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Peter J. Waddell, Hirohisa Kishino, Rissa Ota (2001). \"A Phylogenetic Foundation for Comparative Mammalian Genomics\". ''Genome Informatics'' '''12''': 141–154, {{doi|10.11234/...

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Los ungulados [ a ] son ​​miembros del diverso clado Euungulata , [ b ] que consiste principalmente en grandes mamíferos con pezuñas . Una vez parte del taxón "Ungulata" junto con los paenungulados y los tubulidentados , así como varios taxones extintos, [ 6 ] "Ungulata" se ha determinado desde entonces como una agrupación polifilética basada en datos moleculares. Como resultado, los verdaderos ungulados se han reclasificado en el nuevo clado Euungulata en 2001 dentro del clado Laurasiatheria , mientras que Paenungulata y Tubulidentata se han reclasificado en el clado distante Afrotheria . [ 1 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Alternativamente, algunos autores usan el nombre Ungulata para designar el mismo clado que Euungulata. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]

Los ungulados vivos se dividen en dos órdenes:

Los cetáceos, como las ballenas , los delfines y las marsopas, también se clasifican como artiodáctilos, aunque no tienen pezuñas.

La mayoría de los ungulados terrestres utilizan las puntas de sus pezuñas para sostener su peso corporal al estar de pie o moverse. Otros dos órdenes de ungulados, Notoungulata y Litopterna , ambos originarios de Sudamérica, se extinguieron al final del Pleistoceno, hace unos 12.000 años.

The term means, roughly, "being hoofed" or "hoofed animal". As a descriptive term, "ungulate" normally excludes cetaceans as they do not possess most of the typical morphological characteristics of other ungulates, but they were also descended from early artiodactyls.[9] Ungulates are typically herbivorous and many employ specialized gut bacteria to enable them to digest cellulose, though some members may deviate from this: several species of pigs and the extinct entelodonts are omnivorous, while cetaceans and the extinct mesonychians are carnivorous.

Etymology

Ungulate is from the Late Latin adjective ungulatus'hoofed', from ungula'hoof', a diminutive of unguis'nail' (finger nail; toe nail).[10]

Classifications

History

Euungulata is a clade (or in some taxonomies, a grand order) of mammals. The two extant orders of ungulates are the Perissodactyla (odd-toed ungulates) and Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates). Hyracoidea (hyraxes), Sirenia (sea cows, dugongs and manatees), Proboscidea (elephants) and Tubulidentata (aardvarks) were in the past grouped within the clade "Ungulata", later found to be a polyphyletic and invalid. The three orders of Paenungulata are considered a clade and grouped in the Afrotheria clade, along with Tubulidentata, while Euungulata is grouped under the Laurasiatheria clade.[1][8]

In 2009, morphological[11][12][13][14] and molecular[15][16] work found that aardvarks, hyraxes, sea cows, and elephants were more closely related to each other and to sengis, tenrecs, and golden moles than to the perissodactyls and artiodactyls, and form the clade Afrotheria. Elephants, sea cows, and hyraxes were grouped together in the clade Paenungulata, while the aardvark has been considered as either a close relative to them or a close relative to sengis in the clade Afroinsectiphilia.[17] This is a striking example of convergent evolution.[18]

There is some dispute as to whether this smaller Euungulata is a cladistic (evolution-based) group, or merely a phenetic group (form taxon) or folk taxon (similar, but not necessarily related). Some studies have indeed found the mesaxonian ungulates and paraxonian ungulates to form a monophyletic lineage,[19][20][21] closely related to either the Ferae (the carnivorans and the pangolins)[22][23] in the clade Fereuungulata or to the bats.[24] Other studies found the two orders not that closely related, as some place the perissodactyls as close relatives to bats and Ferae in Pegasoferae[25] and others place the artiodactyls as close relatives to bats.[26]

Taxonomy

Plains zebra
Black rhinoceros
Père David's deer
Hippopotamus
Blue whale
Common dolphin

Below is a simplified taxonomy (assuming that ungulates do indeed form a natural grouping) with the extant families, in order of the relationships. Keep in mind that there were still some grey areas of conflict, such as the case with the relationship between the pecoran families and the baleen whale families. See each family for the relationships of the species as well as the controversies in their respective articles.

Phylogeny

Below is the general consensus of the phylogeny of the ungulate families.[26][27]

Evolutionary history

Speculative reconstruction of the controversial Protungulatum
Cladogram showing relationships within Euungulata[20]

Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla include the majority of large land mammals. These two groups first appeared during the late Paleocene, rapidly spreading to a wide variety of species on numerous continents, and have developed in parallel since that time. Some scientists believed that modern ungulates were descended from an evolutionary grade of mammals known as the condylarths.[28] The earliest known member of this group may have been the tiny Protungulatum, a mammal that co-existed with the last of non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago.[29] However, many authorities do not consider it a true placental, let alone an ungulate.[30] The enigmatic dinoceratans were among the first large herbivorous mammals, although their exact relationship with other mammals is still debated with one of the theories being that they might just be distant relatives to living ungulates; the most recent study recovers them as within the true ungulate assemblage, closest to Carodnia.[31]

In Australia, the recently extinct marsupialChaeropus ("pig-footed bandicoot") also developed hooves similar to those of artiodactyls,[32] an example of convergent evolution.

Perissodactyl evolution

The thick dermal armour of the Rhinoceros evolved at the same time as shearing tusks.[33]

Se creía que los perisodáctilos habían evolucionado a partir de los fenacondóntidos , animales pequeños, del tamaño de una oveja, que ya mostraban signos de características anatómicas que sus descendientes heredarían (la reducción de los dedos I y V, por ejemplo). [ 34 ] A principios del Eoceno ,  hace 55 millones de años (Ma), se habían diversificado y extendido para ocupar varios continentes. Los caballos y los tapires evolucionaron en América del Norte; [ 35 ] los rinocerontes parecen haberse desarrollado en Asia a partir de animales parecidos a los tapires y luego colonizaron las Américas durante el Eoceno medio (hace unos 45  Ma). De las aproximadamente 15 familias, solo tres sobreviven (McKenna y Bell, 1997; Hooker, 2005). Estas familias eran muy diversas en forma y tamaño; incluían a los enormes brontoterios y a los extraños calicoterios . El perisodáctilo más grande, un rinoceronte asiático llamado Paraceratherium , alcanzó las 15 toneladas (17 toneladas métricas) , más del doble del peso de un elefante . [ 36 ]

Se ha descubierto en un estudio cladístico que los antracobúnidos y los desmostilios —dos linajes que se habían clasificado previamente como afroterios (más específicamente más cercanos a los elefantes)— se han clasificado como un clado estrechamente relacionado con los perisodáctilos. [ 2 ] Los desmostilios eran grandes cuadrúpedos anfibios con extremidades enormes y una cola corta. [ 37 ] Crecían hasta 1,8 metros (6 pies) de longitud y se creía que pesaban más de 200 kilogramos (440 libras) . Sus fósiles se conocían desde el norte de la Cuenca del Pacífico , [ 38 ] desde el sur de Japón a través de Rusia , las Islas Aleutianas y la costa del Pacífico de América del Norte hasta el extremo sur de Baja California . Su forma dental y esquelética sugiere que los desmostilios eran herbívoros acuáticos que dependían de hábitats litorales . Su nombre hace referencia a sus molares tan característicos, en los que cada cúspide se modificaba formando columnas huecas, de modo que un molar típico se asemejaba a un conjunto de tubos o, en el caso de molares desgastados, a volcanes. Fueron los únicos mamíferos marinos que se extinguieron.  

The South American meridiungulates contain the somewhat tapir-like pyrotheres and astrapotheres, the mesaxonic litopterns and the diverse notoungulates. As a whole, meridiungulates were said to have evolved from animals like Hyopsodus.[34] For a while their relationships with other ungulates were a mystery. Some paleontologists have even challenged the monophyly of Meridiungulata by suggesting that the pyrotheres may be more closely related to other mammals, such as Embrithopoda (an African order that were related to elephants) than to other South American ungulates.[39] A recent study based on bone collagen has found that at least litopterns and the notoungulates were closely related to the perissodactyls.[40]

The oldest known fossils assigned to Equidae date from the early Eocene, 54 million years ago. They had been assigned to the genus Hyracotherium, but the type species of that genus is now considered not a member of this family, but the other species have been split off into different genera. These early Equidae were fox-sized animals with three toes on the hind feet, and four on the front feet. They were herbivorous browsers on relatively soft plants, and were already adapted for running. The complexity of their brains suggest that they already were alert and intelligent animals.[41] Later species reduced the number of toes, and developed teeth more suited for grinding up grass and other tough plant food.

Rhinocerotoids diverged from other perissodactyls by the early Eocene. Fossils of Hyrachyus eximus found in North America date to this period. This small hornless ancestor resembled a tapir or small horse more than a rhino. Three families, sometimes grouped together as the superfamily Rhinocerotoidea, evolved in the late Eocene: Hyracodontidae, Amynodontidae and Rhinocerotidae, thus creating an explosion of diversity unmatched for a while until environmental changes drastically eliminated several species.

The first tapirids, such as Heptodon, appeared in the early Eocene.[42] They appeared very similar to modern forms, but were about half the size, and lacked the proboscis. The first true tapirs appeared in the Oligocene. By the Miocene, such genera as Miotapirus were almost indistinguishable from the extant species. Asian and American tapirs were believed to have diverged around 20 to 30 million years ago; and tapirs migrated from North America to South America around 3 million years ago, as part of the Great American Interchange.[43]

Perissodactyls were the dominant group of large terrestrial browsers right through the Oligocene. However, the rise of grasses in the Miocene (about 20 Mya) saw a major change: the artiodactyl species with their more complex stomachs were better able to adapt to a coarse, low-nutrition diet, and soon rose to prominence. Nevertheless, many perissodactyl species survived and prospered until the late Pleistocene (about 10,000 years ago) when they faced the pressure of human hunting and habitat change.

Artiodactyl evolution

Arctocyon, an arctocyonid

The artiodactyls were thought to have evolved from a small group of condylarths, Arctocyonidae, which were unspecialized, superficially raccoon-like to bear-like omnivores from the Early Paleocene (about 65 to 60 million years ago). They had relatively short limbs lacking specializations associated with their relatives (e.g. reduced side digits, fused bones, and hooves),[34] and long, heavy tails. Their primitive anatomy makes it unlikely that they were able to run down prey, but with their powerful proportions, claws, and long canines, they may have been able to overpower smaller animals in surprise attacks.[34] Evidently these mammals soon evolved into two separate lineages: the mesonychians and the artiodactyls.

Skeleton of Anoplotherium commune, an early artiodactyl with unusual features such as a long tail

Los primeros artiodáctilos se parecían a los ciervos ratón o cerdos actuales : criaturas pequeñas y de patas cortas que se alimentaban de hojas y partes blandas de las plantas . A finales del Eoceno (  hace 46 millones de años), ya se habían desarrollado los tres subórdenes modernos: Suina (el grupo de los cerdos ); Tylopoda (el grupo de los camellos ); y Ruminantia (el grupo de las cabras y el ganado vacuno ). Sin embargo, los artiodáctilos distaban mucho de ser dominantes en aquel entonces: los perisodáctilos eran mucho más exitosos y numerosos. Los artiodáctilos sobrevivieron en nichos ecológicos, ocupando generalmente hábitats marginales , y es presumiblemente en ese momento cuando desarrollaron sus complejos sistemas digestivos , que les permitieron sobrevivir con alimentos de menor calidad. Mientras la mayoría de los artiodáctilos ocupaban los nichos dejados por varios perisodáctilos extintos, un linaje de artiodáctilos comenzó a aventurarse en los mares.

Evolución de los cetáceos

Esqueleto de Ambulocetus natans , una ballena madre

La teoría tradicional de la evolución de los cetáceos sostenía que estos estaban emparentados con los mesoniquios . Estos animales poseían dientes triangulares inusuales, muy similares a los de los cetáceos primitivos. Por ello, durante mucho tiempo los científicos creyeron que los cetáceos evolucionaron a partir de una forma de mesoniquio. Hoy en día, muchos científicos creen que los cetáceos evolucionaron a partir del mismo tronco que dio origen a los hipopótamos. Este hipotético grupo ancestral probablemente se dividió en dos ramas hace unos 54 millones de años . [ 9 ] Una rama evolucionaría hasta convertirse en cetáceos , posiblemente a partir de hace unos 52 millones de años con la protoballena Pakicetus y otros ancestros primitivos de los cetáceos, conocidos colectivamente como Archaeoceti , que finalmente se adaptaron al medio acuático hasta convertirse en cetáceos completamente acuáticos . [ 44 ] La otra rama se convirtió en los antracoterios , una gran familia de animales de cuatro patas, los primeros de los cuales, a finales del Eoceno, se habrían parecido a hipopótamos delgados con cabezas relativamente pequeñas y estrechas. Todas las ramas de los antracoterios, excepto la que evolucionó en Hippopotamidae , se extinguieron durante el Plioceno sin dejar descendientes. [ 45 ]

Se dice que la familia Raoellidae es la familia de artiodáctilos más cercana a los cetáceos. [ 46 ] [ 47 ] En consecuencia, nuevas teorías sobre la evolución de los cetáceos plantean la hipótesis de que las ballenas y sus ancestros escaparon de la depredación, no de la competencia, adaptándose lentamente al océano. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ]

evolución mesoníquica

Restauración del Mesonyx
Comparación de la estructura de las extremidades inferiores. De izquierda a derecha: plantígradas, digitígradas y ungulígradas. En rojo, el basípoda; en violeta, los metapodios; en amarillo, las falanges; en marrón, las uñas de queratina.

Los mesoniquios fueron representados como "lobos con pezuñas" y fueron los primeros grandes depredadores mamíferos, apareciendo en el Paleoceno. [ 51 ] Los primeros mesoniquios tenían cinco dedos en sus pies, que probablemente descansaban planos en el suelo durante la marcha ( locomoción plantígrada ), pero los mesoniquios posteriores tenían cuatro dedos que terminaban en pequeñas pezuñas en todos sus dedos y estaban cada vez mejor adaptados para correr. Al igual que los miembros corredores de los ungulados de dedos pares, los mesoniquios ( Pachyaena , por ejemplo) caminaban sobre sus dedos ( locomoción digitígrada ). [ 51 ] Los mesoniquios tuvieron muy mala suerte al final de la época del Eoceno, con solo un género, Mongolestes , [ 52 ] sobreviviendo hasta el Oligoceno temprano, a medida que el clima cambió y surgió una feroz competencia de los creodontos mejor adaptados .

Características

Esqueleto de un caballo

Ungulates are in high diversity in response to sexual selection and ecological events; most ungulates lack a collar bone.[53] Terrestrial ungulates are for the most part herbivores, with some of them being grazers. However, there are exceptions to this, as pigs, peccaries, hippos, and duikers are known to have an omnivorous diet. Cetaceans are the only modern ungulates that have a carnivorous diet; baleen whales consume significantly smaller animals in relation to their body size, such as small species of fish and krill; toothed whales, depending on the species, can consume a wide range of species: squid, fish, sharks, and other species of mammals such as seals and other whales. In terms of ecosystem, ungulates have colonized all corners of the planet, from mountains to the ocean depths; grasslands to deserts and some have been domesticated by humans.

Anatomy

Ungulates have developed specialized adaptations, especially in the areas of cranial appendages, dentition, and leg morphology, including the modification of the astragalus (one of the ankle bones at the end of the lower leg) with a short, robust head.

Hooves

Cloven hooves of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), with dewclaws

The hoof is the tip of the toe of an ungulate mammal, strengthened by a thick horny (keratin) covering. The hoof consists of a hard or rubbery sole, and a hard wall formed by a thick nail rolled around the tip of the toe. Both the sole and the edge of the hoof wall normally bear the weight of the animal. Hooves grow continuously, and are constantly worn down by use. In most modern ungulates, the radius and ulna are fused along the length of the forelimb; early ungulates, such as the arctocyonids, did not share this unique skeletal structure.[54] The fusion of the radius and ulna prevents an ungulate from rotating its forelimb. Since this skeletal structure has no specific function in ungulates, it is considered a homologous characteristic that ungulates share with other mammals. This trait would have been passed down from a common ancestor. While the colloquial names for the two orders of ungulates were based on the number of toes of their members ("odd-toed" for the perissodactyls and "even-toed" for the terrestrial artiodactyls), it is not an accurate reason for grouping them. Tapirs have four toes in the front, yet they were members of the "odd-toed" order; peccaries and modern cetaceans were members of the "even-toed" order, yet peccaries have three toes in the front and whales were an extreme example as they have flippers instead of hooves. Scientists had classified them according to the distribution of their weight to their toes.

Perissodactyls have a mesaxonic foot, meaning that the weight is distributed on the third toe on all legs thanks to the plane symmetry of their feet. There has been a reduction of toes from the common ancestor, with the classic example being horses with their single hooves. This gave rise to an alternative name for the perissodactyls: the nearly obsolete label Mesaxonia. Perissodactyls were not the only lineage of mammals to have evolved this trait; the meridiungulates have evolved mesaxonic feet numerous times.

Terrestrial artiodactyls have a paraxonic foot, meaning that the weight is distributed on the third and the fourth toe on all legs. The majority of these mammals have cloven hooves, with two smaller ones known as the dewclaws that are located further up on the foot. The earliest cetaceans (the archaeocetes) also had this characteristic in the addition of also having both an astragalus and cuboid bone in the ankle, which were further diagnostic traits of artiodactyls.[55]

Pacific white-sided dolphin skeleton (missing pelvic bones), on exhibit at The Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma

In modern cetaceans, the front limbs had become pectoral fins and the hind parts were internal and reduced. Occasionally, the genes that code for longer extremities cause a modern cetacean to develop miniature legs (known as atavism). The main method of moving is an up-and-down motion with the tail fin, called the fluke, which is used for propulsion, while the pectoral fins together with the entire tail section provide directional control. All modern cetaceans still retain their digits despite the external appearance suggesting otherwise.

Teeth

Most ungulates have developed reduced canine teeth and specialized molars, including bunodont (low, rounded cusps) and hypsodont (high crowned) teeth. The development of hypsodonty has been of particular interest as this adaptation was strongly associated with the spread of grasslands during the Miocene about 25 million years ago. As forest biomes declined, grasslands spread, opening new niches for mammals. Many ungulates switched from browsing diets to grazing diets, and possibly driven by abrasive silica in grass, hypsodonty became common. However, recent evidence ties the evolution of hypsodonty to open, gritty habitats and not the grass itself. This is termed the "Grit, not grass hypothesis".[56]

Some ungulates completely lack upper incisors and instead have a dental pad to assist in browsing.[57][58] It can be found in camels, ruminants, and some toothed whales; modern baleen whales were remarkable in that they have baleen instead to filter out the krill from the water. On the other end of the spectrum, teeth have evolved as weapons or sexual display as seen in pigs and peccaries, some species of deer, musk deer, hippopotamuses, beaked whales, and the narwhal, with its long canine tooth.[59]

Cranial appendages

Velvet covers a growing antler and provides it with blood, supplying oxygen and nutrients.

Los ungulados han desarrollado una variedad de apéndices craneales que se pueden encontrar en los cervoides (con la excepción del venado almizclero). En los bueyes y antílopes, el tamaño y la forma de los cuernos varían mucho, pero la estructura básica es siempre un par de protuberancias óseas simples sin ramificaciones, a menudo con una forma espiral, retorcida o estriada, cada una cubierta por una vaina permanente de queratina . La estructura única del cuerno es la única característica morfológica inequívoca de los bóvidos que los distingue de otros pecoros . [ 60 ] [ 61 ] El desarrollo de los cuernos en los machos se ha vinculado a la selección sexual, [ 62 ] [ 63 ] mientras que la presencia de cuernos en las hembras probablemente se deba a la selección natural. [ 62 ] [ 64 ] Los cuernos de las hembras suelen ser más pequeños que los de los machos y a veces tienen una forma diferente. Se cree que los cuernos de las hembras de bóvidos evolucionaron para defenderse de los depredadores o para expresar territorialidad, ya que las hembras no territoriales, que pueden usar el camuflaje para defenderse de los depredadores, a menudo carecen de cuernos. [ 64 ]

Los cuernos del rinoceronte, a diferencia de los de otros mamíferos con cuernos, están compuestos únicamente de queratina. Estos cuernos se apoyan en la cresta nasal del cráneo del animal.

Antlers are unique to cervids and found mostly on males: the only cervid females with antlers are caribou and reindeer, whose antlers are normally smaller than males'. Nevertheless, fertile does of other species of deer have the capacity to produce antlers on occasion, usually due to increased testosterone levels.[65] Each antler grows from an attachment point on the skull called a pedicle. While an antler is growing it is covered with highly vascularskin called velvet, which supplies oxygen and nutrients to the growing bone.[66] Antlers are considered one of the most exaggerated cases of male secondary sexual traits in the animal kingdom,[67] and grow faster than any other mammal bone.[68] Growth occurs at the tip, initially as cartilage that is then mineralized to become bone. Once the antler has achieved its full size, the velvet is lost and the antler's bone dies. This dead bone structure is the mature antler. In most cases, the bone at the base is destroyed by osteoclasts and the antlers eventually fall off.[66] As a result of their fast growth rate, antlers place a substantial nutritional demand on deer, and they can thus constitute an honest signal of metabolic efficiency and food gathering capability.[69]

Ossicones are horn-like (or antler-like) protuberances found on the heads of giraffes and male okapis. They are similar to the horns of antelopes and cattle, save that they are derived from ossified cartilage,[70] and that the ossicones remain covered in skin and fur rather than horn.

Pronghorn cranial appendages are unique. Each "horn" of the pronghorn is composed of a slender, laterally flattened blade of bone that grows from the frontal bones of the skull, forming a permanent core. As in the Giraffidae, skin covers the bony cores, but in the pronghorn it develops into a keratinous sheath that is shed and regrown on an annual basis. Unlike the horns of the family Bovidae, the horn sheaths of the pronghorn are branched, each sheath possessing a forward-pointing tine (hence the name pronghorn). The horns of males are well developed.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑/ˈʌŋɡjʊleɪts,-ɡjə-,-lɪts,-ləts/, UNG-gyuu-layts, -⁠gyə-, -⁠lits, -⁠ləts
  2. ↑/juːˌʌŋɡjʊˈleɪtə/, yoo-UNG-gyuu-LAY-tə; lit.'true ungulates'

References

  1. 123Peter J. Waddell, Hirohisa Kishino, Rissa Ota (2001). "A Phylogenetic Foundation for Comparative Mammalian Genomics". Genome Informatics12: 141–154, doi:10.11234/gi1990.12.141.
  2. 12Cooper, L. N.; Seiffert, E. R.; Clementz, M.; Madar, S. I.; Bajpai, S.; Hussain, S. T.; Thewissen, J. G. M. (2014-10-08). "Anthracobunids from the Middle Eocene of India and Pakistan Are Stem Perissodactyls". PLOS ONE. 9 (10) e109232. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j9232C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109232. PMC 4189980. PMID 25295875.
  3. ↑Irwin, D.M. and Wilson, A.C. (1993). "Limitations of molecular methods for establishing the phylogeny of mammals, with special reference to the position of elephants". In: F.S. Szalay, M.J. Novacek, and M.C. McKenna (eds.), Mammal Phylogeny: Placentals. pp. 257–267, Springer-Verlag, New York.
  4. 12de Queiroz, K.; Cantino, P. D.; Gauthier, J. A., eds. (2020). "Ungulata C. Linnaeus 1766 [J. D. Archibald], converted clade name". Phylonyms: A Companion to the PhyloCode. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 943–947. ISBN 978-1-138-33293-5.
  5. 12"Ungulata". RegNum. Retrieved 15 August 2025.
  6. ↑McKenna, M.C. (1975). "Toward a phylogenetic classification of the Mammalia". In Luckett, W.P.; Szalay, F.S. (eds.). Phylogeny of the primates: a multidisciplinary approach (Proceedings of WennerGren Symposium no. 61, Burg Wartenstein, Austria, July 6–14, 1974. New York: Plenum. pp. 21–46. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-2166-8_2. ISBN 978-1-4684-2168-2.
  7. ↑Gheerbrant, Emmanuel; Filippo, Andrea; Schmitt, Arnaud (2016). "Convergence of Afrotherian and Laurasiatherian Ungulate-Like Mammals: First Morphological Evidence from the Paleocene of Morocco". PLOS ONE. 11 (7) e0157556. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1157556G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157556. PMC 4934866. PMID 27384169.
  8. 12Püschel, Hans P; Shelley, Sarah L; Williamson, Thomas E; Perini, Fernando A; Wible, John R; Brusatte, Stephen L (2024-09-02). "A new dentition-based phylogeny of Litopterna (Mammalia: Placentalia) and 'archaic' South American ungulates". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 202 (1) zlae095. doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlae095. ISSN 0024-4082.
  9. 12Ursing, B. M.; Arnason, U. (1998). "Analyses of mitochondrial genomes strongly support a hippopotamus-whale clade". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 265 (1412): 2251–5. Bibcode:1998PBioS.265.2251U. doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0567. PMC 1689531. PMID 9881471.
  10. ↑"Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 6 June 2022.
  11. ↑Asher, RJ; Bennet, N; Lehmann, T (2009). "The new framework for understanding placental mammal evolution". BioEssays. 31 (8): 853–864. Bibcode:2009BiEss..31..853A. doi:10.1002/bies.200900053. PMID 19582725. S2CID 46339675.
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