The Cold Peace (1990) online
Bradnock, Robert W. India's Foreign Policy Since 1971 (1990) 128pp; by a geographer
Budhwar, Prem K. "India-Russia relations: Past, Present and the future." India Quarterly 63.3 (2007): 51–83.
Budhwar, Prem K. et al. "India-Canada Relations: a Roller-Coaster Ride." Indian Foreign Affairs Journal 13.1 (2018): 1–50. essays by seven experts.onlineArchived 3 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine
Chacko, Priya. Indian foreign policy: the politics of postcolonial identity from 1947 to 2004 (Routledge, 2013).
Chakma, Bhumitra, ed. The politics of nuclear weapons in South Asia (Ashgate, 2011).
Chaudhuri, Rudra. Forged In Crisis: India and the United States since 1947 (2014)
Cohen, Stephen P., and Sunil Dasgupta. Arming Without Aiming: India's Military Modernisation (2010) excerpt and text searchArchived 27 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine
Fonseca, Rena. "Nehru and the Diplomacy of Nonalignment." The Diplomats, 1939-1979 (Princeton University Press, 2019) pp.371–397. online
Gaan, Narottam. India and the United States: from Estrangement to Engagement (2007)
Ganguly, Sumit. India's Foreign Policy: Retrospect and Prospect (2012)
Ganguly, Sumit. "Has Modi Truly Changed India's Foreign Policy?." The Washington Quarterly 40.2 (2017): 131–143.
Gopal, Sarvepalli. Jawaharlal Nehru: 1947–56 v.2: A Biography (1979); Jawaharlal Nehru: Vol.3: 1956–1964: A Biography (1984), a major scholarly biography with full coverage of foreign policy
Gould, Harold A. The South Asia story: The first sixty years of US relations with India and Pakistan (SAGE Publications India, 2010).
Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy (2008) excerpt and text searchArchived 18 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine
Gupta, Surupa, et al. "Indian Foreign Policy under Modi: A New Brand or Just Repackaging?." International Studies Perspectives 20.1 (2019): 1–45. online
Heimsath, Charles H., and Surjit Mansingh. Diplomatic History of Modern India (1971), major scholarly history online
India's Development Partnership: Expanding Vistas. Editors: Dhrubajyoti Bhattacharjee, Nutan Kapoor Mahawar, ISBN 9781040037881. KW Publishers. 2024.
Jain, B. M. Global Power: India's Foreign Policy, 1947–2006 (2009)
Jain, Rashmi K. The United States and India: 1947–2006 A Documentary Study (2007)
Karunakaran, K.P. India in World Affairs, August 1947 – January 1950 (1952)
Karunakaran, K.P. India in World Affairs, Feb. 1950– Dec. 1953. Calcutta. (1958),
Kust, Matthew J. Foreign Enterprise in India: Laws and Policies (2011)
Mallavarapu, Siddharth. "Development of international relations theory in India." International Studies 46.1–2 (2009): 165–183.
Malone, David. Does the Elephant Dance?: Contemporary Indian Foreign Policy (2011) excerpt and text searchArchived 22 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
Malone, David et al. eds. The Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy. (2015) excerptArchived 15 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine; a comprehensive overview by over 50 leading experts.
Mansinghm Surjit. Nehru's foreign policy, fifty years on (1998)
Michael, Arndt. India's Foreign Policy and Regional Multilateralism (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) excerptArchived 1 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine
Miller, Manjari Chatterjee, and Kate Sullivan de Estrada. "Pragmatism in Indian foreign policy: how ideas constrain Modi." International Affairs 93.1 (2017): 27–49. onlineArchived 2 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine
Mukherjee, Mithi. "'A World of Illusion': The Legacy of Empire in India's Foreign Relations, 1947–62." International History Review 32.2 (2010): 253–271. online free
Muni, S. D. India's Foreign Policy: The Democracy Dimension (2009)
Pant, Harsh V., and Julie M. Super. "India's 'non-alignment' conundrum: a twentieth-century policy in a changing world." International Affairs 91.4 (2015): 747–764.
Pant, Harsh, and Yogesh Joshi. The US Pivot and Indian Foreign Policy: Asia's Evolving Balance of Power (Springer, 2015).
Raghavan, Srinath. The Most Dangerous Place: A History of the United States in South Asia. (Penguin Random House India, 2018); also published as Fierce Enigmas: A History of the United States in South Asia.(2018). online reviewArchived 15 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine; also see excerptArchived 15 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine
Sathasivam, Kanishkan. Uneasy Neighbors: India, Pakistan and US Foreign Policy (Routledge, 2017).
Schaffer, Teresita C. India and the United States in the 21st Century: Reinventing Partnership (2009)
Shukla, Subhash. "Foreign Policy Of India Under Narasimha Rao Government" (PhD dissertation, U of Allahabad, 1999) online free, bibliography pp 488–523.
Singh, Sangeeta. "Trends in India's Foreign Policy: 1991–2009." (PhD dissertation, Aligarh Muslim University, 2016) online, bibliography pp 270–86.
Sridharan, Eswaran. "Where is India headed? Possible future directions in Indian foreign policy." International Affairs 93.1 (2017): 51–68.
Tharoor, Shashi. Reasons of state: political development and India's foreign policy under Indira Gandhi, 1966-1977 (1982) online
External links
Briefs on India's Bilateral Relations, Ministry of External Affairs
Hispanopedia Wiki
