Historia de Filipinas

La historia de Filipinas se remonta a la actividad de los primeros homininos en el archipiélago, al menos hace 709.000 años. ^{[ 1 ]} Homo luzonensis , una especie de humanos arcaicos, estuvo presente en la isla de Luzón ^{[ 2 ]}^{[ 3 ]} al menos hace 134.000 años. ^{[ 4 ]} El humano anatómicamente moderno más antiguo conocido fue hallado en las cuevas de Tabon en Palawan, con una antigüedad de aproximadamente 47.000 años. ^{[ 5 ]} Los grupos negritos fueron los primeros habitantes en asentarse en las Filipinas prehistóricas. ^{[ 6 ]} A estos les siguieron los austroasiáticos , papúes y austronesios. ^{[ 7 ]} Hacia el año 3000 a. C., los austronesios marineros, que forman la mayoría de la población actual, migraron hacia el sur desde Taiwán. ^{[ 8 ]}

Los estudiosos generalmente creen que estos grupos étnicos y sociales eventualmente se desarrollaron en varios asentamientos o entidades políticas con diferentes grados de especialización económica , estratificación social y organización política . ^{[ 9 ]} Algunos de estos asentamientos (principalmente los ubicados en los principales deltas de ríos) alcanzaron tal escala de complejidad social que algunos estudiosos creen que deberían considerarse estados primitivos . ^{[ 10 ]} Esto incluye a los predecesores de los centros de población modernos como Manila , Tondo , Pangasinan , Cebu , Panay , Bohol , Butuan , Cotabato , Lanao , Zamboanga y Sulu ^{[ 11 ]} así como algunas entidades políticas , como Ma-i , cuya posible ubicación es Mindoro o Laguna. ^{[ 12 ]} Estas entidades políticas fueron influenciadas por las culturas islámica , india y china . El islam llegó de Arabia , mientras que la religión , el idioma , la cultura , la literatura y la filosofía hindú - budista india ^{[ 13 ]} llegaron del subcontinente indio. ^[¹⁴^] Algunas entidades políticas eran estados tributarios sinizados aliados de China . Estos pequeños estados marítimos florecieron desde el primer milenio. ^[¹⁵^]^[¹⁶^] Estos reinos comerciaban con lo que hoy se conoce como China, India, Japón, Tailandia, Vietnam e Indonesia. El resto de los asentamientos eran barangays independientes aliados con uno de los estados más grandes. Estos pequeños estados alternaban entre formar parte de imperios asiáticos más grandes, como la dinastía Ming , Majapahit y Brunei , o estar influenciados por ellos, o rebelarse y librar guerras contra ellos. ^[¹⁷^]

La primera visita registrada de europeos es la expedición de Fernando de Magallanes, que desembarcó en la isla de Homonhon , ahora parte de Guiuan, Samar Oriental, el 17 de marzo de 1521. Perdieron una batalla contra el ejército de Lapulapu , jefe de Mactán , donde Magallanes murió. ^{[ 18 ]}^{[ 19 ]}^{[ 20 ]} Las Filipinas españolas comenzaron con la expansión del Pacífico de Nueva España y la llegada de la expedición de Miguel López de Legazpi el 13 de febrero de 1565, desde México. Él estableció el primer asentamiento permanente en Cebú . ^{[ 21 ]} Gran parte del archipiélago quedó bajo dominio español, creando la primera estructura política unificada conocida como Filipinas , nombrada en honor al rey Felipe II . El dominio colonial español vio la introducción del cristianismo, el código de leyes y la universidad moderna más antigua de Asia . Filipinas fue gobernada bajo el Virreinato de Nueva España con sede en México . Después de esto, la colonia fue gobernada directamente por España, tras la independencia de México.

El dominio español terminó en 1898 con la derrota de España en la Guerra Hispano-Estadounidense . Filipinas se convirtió entonces en territorio de los Estados Unidos. Las fuerzas estadounidenses reprimieron una revolución liderada por Emilio Aguinaldo . Estados Unidos estableció el Gobierno Insular para gobernar Filipinas. En 1907, se creó la Asamblea Filipina electa mediante elecciones populares. Estados Unidos prometió la independencia en la Ley Jones . ^{[ 22 ]} La Mancomunidad Filipina se estableció en 1935, como un paso intermedio de 10 años antes de la independencia total. Sin embargo, en 1942, durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Japón ocupó Filipinas . El ejército estadounidense derrotó a los japoneses en 1945. El Tratado de Manila de 1946 estableció la República Filipina independiente.

Cronología

Prehistoria

Herramientas de piedra y fósiles de restos de animales descuartizados descubiertos en Rizal, Kalinga, son evidencia de la presencia humana desde hace 709.000 años. ^{[ 1 ]} Los investigadores encontraron 57 herramientas de piedra cerca de huesos de rinoceronte con marcas de corte y algunos huesos rotos, lo que sugiere que los primeros humanos consumieron la médula rica en nutrientes. ^{[ 23 ]} Un estudio de 2023 dató la edad de restos fosilizados de Homo luzonensis de Cagayan en aproximadamente 134.000 años. ^{[ 4 ]}

Esto y los petroglifos de Angono en Rizal sugieren la presencia de asentamientos humanos antes de la llegada de los negritos y los pueblos de habla austronesia . ^{[ 24 ]}^{[ 25 ]} Los restos del Hombre de Callao y 12 huesos de tres individuos homininos encontrados en excavaciones posteriores en la Cueva de Callao fueron identificados posteriormente como pertenecientes a una nueva especie llamada Homo luzonensis . ^{[ 3 ]} Para los humanos modernos , los restos del Hombre de Tabon son los más antiguos conocidos hasta el momento, con aproximadamente 47.000 años. ^{[ 5 ]}

Los negritos fueron los primeros pobladores, ^{[ 6 ]} pero su llegada a Filipinas no ha sido datada con precisión. ^{[ 26 ]} Les siguieron hablantes de lenguas malayo-polinesias , una rama de la familia de lenguas austronesias . Los primeros austronesios llegaron a Filipinas entre el 3000 y el 2200 a. C., estableciéndose en las islas Batanes y el norte de Luzón .

Desde allí, se extendieron rápidamente hacia el sur, al resto de las islas de Filipinas y el sudeste asiático , y también viajaron más al este para llegar a las Islas Marianas del Norte alrededor del 1500 a. C. ^{[ 8 ]}^{[ 27 ]}^{[ 28 ]}^{[ 29 ]} Asimilaron a los negritos australo-melanesios anteriores , dando como resultado los grupos étnicos filipinos modernos que muestran diversas proporciones de mezcla genética entre grupos austronesios y negritos. ^{[ 30 ]}^{[ 31 ]} Antes de la expansión fuera de Taiwán, la evidencia arqueológica, lingüística y genética había vinculado a los hablantes austronesios en el sudeste asiático insular con culturas como la Hemudu en la China neolítica, su sucesora la Liangzhu , ^{[ 29 ]}^{[ 32 ]} y la Dapenkeng en el Taiwán neolítico. ^{[ 33 ]}^{[ 34 ]}^{[ 35 ]}^{[ 36 ]}^{[ 37 ]}

La teoría más ampliamente aceptada sobre la población de las islas es el modelo "Fuera de Taiwán" que sigue la expansión austronesia durante el Neolítico en una serie de migraciones marítimas originadas en Taiwán que se extendieron a las islas del Indo-Pacífico ; llegando finalmente hasta Nueva Zelanda , la Isla de Pascua y Madagascar . ^{[ 27 ]}^{[ 38 ]} Los propios austronesios se originaron a partir de las civilizaciones preaustronesias neolíticas cultivadoras de arroz del delta del río Yangtze en la costa sureste de China, anteriores a la conquista de esas regiones por los chinos Han .

Esto incluye civilizaciones como las culturas Liangzhu , Hemudu y Majiabang . ^{[ 39 ]} Conecta a los hablantes de lenguas austronesias en un linaje lingüístico y genético común, incluyendo a los pueblos indígenas taiwaneses , los isleños del sudeste asiático , los chams , los melanesios isleños , los micronesios , los polinesios y el pueblo malgache . Además del idioma y la genética, también comparten marcadores culturales comunes como embarcaciones multicasco y con balancín , tatuajes , cultivo de arroz , agricultura de humedales , ennegrecimiento de los dientes , tallado de jade , masticación de nuez de betel , culto a los ancestros y las mismas plantas y animales domesticados (incluyendo perros, cerdos, gallinas, ñames, plátanos, caña de azúcar y cocos). ^[²⁷^]^[³⁸^]^[⁴⁰^]

Las múltiples oleadas de inmigración que recibieron Filipinas antes del período protohistórico.

Un estudio genético de 2021 que examinó a representantes de 115 comunidades indígenas halló evidencia de al menos cinco oleadas independientes de migración humana temprana. Los grupos negritos, divididos entre los de Luzón y los de Mindanao, podrían provenir de una sola oleada y divergir posteriormente, o bien a través de dos oleadas separadas. Esto probablemente ocurrió hace unos 46 000 años. Otra migración negrito llegó a Mindanao hace unos 25 000 años. Se detectaron dos oleadas tempranas del este de Asia: una con mayor evidencia entre el pueblo manobo , que habita en el interior de Mindanao, y la otra entre los sama-bajau y pueblos emparentados del archipiélago de Sulu, la península de Zamboanga y Palawan. La mezcla genética encontrada en el pueblo sama indica una relación con los pueblos htin y mlabri del sudeste asiático continental, ambos hablantes de una lengua austroasiática , y refleja una señal genética similar hallada en el oeste de Indonesia. Estos eventos ocurrieron hace aproximadamente 15.000 y 12.000 años, respectivamente, coincidiendo con el final del último período glacial . Se descubrió que los austronesios, provenientes del sur de China o de Taiwán, llegaron en al menos dos oleadas distintas. La primera, que tuvo lugar quizás entre 10.000 y 7.000 años atrás, trajo consigo a los ancestros de los grupos indígenas que hoy habitan la Cordillera Central . Migraciones posteriores trajeron otros grupos austronesios, junto con la agricultura, y las lenguas de estos migrantes austronesios recientes reemplazaron efectivamente a las poblaciones existentes. En todos los casos, los nuevos inmigrantes parecen haberse mezclado en cierta medida con las poblaciones existentes. La integración del sudeste asiático en las redes comerciales del océano Índico hace unos 2.000 años también muestra cierto impacto, con señales genéticas del sur de Asia presentes en algunas comunidades sama-bajau. También se observó cierta migración papú al sureste de Mindanao, ya que se detectaron firmas genéticas papúes en los grupos étnicos sangil y blaan . ^[⁷^]

Hacia el año 1000 a. C., los habitantes del archipiélago filipino se habían desarrollado en cuatro tipos distintos de pueblos: grupos tribales, como los Aetas , Hanunoo , Ilongots y Mangyan , que dependían de la caza y la recolección y se concentraban en los bosques; sociedades guerreras, como los Isneg y Kalinga, que practicaban la jerarquía social y la guerra ritualizada y vagaban por las llanuras; la pequeña plutocracia de los Ifugao de las tierras altas de la Cordillera, que ocupaban las cordilleras de Luzón ; y los principados portuarios de las civilizaciones estuarinas que crecieron a lo largo de los ríos y las costas mientras participaban en el comercio marítimo transinsular. ^{[ 41 ]} También fue durante el primer milenio a. C. que se dice que la metalurgia temprana llegó a los archipiélagos del sudeste asiático marítimo a través del comercio con la India. ^{[ 42 ]}^{[ 43 ]}

Alrededor del 300-700 d. C., los pueblos marineros de las islas que viajaban en balangays comenzaron a comerciar con los reinos indianizados del archipiélago malayo y los principados cercanos del este de Asia , adoptando influencias tanto del budismo como del hinduismo . ^{[ 44 ]}

Camino de Jade Marítimo

La Ruta Marítima del Jade fue establecida inicialmente por los pueblos indígenas animistas entre Filipinas y Taiwán, y posteriormente se expandió para abarcar Vietnam, Malasia, Indonesia, Tailandia y otros países. ^{[ 45 ]} Se han descubierto artefactos hechos de nefrita blanca y verde en varias excavaciones arqueológicas en Filipinas desde la década de 1930. Los artefactos han sido tanto herramientas como azuelas ^{[ 46 ]} y cinceles , como ornamentos como pendientes, brazaletes y cuentas de lingling-o. ^{[ 47 ]} Se encontraron decenas de miles en un solo sitio en Batangas . ^{[ 48 ]}^{[ 49 ]} Se dice que el jade se originó cerca de Taiwán y también se encuentra en muchas otras áreas del sudeste asiático insular y continental. Se dice que estos artefactos son evidencia de comunicación a larga distancia entre sociedades prehistóricas del sudeste asiático. ^{[ 50 ]} A lo largo de la historia, la Ruta Marítima del Jade ha sido conocida como una de las redes comerciales marítimas más extensas de un solo material geológico en el mundo prehistórico, existiendo durante 3000 años desde el 2000 a. C. hasta el 1000 d. C. ^{[ 51 ]}^{[ 52 ]}^{[ 53 ]}^{[ 54 ]} Las operaciones de la Ruta Marítima del Jade coincidieron con una era de paz casi absoluta que duró 1500 años, desde el 500 a. C. hasta el 1000 d. C. ^{[ 55 ]} Durante este pacífico período precolonial, ningún sitio de entierro estudiado por los investigadores arrojó ninguna prueba osteológica de muerte violenta. Tampoco se registraron casos de entierros masivos, lo que significa la situación pacífica de las islas. Los entierros con prueba de violencia solo se encontraron a partir del siglo XV, probablemente debido a las nuevas culturas expansionistas importadas de la India y China. Cuando los españoles llegaron en el siglo XVI, registraron algunos grupos guerreros, cuyas culturas ya habían sido influenciadas por las culturas expansionistas indias y chinas importadas del siglo XV. ^{[ 56 ]}

La cultura Sa Huỳnh

La cultura Sa Huỳnh, centrada en el actual Vietnam, presentaba evidencias de una extensa red comercial. Las cuentas de Sa Huỳnh se elaboraban con vidrio, cornalina , ágata , olivino , circón , oro y granate ; la mayoría de estos materiales no eran autóctonos de la región y probablemente fueron importados. También se encontraron espejos de bronce de estilo de la dinastía Han en yacimientos de Sa Huỳnh.

Por el contrario, se han encontrado adornos para las orejas producidos por Sa Huỳnh en yacimientos arqueológicos del centro de Tailandia , Taiwán (Isla Orquídea) y Filipinas, en Palawan , en las cuevas de Tabon . Uno de los mejores ejemplos es la cueva de Kalanay en Masbate ; los artefactos encontrados en el yacimiento, en uno de los complejos cerámicos de "Sa Huỳnh-Kalanay", datan de entre el 400 a. C. y el 1500 d. C. La cerámica antropomórfica de Maitum, en la provincia de Sarangani , al sur de Mindanao , data de alrededor del 200 d. C. ^{[ 57 ]}^{[ 58 ]}

La ambigüedad sobre qué es la cultura Sa Huỳnh pone en duda su alcance de influencia en el sudeste asiático. La cultura Sa Huỳnh se caracteriza por el uso de urnas funerarias cilíndricas o con forma de huevo, asociadas a tapas con forma de sombrero. Si se toma como nueva definición su práctica funeraria, la cultura Sa Huỳnh debería restringirse geográficamente al centro de Vietnam, entre la ciudad de Hue en el norte y la ciudad de Nha Trang en el sur. Investigaciones arqueológicas recientes revelan que la cerámica de la cueva de Kalanay es bastante diferente de la de Sa Huỳnh, pero sorprendentemente similar a la del yacimiento de Hoa Diem, en el centro de Vietnam, y a la isla de Samui, en Tailandia. Una nueva estimación sitúa los artefactos de la cueva de Kalanay entre el 200 y el 300 d. C., mucho más tarde que la cultura Sa Huỳnh. El análisis bioantropológico de fósiles humanos hallados también confirmó la colonización de Vietnam por pueblos austronesios del sudeste asiático insular, por ejemplo, en el yacimiento de Hoa Diem. ^{[ 59 ]}^{[ 60 ]}

Las fechas son aproximadas; consulte el artículo correspondiente para obtener más detalles.

Edad de Hierro prehistórica (o protohistórica ) Edad de Hierro histórica

Período precolonial (900 d. C. a 1565) – Entidades políticas independientes

Sultanato de Maguindanao

Estados Confederados de Lanao

Ubicación de principados, entidades políticas, reinos y sultanatos precoloniales en el archipiélago filipino.

También conocido en menor medida como el período Prefilipino, es un período previo a la unificación caracterizado por muchos estados independientes conocidos como entidades políticas, cada uno con su propia historia, culturas, jefes y gobiernos distintos entre sí. Según fuentes del sur de Liang, la gente del reino de Langkasuka en la actual Tailandia vestía ropas de algodón hechas en Luzón, Filipinas, ya en el 516-520 d. C. ^{[ 61 ]} El historiador británico Robert Nicholl, citando al cronista árabe Al Ya'akubi, había escrito que a principios del siglo IX, los reinos de Muja (entonces Pagan Brunei ) y Mayd ( Ma-i ) libraron una guerra contra el Imperio Chino. ^{[ 62 ]} Los eruditos indios medievales también se referían a Filipinas como "Panyupayana" (Las tierras rodeadas de agua). ^{[ 63 ]}

Hacia el siglo XIV, varios de los grandes asentamientos costeros se habían convertido en centros comerciales y en el foco de los cambios sociales. ^{[ 10 ]} Esta fase de la historia se caracteriza por su gran movilidad, con barangays que se transformaban de asentamientos a flotas y viceversa, y la madera se reutilizaba constantemente según la situación. ^{[ 64 ]} La política durante esta época estaba impulsada por las personalidades y la organización se basaba en alianzas cambiantes y lealtades disputadas, en un contexto de constantes interacciones entre entidades políticas, tanto en tiempos de guerra como de paz. ^{[ 15 ]}

Los relatos legendarios suelen mencionar la interacción de las primeras entidades políticas filipinas con el imperio, pero no hay mucha evidencia arqueológica que respalde definitivamente dicha relación. ^{[ 10 ]} Por otro lado, existe evidencia considerable de un extenso comercio con el imperio. ^{[ 65 ]}

El alcance exacto y los mecanismos de las influencias culturales indias en las primeras entidades políticas filipinas siguen siendo objeto de debate entre los historiadores del sudeste asiático, ^{[ 10 ]}^{[ 66 ]} pero el consenso académico actual es que probablemente hubo poco o ningún comercio directo entre la India y Filipinas, ^{[ 10 ]}^{[ 66 ]} y los rasgos culturales indios, como términos lingüísticos y prácticas religiosas, ^{[ 65 ]} se filtraron durante los siglos X a principios del XIV, a través de las relaciones de las primeras entidades políticas filipinas con el imperio. ^{[ 10 ]} El archipiélago filipino es, por lo tanto, uno de los países, justo en el límite exterior de lo que se considera la " zona cultural de la Gran India ". ^{[ 66 ]}

Las primeras entidades políticas del archipiélago filipino se caracterizaban típicamente por una estructura social de tres niveles. Aunque diferentes culturas tenían diferentes términos para describirlos, esta estructura de tres niveles invariablemente consistía en una clase noble superior, una clase de "hombres libres" y una clase de deudores-esclavos dependientes llamados. ^{[ 10 ]}^{[ 15 ]} Entre los miembros de la clase noble había líderes que ostentaban el cargo político de responsable de dirigir grupos sociales autónomos llamados. ^{[ 10 ]} Siempre que estos se unían, ya sea para formar un asentamiento más grande ^{[ 10 ]} o un grupo de alianza geográficamente más laxo, ^{[ 15 ]} el más alto o respetado entre ellos era reconocido como un "datu supremo", llamado de diversas maneras Lakan, Sultán, Rajah o simplemente un Datu de mayor rango. ^{[ 64 ]}^{[ 10 ]}^{[ 41 ]} Finalmente, entre los siglos XIV y XVI, la guerra entre reinos se intensificó ^{[ 67 ]} y las densidades de población en todo el archipiélago eran bajas. ^{[ 68 ]}

Historial inicial registrado

Durante el período de la dinastía Pallava del sur de la India y el Imperio Gupta del norte de la India , la cultura india se extendió al sudeste asiático y a Filipinas, lo que condujo al establecimiento de reinos indianizados . ^{[ 69 ]}^{[ 70 ]}

La fecha inscrita en el documento filipino más antiguo encontrado hasta ahora, la Inscripción en Placa de Cobre de Laguna , es 900 d. C. Según los detalles del documento, escrito en escritura Kawi , el portador de una deuda, Namwaran, junto con sus hijos Lady Angkatan y Bukah, son liberados de una deuda por el gobernante de Pila y Tondo . Es el documento más antiguo que muestra el uso de las matemáticas en las sociedades filipinas precoloniales. Un sistema estándar de pesos y medidas se demuestra mediante el uso de mediciones precisas para el oro, y la familiaridad con la astronomía rudimentaria se muestra al fijar el día exacto dentro del mes en relación con las fases de la luna. ^{[ 71 ]} A partir de los diversos términos y títulos sánscritos que se ven en el documento, la cultura y sociedad de la Bahía de Manila era la de una amalgama hindú - malaya antigua , similar a las culturas de Java , Malasia peninsular y Sumatra en ese momento.

No existen otros documentos significativos de este período de la sociedad y cultura filipina precolonial hasta la Doctrina Christiana de finales del siglo XVI, escrita al comienzo del período español tanto en escritura baybayin nativa como en español. Se encontraron otros artefactos con escritura kawi y baybayin, como un sello de marfil de Butuan , datado entre principios de los siglos X y XIV, ^{[ 72 ]}^{[ 73 ]} y la vasija de Calatagan con inscripción en baybayin, datada a más tardar a principios del siglo XVI. ^{[ 74 ]}

En los años previos al año 1000, ya existían varias sociedades marítimas en las islas, pero no había un estado político unificador que abarcara todo el archipiélago filipino. En cambio, la región estaba salpicada de numerosos barangays semiautónomos (asentamientos que variaban en tamaño desde aldeas hasta ciudades-estado) bajo la soberanía de talasocracias rivales gobernadas por datus , wangs, rajás , sultanes o lakans , ^{[ 75 ]} o por sociedades agrícolas de las tierras altas como la de los Ifugao y los Mangyan . ^{[ 76 ]}^{[ 77 ]} Estas entidades políticas incluían:

Pila
Reino de Maynila
Tondo
Namayan
Cainta
Kumintang
el Reino de Taytay en Palawan (mencionado por Antonio Pigafetta como el lugar donde se reabastecieron cuando los barcos restantes escaparon de Cebú después de que Magallanes fuera asesinado).
el cacicazgo de la isla Coron, gobernado por feroces guerreros llamados Tagbanua , según informaron los misioneros españoles mencionados por Nilo S. Ocampo, ^{[ 78 ]}
Pangasinan
Caboloan
Ma-i y sus estados vasallos de Sandao y Pulilu
Madja-as
Bo-ol
los reinos hindúes de Sanmalan , Butuan y Cebú
los sultanatos de Buayan , Maguindanao , Lanao y Sulu

Algunas de estas regiones formaron parte de los imperios malayos de Majapahit y Brunei . ^{[ 79 ]}^{[ 80 ]}^{[ 81 ]}

Tondo

La inscripción en placa de cobre de Laguna , c. 900 d.C. El registro histórico más antiguo conocido encontrado en Filipinas, que se refiere indirectamente a la entidad política de Tondo.

Tondo fue un importante centro comercial en la isla de Luzón, en la parte norte del delta del río Pasig. El registro histórico más antiguo de entidades políticas y reinos locales, la inscripción de la placa de cobre de Laguna , se refiere indirectamente a la entidad política tagala de Tondo ( c. antes de 900 –1589) y a otros dos o tres asentamientos que se cree que estaban ubicados en algún lugar cerca de Tondo, así como a un asentamiento cerca del monte Diwata en Mindanao y al complejo de templos de Medang en Java. ^{[ 82 ]} Aunque las relaciones políticas precisas entre estas entidades políticas no están claras en el texto de la inscripción, el artefacto generalmente se acepta como evidencia de vínculos políticos intra e interregionales ya en el año 900. ^{[ 82 ]}^{[ 64 ]}^{[ 15 ]} A la llegada de los primeros etnógrafos europeos durante el siglo XVI, Tondo estaba dirigido por el gobernante supremo llamado " Lakan ". ^{[ 64 ]}^{[ 15 ]} Se había convertido en un importante centro comercial, compartiendo un monopolio con el Reino de Maynila sobre el comercio de productos de la dinastía Ming ^{[ 83 ] en todo el archipiélago.}^{[ 64 ]} Este comercio era lo suficientemente significativo como para que el emperador Yongle nombrara a un gobernador chino llamado Ko Ch'a-lao para supervisarlo. ^{[ 84 ]}^{[ 85 ]}

Desde al menos el año 900, esta talasocracia centrada en la bahía de Manila floreció gracias a un activo comercio con chinos, japoneses, malayos y otros pueblos de Asia. Tondo estaba liderado por un Lakan que pertenecía a la casta de los Maginoo , la nobleza de la antigua sociedad tagala. ^{[ 86 ]} Los habitantes de Tondo también eran buenos agricultores y vivían de la agricultura y la acuicultura .

En el año 900 d. C., el Señor de Pailah Jayadewa entregó un documento de condonación de deudas a la Dama Angkatan y a su hermano Bukah, hijos de Namwaran. Esto se describe en el documento más antiguo conocido de Filipinas, la Inscripción en Placa de Cobre de Laguna . ^{[ 87 ]}

Cainta

Cainta era una ciudad fortificada situada en la cuenca alta del río, en la actual provincia de Rizal , que ocupaba ambas orillas de un brazo del río Pasig . El río la dividía por la mitad, un foso rodeaba sus murallas de troncos y baluartes de piedra armados con cañones nativos ( Lantakas ), y la ciudad misma estaba rodeada de matorrales de bambú. ^{[ 88 ]}

Namayan

Namayan, también una entidad política del río Pasig, surgió como una confederación de barangays locales . ^{[ 89 ]} La tradición local dice que alcanzó su apogeo entre los siglos XI y XIV. ^{[ 90 ]} Los hallazgos arqueológicos en Santa Ana han proporcionado la evidencia más antigua de ocupación continua entre las entidades políticas del río Pasig, anterior a los artefactos encontrados en los sitios históricos de Maynila y Tondo . ^{[ 90 ]}

Kumintang

Kumintang era una extensa entidad política ubicada alrededor del río Calumpang, en la actual Batangas . Según la tradición local, estaba gobernada por una figura legendaria llamada Gat Pulintan, quien se negó a ser cristianizado y se estableció en las colinas para refugiarse y continuar la resistencia contra la ocupación española. Se convirtió en una ciudad española en 1581 y fue renombrada extraoficialmente como Batangan. ^{[ 91 ]}^{[ 92 ]}

Pangasinan

Lugares en Pangasinan como el golfo de Lingayen fueron mencionados ya en 1225, cuando Lingayen, conocido como Li-ying-tung, había sido incluido en el Chu Fan Chih de Chao Ju-kua (Un relato de los diversos bárbaros) como uno de los lugares comerciales junto con Mai (Mindoro o Manila). ^{[ 93 ]} En el norte de Luzón, Pangasinan) ( c. 1406–1576 ) envió emisarios a China en 1406–1411 como estado tributario, ^{[ 94 ]} y también comerciaba con Japón. ^{[ 95 ]} Los registros chinos de este reino, llamado Feng-chia-hsi-lan (Pangasinan), y que era notable por su industria de producción de sal, comenzaron cuando el primer rey tributario (Wang en chino), Kamayin, envió un enviado que ofrecía regalos al emperador chino. ^{[ 95 ]} El estado ocupa la actual provincia de Pangasinan . En esa misma época, surgieron en Indonesia los imperios de Srivijaya y Majapahit , que extendieron su influencia a gran parte del archipiélago malayo . Pangasinan gozó de plena independencia hasta la conquista española.

En el siglo XVI, Pangasinan era conocida como el "Puerto de Japón" por los españoles. Los lugareños vestían indumentaria típica de otros grupos étnicos marítimos del sudeste asiático, además de sedas japonesas y chinas. Incluso la gente común vestía prendas de algodón chinas y japonesas. También se ennegrecían los dientes y sentían repulsión por los dientes blancos de los extranjeros, a los que comparaban con los de los animales. Además, usaban jarrones de porcelana típicos de los hogares japoneses y chinos. También se encontraron armas de pólvora de estilo japonés en las batallas navales de la zona. ^{[ 64 ]} A cambio de estos bienes, comerciantes de toda Asia venían a comerciar principalmente oro y esclavos, pero también pieles de venado, civeta y otros productos locales. Aparte de una red comercial notablemente más extensa con Japón y China, eran culturalmente similares a otros grupos de Luzón, al sur.

Ma-i

El cronista árabe Al Ya'akubi escribió que en el siglo IX, los reinos de Muja (entonces Brunei pagano/hindú) y Mayd (Ma-i) compitieron militarmente con el Imperio chino. ^{[ 62 ]} El volumen 186 de la historia oficial de la dinastía Song describe la entidad política de Ma-i ( c. antes de 971 – después de 1339 ). Los comerciantes de la dinastía Song visitaban Ma-i anualmente, y sus relatos describían la geografía de Ma-i, los productos comerciales y los comportamientos comerciales de sus gobernantes. ^{[ 96 ]} Los comerciantes chinos señalaron que los ciudadanos de Ma-i eran honestos y dignos de confianza. ^{[ 97 ]} Debido a que las descripciones de la ubicación de Mai en estos relatos no son claras, existe una disputa sobre su ubicación, con algunos estudiosos que creen que estaba ubicada en Bay, Laguna , ^{[ 12 ]} y otros que creen que estaba en la isla de Mindoro . ^{[ 98 ]} La entidad política budista comerciaba con Ryukyu y Japón. ^{[ 99 ]} Chao Jukua , inspector de aduanas en la provincia de Fujian , China, escribió el Zhufan Zhi ("Descripción de los pueblos bárbaros"). ^{[ 100 ]} William Henry Scott dijo que, a diferencia de otros reinos o entidades políticas filipinas que necesitaban el respaldo de la Corte Imperial China para atraer el comercio, la entidad política de Ma-i era lo suficientemente poderosa como para no tener necesidad de enviar tributos al trono chino. ^{[ 101 ]} Según los recibos comerciales, las industrias de Ma-i se especializaban en la exportación de "algodón kapok, cera de abejas amarilla, caparazón de tortuga, nueces de betel medicinales y telas de varios diseños". ^{[ 62 ]}

Sandao

Sandao "三嶋" en caracteres chinos, que también se conocía como Sanyu (三嶼), fue una nación filipina prehispánica registrada en los anales chinos como una nación que ocupaba las islas de Jiamayan 加麻延 (actual Calamian ), Balaoyou 巴姥酉 (actual Palawan ), ^{[ 102 ]} y Pulihuan.蒲裏喚 (cerca de la actual Manila ). ^{[ 103 ]} En el Diccionario geográfico chino Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 (1225), fue descrito como un estado vasallo de la nación más poderosa de Ma-i con centro en la cercana Mindoro . ^{[ 104 ]}

Pulilu

Pulilu fue una entidad política prehispánica centrada en Polillo, Quezon ^{[ 106 ]} y mencionada en el Gazeteer chino Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 (1225). Se la describe como políticamente conectada con la nación de Sandao "三嶋" en Calamianes , que a su vez era un estado vasallo del país más grande de Ma-i "麻逸", centrado en Mindoro. Se registra que su gente era belicosa y propensa al saqueo y al conflicto. En esta zona, el mar está lleno de arrecifes de coral, cuyas superficies onduladas se asemejan a troncos de árboles en descomposición o cuchillas de afeitar. Los barcos que pasan cerca de los arrecifes deben estar preparados para realizar maniobras bruscas para evitarlos, ya que son más afilados que espadas y alabardas. También se producen coral rojo y coral langgan azul aquí; sin embargo, son bastante difíciles de encontrar. También es similar a la nación de Sandao en costumbres locales y productos comerciales. El principal producto de exportación de esta pequeña entidad política son los corales raros.

La beligerancia visaya contra la China imperial

Antonio Pigafetta, el escriba de la expedición, enumeró los pueblos y dependencias que tenía Cebú. ^{[ 107 ]}

En el siglo XIII, el historiador chino Chao Ju-Kua mencionó las incursiones realizadas por los Pi-sho-ye en las ciudades portuarias del sur de China entre los años 1174 y 1190 d. C., que, según él, provenían de la parte sur de la isla de Taiwán . ^{[ 108 ]} Historiadores posteriores identificaron a estos asaltantes como visayanos de las islas Visayas , mientras que el historiador Efren B. Isorena, mediante el análisis de relatos históricos y corrientes de viento en la costa del Pacífico del este y sureste de Asia, concluyó que dichos asaltantes eran muy probablemente los habitantes de Ibabao (nombre precolonial de la costa oriental y una parte de la costa norte de Samar). ^{[ 109 ]}

Madja-as

Imágenes del Códice Boxer que ilustran a una pareja visaya de kadatuan o tumao (clase noble) de principios del período colonial español de la década de 1590 .

Una pareja real de los visayanos.

Una teoría defendida por algunos historiadores es que diez datus exiliados del imperio en decadencia de Srivijaya ^{[ 110 ]} liderados por Datu Puti emigraron a las islas centrales de Filipinas, huyendo del Rajah Makatunaw de la isla de Borneo . Al llegar a la isla de Panay y comprarla al jefe negrito Marikudo, establecieron una confederación de entidades políticas y la llamaron Madja-as y se asentaron en las islas circundantes de las Visayas . Esto es según el libro Maragtas de Pedro Monetclaro . ^{[ 111 ]}^{[ 112 ]}^{[ 113 ]} Sin embargo, el personaje real del Rajah Makatunaw fue mencionado en textos chinos anteriores sobre Brunei que lo datan en 1082, cuando era descendiente de Seri Maharaja y estaba acompañado por Sang Aji (el antepasado del sultán Muhammad Shah). Existe, pues, una disparidad de fechas entre el Libro de Maragtas (basado en leyendas orales) y los textos chinos. ^{[ 114 ]} El historiador Robert Nicholl también identifica positivamente el reino budista bruneano preislámico de Vijayapura, que a su vez era un tributario borneano del Imperio Srivijaya en Palembang, y que en tiempos anteriores fue un estado remanente en Sarawak de la caída Civilización Funan, anteriormente en lo que hoy es Camboya, ^{[ 115 ]}^{: 36} esta era la patria ancestral de los visayanos de los 10 Datus de Panay. ^{[ 116 ]} Además, identificó al Rajah Makatunao mencionado en el libro de Maragtas con el Rajah Tugau de la nación Melano centrada en Sarawak . Fraile agustino Rev. P. Santaren registró que Datu Macatunao o Rajah Makatunao, que era el "sultán de los Moros" y un pariente de Datu Puti que se apoderó de las propiedades y riquezas de los diez datus, finalmente fue asesinado por los guerreros llamados Labaodungon y Paybare, utilizando reclutas nativos filipinos y de Borneo. Este, tras enterarse de esta injusticia por su suegro Paiburong, navegó hacia Odtojan en Borneo, donde gobernaba Makatunaw. Los guerreros saquearon la ciudad, mataron a Makatunaw y su familia, recuperaron las propiedades robadas de los 10 datus, esclavizaron a la población restante de Odtojan y navegaron de regreso a Panay. Labaw Donggon y su esposa, Ojaytanayon, se establecieron más tarde en un lugar llamado Moroboro. Posteriormente, se decía que los datus de Panay, otras islas de Visayan y el sur de Luzón fundaron varias ciudades. ^{[ 117 ]}

Cebú (entidad política histórica)

El Reino de Cebú fue un estado precolonial. Fue fundado por Sri Lumay, también conocido como Rajamuda Lumaya, quien era mitad malayo y mitad tamil (del sur de la India) de la isla de Sumatra , una colonia de la conquista india-tamil del sudeste asiático de Rajendra I. [ ^{118 ] Los} chinos registraron el nombre del Rajahanato de Cebú como 'Sokbu' (束務) en hokkien o 'Suwu' en mandarín. ^{[ 119 ]} Se menciona que existió un reino con el mismo nombre que Suwu ya en el año 1225, según los Anales chinos Zhufan Zhi (諸蕃志) ^{[ 120 ]} y los comerciantes chinos posteriores del siglo XVII que viajaron a Filipinas se referían a Cebú usando el mismo término, por lo que se presume que es la misma ubicación. ^{[ 119 ]} La realeza indianizada de Cebú gobernó al pueblo nativo cebuano de la capital etiquetada en tamil - sánscrito , Singhapala (சிங்கப்பூர்) ^{[ 121 ]} que en tamil-sánscrito ^{[ 122 ]} significa "Ciudad del León", la misma raíz de las palabras que con la moderna ciudad-estado de Singapur . Este rajahnate guerreó contra los 'magalos' (traficantes de esclavos) de Maguindanao y tuvo una alianza con el Rajahnate de Butuan y el Kutai indianizado en el sur de Borneo, antes de ser debilitado por la insurrección de Datu Lapulapu . ^{[ 63 ]} El reino gozaba del reconocimiento diplomático de Tailandia, como lo observó la expedición de Fernando de Magallanes, que registró una embajada transportada por un barco de Siam ( Tailandia ) que había desembarcado en el Rajahnato y que llevaba tributos destinados al Rajá Humabon. ^{[ 123 ]}^{[ 124 ]} Los productos exportados desde Cebú incluyen: arroz, mijo, panicum, maíz, higos, naranjas, limones, caña de azúcar, cocos, calabazas, jengibre, miel y otras cosas similares; también vino de palma y algo de oro. ^{[ 107 ]}

Butuan

The official history of the Song dynasty next refers to the Rajahnate of Butuan (c.before 1001–1756) in northeastern Mindanao which is the first polity from the Philippine archipelago recorded as having sent a tribute mission to the Chinese empire—on March 17, 1001, CE. Butuan later attained prominence under the rule of Rajah Sri Bata Shaja.^[125] In the year 1011, Rajah Sri Bata Shaja, the monarch of the Indianized Rajahnate of Butuan, a maritime-state famous for its goldwork and metallurgy industry plus its manufacture of musical instruments^[126] sent a trade envoy under ambassador Likan-shieh to the Chinese Imperial Court demanding equal diplomatic status with other states.^[127] The request being approved, it opened up direct commercial links with the Rajahnate of Butuan and the Chinese Empire thereby diminishing the monopoly on Chinese trade previously enjoyed by their rivals, Tondo and the Champa civilization.^[128] Evidence of the existence of this rajahnate is given by the Butuan Silver Paleograph.^[129] Researcher Eric Casino, believes the name of the first Rajah mentioned in Chinese records, Rajah Kiling, is not Visayan in origin but rather, Indian, because Kiling refers to the people of India.^[130] The Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) of the nearby country of Malaysia, refers to the similarly worded Keling as immigrant people from India.^[131]

Sanmalan

The *Nagarakretagama*, chronicled the rise of the Java-centered Majapahit Empire and its conquest of the kingdom of Solot (Sulu), which then rebelled and sacked the Majapahit province of Pon-i (Brunei).

Al mismo tiempo que el auge de Butuan, surgió Sanmalan. Sanmalan era un reino filipino precolonial en lo que hoy es Zamboanga . ^{[ 132 ]} Conocido en los registros chinos como "Sanmalan" 三麻蘭. Los chinos registraron en 982 un tributo de su Rajá o Rey, Chulan, representado en la corte imperial por el embajador Ali Bakti. Transbordaba mercancías de Asia Occidental para el consumo local, comerciando con productos como: aromáticos, dátiles, cristalería, marfil, melocotones, azúcar refinada y agua de rosas. ^{[ 133 ]} En el siglo XIII, la crónica china Zhufan zhi (諸蕃志) registró su transformación de emporio comercial a estado esclavista, cuando Zamboanga comenzó a librar guerras y a saquear los reinos vecinos de Borneo , Filipinas , Sulawesi y Ternate para obtener esclavos que vender en Java . ^{[ 104 ]}

Influencia de los Madjapahit en Filipinas

Durante el siglo XIV, los anales chinos, Nanhai zhi , informaron que Brunéi invadió o administró Sarawak y Sabah, así como los reinos filipinos de Butuan , Sulu y Ma-i (Mindoro), que recuperarían su independencia posteriormente. ^{[ 134 ]} Después, el imperio hindú de Majapahit , con centro javanés , invadió Brunéi y gobernó brevemente el archipiélago de Sulu, como se registra en el poema épico Nagarakretagama , que afirma que controlaban Solot ( Sulu ). ^{[ 135 ]}

Finalmente, Sulu restableció su independencia y, en venganza, atacó la provincia de Majapahit en Poni ( Brunéi ) antes de que una flota de la capital los expulsara. ^{[ 136 ]}^{[ 137 ]}

Según los registros javaneses, una fuerza javanesa expulsó a los saqueadores de Sulu de Brunéi durante el reinado de Angka Wijaya, el último rey de Majapahit. Los habitantes de las islas Soeloe (en la actual Filipinas) atacaron Brunéi (para obtener alcanfor), fieles a su naturaleza (pirata), pero fueron repelidos por los soldados javaneses.

— Raffles de Stamford

La reacción de Sulu contra el imperialismo de Majapahit no se limitó al saqueo de Poni (Brunéi), ya que Sulu también invadió Kalimantan del Norte y del Este en Borneo, antiguos territorios de Majapahit. ^{[ 138 ]} El posterior inicio de la era islámica marcó el declive de Majapahit , cuyas provincias se independizaron y se convirtieron en sultanatos. Con el auge del islam, los remanentes del Majapahit hindú huyeron a la isla de Bali . ^{[ 139 ]}

En Luzón, citando leyendas orales de Kapampangan, Nick Joaquín escribió sobre una princesa de Namayan llamada Sasaban que se casó con el emperador de Majapahit, conocido localmente como Soledan y supuestamente es el maharajá Anka Widyaya. ^{[ 140 ]} Sultanato de Sulu

En 1380, Karim ul' Makdum y Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, un comerciante árabe nacido en Johore , Malasia ; llegaron a Sulu desde Malaca y establecieron el Sultanato de Sulu al convertir a su anterior gobernante, el rey hindú, Rajah Baguinda , al Islam y luego casarse con su hija. Este sultanato eventualmente obtuvo gran riqueza debido a su buceo en busca de perlas finas . ^{[ 141 ]} Antes de la islamización, el entonces Rajahnato de Sulu fue establecido por migrantes hindúes de habla visaya del Rajahnato de Butuan al archipiélago de Sulu como tausug, la lengua del estado de Sulu se clasifica como una lengua visaya meridional. ^{[ 142 ]} Entonces Sulu hindú comenzó como un centro de intercambio de especias para el comercio mutuo con sus primos en el Rajahnato de Butuan, así como con la civilización Champa al otro lado del mar, en los siglos X al XIII. Champa, ubicada en el centro de Vietnam , y el reino portuario de Sulu comerciaban entre sí, lo que resultó en que los comerciantes Cham se asentaran en Sulu, donde eran conocidos como Orang Dampuan. Los Orang Dampuan fueron masacrados por los envidiosos nativos de Sulu, los Buranun, debido a la riqueza de los Orang Dampuan. ^{[ 143 ]} Los Buranun fueron entonces sometidos a una masacre de represalia por parte de los Orang Dampuan. Posteriormente se restableció el comercio armonioso entre Sulu y los Orang Dampuan, y estos últimos se convirtieron en los ancestros del pueblo local Yakan . ^{[ 144 ]} Los Yakan eran descendientes de los Orang Dampuan de Taguima que llegaron a Sulu desde Champa. ^{[ 145 ]} Como se mencionó anteriormente, Sulu también fue gobernado brevemente bajo el imperio hindú Majapahit, según se narra en el Nagarakretagama , pero posteriormente, Sulu se rebeló y saqueó Brunei, una provincia cercana y leal a Majapahit, extendiendo así su conquista al antiguo territorio de Majapahit en Kalimantan Oriental y Septentrional. Sin embargo, con la llegada del Islam en el siglo XV, se asociaron con sus nuevos sultanes de ascendencia árabe, originarios de Malaca, y con sus correligionarios moros (grupos étnicos de Filipinas que habían aceptado el Islam), en lugar de con sus primos aún hindúes de habla visaya. Esto culminó con matrimonios reales entre las familias de la entonces recién islamizada Maynila, así como con los sultanatos de Brunei, Sulu y Malaca. ^{[ 146 ]}

Sultanato de Maguindanao

El Sultanato de Maguindanao saltó a la fama a finales del siglo XV o principios del XVI, Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan de Johor , Malasia : introdujo el Islam en la isla de Mindanao y posteriormente se casó con Paramisuli, una princesa iraní de Mindanao, y estableció el Sultanato de Maguindanao. ^{[ 147 ]}

Gobernó la mayor parte de la costa de Mindanao y continuó existiendo antes de la colonización española hasta el siglo XIX. El Sultanato también comerciaba y mantenía buenas relaciones con los chinos, los holandeses y los británicos. ^{[ 148 ]}^{[ 149 ]} Las principales exportaciones del Sultanato incluyen: arroz , cera , tabaco y cortezas de clavo y canela , además de aceite de coco , sagú , frijoles, caparazones de tortuga , nidos de pájaros y madera dura de ébano . ^[¹⁵⁰^]

Estados Confederados de Lanao

Los sultanatos de Lanao en Mindanao, Filipinas, fueron fundados en el siglo XVI bajo la influencia de Shariff Kabungsuan, quien fue entronizado como primer sultán de Maguindanao en 1515. El islam fue introducido en la zona por misioneros y comerciantes musulmanes de Oriente Medio, India y Malasia, quienes propagaron el islam en Sulu y Maguindanao. A diferencia de Sulu y Maguindanao, el sistema de sultanatos en Lanao era singularmente descentralizado. El área estaba dividida en los Cuatro Principados de Lanao o Pat a Pangampong a Ranao, compuestos por varias casas reales (Sapolo ago Nem a Panoroganan o Las Dieciséis (16) Casas Reales) con jurisdicciones territoriales específicas dentro de Mindanao continental. Esta estructura descentralizada del poder real en Lanao fue adoptada por los fundadores y se ha mantenido hasta nuestros días, en reconocimiento del poder y el prestigio compartidos de los clanes gobernantes de la zona, haciendo hincapié en los valores de la unidad nacional (kaiisaisa o bangsa), el mecenazgo (kaseselai) y la fraternidad (kapapagaria). Para el siglo XVI, el islam se había extendido a otras partes de las Visayas y Luzón.

El Imperio de Brunéi y la expansión del Islam

Tras la secesión de Poni (Brunei) del Imperio Majapahit, importaron al emir árabe de La Meca, Sharif Ali , y se convirtieron en un sultanato independiente. Durante el reinado de su descendiente, el sultán Bolkiah , de 1485 a 1521, se casó con Laila Menchanai, hija de Sulu Sultan Amir Ul-Ombra para expandir la influencia de Brunei tanto en Luzón como en Mindanao. Finalmente, Rajah Salalila de Maynila se casó con la hija del sultán Bolkiah y Puteri Laila Menchanai de Sulu, colocando a Maynila bajo la influencia de Brunei. ^{[ 151 ]} La nueva dinastía bajo el Rajah Salalila islamizado se estableció para desafiar a la Casa de Lakandula en Tondo. ^{[ 152 ]}^{[ 153 ]}

Además, el islam se fortaleció aún más con la llegada a Filipinas de comerciantes y proselitistas de Malasia e Indonesia. La invasión de Brunéi extendió a Filipinas a la realeza china, como los parientes y compañeros de Ong Sum Ping, así como a dinastías árabes como el clan del sultán Sharif Ali y sus aliados. ^{[ 154 ]} Brunéi era tan poderoso que ya había subyugado a su vecino hindú de Borneo, Kutai, al sur, aunque Kutai sobrevivió gracias a una alianza desesperada con Butuan y Cebú, también hindúes, que ya luchaban contra potencias islámicas invasoras como Maguindanao. Brunéi también había ganado influencia sobre el tercio norte y el tercio sur de Filipinas. ^{[ 155 ]}^{[ 156 ]}^{[ 157 ]}^{[ 158 ]}^{[ 159 ]}^{[ 160 ]}^{[ 161 ]}^{[ 162 ]} El sultán Bolkiah está asociado con la leyenda de Nakhoda Ragam, el capitán cantor, un mito sobre un príncipe apuesto, viril, fuerte, con talento musical y voz angelical, conocido por sus hazañas marciales. Existe evidencia contextual de que el sultán Bolkiah podría ser Nakhoda Ragam, ya que es de ascendencia mitad visaya-filipina, dado que relatos españoles posteriores registran que los filipinos, especialmente los visayos, estaban obsesionados con el canto y las castas guerreras eran particularmente conocidas por sus grandes habilidades para el canto . ^{[ 163 ]}

Los Lucoes

Paralelamente a la expansión del Islam en el archipiélago filipino, surgió el pueblo de Lucoes o Luzones , originario de Luzón . Alcanzaron prominencia estableciendo comunidades en el extranjero por todo el sudeste asiático y manteniendo relaciones con el sur y el este de Asia, participando en empresas comerciales, expediciones de navegación y campañas militares en Birmania . ^{[ 164 ]} En 1505, capitanes navales portugueses observaron la presencia de mercenarios y marineros Luzam (Luzones de la isla de Luzón ) trabajando a bordo de barcos portugueses frente a la costa de Malabar, en el oeste de la India , actuando como hombres fuertes contratados para el esfuerzo bélico portugués contra los reinos islámicos locales de la India. ^{[ 165 ]} Posteriormente, guerreros Lucoes ayudaron al rey birmano en su invasión de Siam en 1547. Al mismo tiempo, guerreros Lusung lucharon junto al rey siamés y se enfrentaron al mismo ejército birmano. ^{[ 166 ]} También estuvieron en Japón , Brunéi , Malaca , Timor Oriental y Sri Lanka ^{[ 167 ]}^{[ 19 ]} donde fueron empleados como comerciantes y mercenarios. ^{[ 168 ]}^{[ 64 ]}^{[ 169 ]} Un Luções prominente fue Regimo de Raja , quien fue un magnate de las especias y un Temenggung ( Jawi : تمڠݢوڠ) ^{[ 170 ]} (Gobernador y General en Jefe) en la Malaca portuguesa. También fue el jefe de una armada internacional que comerciaba y protegía el comercio entre el Océano Índico , el Estrecho de Malaca , el Mar de China Meridional , ^{[ 171 ]} y los principados marítimos medievales de Filipinas . ^{[ 15 ]}

Pinto señaló que había varios luzones en las flotas islámicas que lucharon contra los portugueses en Filipinas durante el siglo XVI. El sultán de Aceh, junto con el comandante otomano Heredim Mafamede, cuyo tío era el virrey de Egipto, asignó a los luzones la defensa de Aceh y le encomendó a uno de ellos, Sapetu Diraja, la tarea de mantener Aru (noreste de Sumatra) en 1540. Pinto también afirma que uno de ellos fue nombrado líder de los malayos que permanecieron en las Islas Molucas tras la conquista portuguesa en 1511. ^{[ 172 ]} Pigafetta señala que uno de ellos estuvo al mando de la flota de Brunéi en 1521. ^{[ 19 ]}

Sin embargo, los luzones no solo lucharon del lado de los musulmanes. Pinto afirma que también estuvieron entre los nativos de Filipinas que lucharon contra los musulmanes en 1538. ^{[ 172 ]}

Los luzones fueron también pioneros en la navegación, y consta que los portugueses no solo fueron testigos, sino también beneficiarios directos de la participación de Lusung. Muchos luzones eligieron Malaca como base de operaciones debido a su importancia estratégica. Cuando los portugueses finalmente tomaron Malaca en 1512, los luzones residentes ocupaban importantes cargos gubernamentales en el antiguo sultanato. También eran exportadores a gran escala y armadores que enviaban regularmente juncos a China, Brunéi, Sumatra, Siam y Sunda. Un funcionario de Lusung llamado Surya Diraja enviaba anualmente 175 toneladas de pimienta a China y tenía que pagar a los portugueses 9000 cruzados de oro para conservar su plantación. Sus barcos pasaron a formar parte de la primera flota portuguesa que realizó una visita oficial al imperio chino en 1517. ^{[ 175 ]} Además, el Códice Boxer decía que: «Los Luções, llamados Lequios, traen oro y algodón de su tierra, y comercian con seda y porcelana chinas». ^{[ 176 ]} También se registra que cada año, los Luções cargan Cantón con 175 barriles de pimienta. ^{[ 177 ]} Además, también traían caparazones de tortuga y resinas de su costa, que alcanzaban un alto precio en China. ^{[ 178 ]} En resumen, «En las ferias de Malaca, los Luções eran famosos comerciantes de pimienta y oro, incluso intercambiándolos por seda china». Como escribe Fernão Lopes de Castanheda sobre ellos. ^{[ 179 ]}

En el sudeste asiático continental , los luzones ayudaron al rey birmano en su invasión de Siam en 1547. Al mismo tiempo, los luzones lucharon junto al rey siamés y se enfrentaron al mismo ejército de elefantes del rey birmano en la defensa de la capital siamesa en Ayutthaya. ^{[ 166 ]} Diogo do Couto escribió sobre ellos así: «Bajo el mando de su jefe Balagtas, 300 luções lucharon por el rey de Siam contra los invasores birmanos, con tal eficacia que los siameses les concedieron tierras». El hecho de que el rey tailandés/siamés les concediera tierras y los ennobleciera atestigua su admirable desempeño. ^{[ 180 ]} La actividad militar y comercial de los luções llegó hasta Sri Lanka, en el subcontinente indio , donde se descubrió cerámica lungshanoid hecha en Luzón en enterramientos. ^{[ 181 ]}

Los portugueses pronto empezaron a depender de los burócratas de Luzón para la administración de Malaca y de los guerreros, barcos y pilotos de Luzón para sus empresas militares y comerciales en el este de Asia.

Fue gracias a los Luzones, que enviaban barcos regularmente a China, que los portugueses descubrieron los puertos de Cantón en 1514. Y fue en barcos de Luzones que los portugueses pudieron enviar su primera misión diplomática a China en 1517. Los portugueses debían agradecer a los Luzones el haber establecido finalmente su base en Macao a mediados del siglo XVI. ^{[ 168 ]}

Los Luzones también fueron fundamentales para guiar a los barcos portugueses en el descubrimiento de Japón. El mundo occidental conoció Japón por primera vez gracias a los portugueses. Pero fue a través de los Luzones que los portugueses tuvieron su primer contacto con los japoneses. El rey portugués encargó a sus súbditos que consiguieran buenos pilotos que pudieran guiarlos más allá de los mares de China y Malaca. En 1540, el factor del rey portugués en Brunéi, Brás Baião, recomendó a su monarca la contratación de pilotos Lusung debido a su reputación como "descubridores". ^{[ 182 ]} Así, fue a través de los navegantes Luzones que los barcos portugueses encontraron su camino a Japón en 1543. Los Luzones impresionaron tanto al soldado portugués João de Barros, que los consideró, por su actividad militar y comercial en toda la región, "los más belicosos y valientes de estas tierras". ^{[ 183 ]} Mientras tanto, en el cercano Sultanato de Aceh, los guerreros luções impresionaron tanto al sultán que fueron asignados a la guardia real del sultán. ^{[ 184 ]} Y ser asignados como guardia real del sultán es prueba de la fuerza física, la destreza marcial y el atractivo masculino de los hombres luções ; ya que durante ese período, entre los reinos medievales, ese cargo se delegaba solo a los guerreros más fuertes, inteligentes, guapos, atractivos, viriles, aristocráticos y aptos para el combate. ^{[ 185 ]}^{[ 186 ]}

Los filipinos de la isla de Luzón (Lucoes) no eran los únicos filipinos en el extranjero; el historiador William Henry Scott, citando el manuscrito portugués Summa Orientalis, señaló que Mottama en Birmania (Myanmar) tenía una gran presencia de comerciantes de la isla de Mindanao. ^{[ 187 ]}

Auge y caída de Bo-ol

Hacia 1563, en la etapa final de la era precolonial, Bo-ol alcanzó gran prominencia y fue conocido por el misionero español Alcina como la "Venecia de las Visayas", debido a que era una próspera ciudad-estado flotante de madera en las Visayas. Sin embargo, este reino fue atacado y destruido por soldados del Sultanato de Ternate , un estado compuesto por moluqueños musulmanes . Los supervivientes de la destrucción, liderados por su datu, Pagbuaya, emigraron al norte de Mindanao y establecieron un nuevo asentamiento en la región conocida como Dapitan.

Una colección de *lantaka* filipinas , un tipo de cañón giratorio utilizado en las guerras entre reinos.

Posteriormente, declararon la guerra al Sultanato de Lanao y se asentaron en las tierras conquistadas. Finalmente, en venganza contra los musulmanes y los portugueses aliados de los ternateanos, ayudaron a los españoles en la conquista de la Manila musulmana y en las expediciones españolas para capturar Ternate, territorio portugués.

Rivalidades entre reinos

Durante este período también hubo un conflicto territorial latente entre la entidad política de Tondo y Maynila, para el cual el gobernante de Maynila, Rajah Matanda , buscó ayuda militar contra Tondo de sus parientes en el Sultanato de Brunei. ^{[ 188 ]} Los Rajahnatos hindúes de Butuan y Cebú también sufrieron incursiones de esclavos y libraron guerras contra el Sultanato de Maguindanao. ^{[ 189 ]} Simultáneamente con estas incursiones de esclavos, se produjo la rebelión de Datu Lapulapu de Mactán contra Rajah Humabon de Cebú. ^{[ 190 ]} La población era escasa debido a la guerra y también debido a la frecuencia común de tifones y la ubicación de Filipinas en el cinturón de fuego del Pacífico . ^{[ 191 ]} Los múltiples estados que competían por el limitado territorio y la población de las islas simplificaron la colonización española al permitir que sus conquistadores emplearan eficazmente una estrategia de divide y vencerás para una conquista rápida.

Colonización y dominio español (1565–1898)

Primeras expediciones y conquistas españolas

Una expedición española alrededor del mundo, liderada por el explorador portugués Fernando de Magallanes, avistó la isla de Samar , pero ancló frente a la isla de Suluan el 16 de marzo de 1521. Desembarcaron al día siguiente en la isla de Homonhon , ahora parte de Guiuan, Samar Oriental . Magallanes reclamó las islas que vio para España y las llamó Islas de San Lázaro. Estableció relaciones amistosas con algunos de los líderes locales, especialmente con Rajah Humabon , y convirtió a algunos de ellos al cristianismo . En Filipinas, exploraron muchas islas, incluida la isla de Mactán . Sin embargo, Magallanes murió durante la batalla de Mactán contra el datu local, Lapulapu . ^{[ 19 ]}^{[ 192 ]}^{[ 193 ]} Cuando los españoles cristianos fueron a Filipinas, incluso se encontraron con hablantes musulmanes de español que lo aprendieron de ciudadanos del antiguo emirato islámico español de Granada , conectando así los extremos occidental y oriental del mundo musulmán. ^{[ 194 ]}

Durante las décadas siguientes, se enviaron otras expediciones españolas a las islas. Ruy López de Villalobos dirigió una expedición que visitó Leyte y Samar en 1543 y las bautizó como Las Islas Filipinas en honor a Felipe de Asturias, príncipe de Asturias en aquel entonces. ^{[ 195 ]} Felipe se convirtió en Felipe II de España el 16 de enero de 1556, cuando su padre, Carlos I de España (quien también reinó como Carlos V, emperador del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico ), abdicó del trono español. El nombre se extendió posteriormente a todo el archipiélago durante la época española.

La colonización europea comenzó en serio cuando el explorador español Miguel López de Legazpi llegó de México en 1565 y fundó los primeros asentamientos europeos en Cebú. Junto a estos asentamientos europeos se encontraban pueblos fundados por indígenas tlaxcaltecas que acompañaron a Juan de Salcedo , un caballero nacido en México, procedente de Cebú, y a quienes se les otorgaron pensiones; en la expedición inicial sumaban 400 personas. ^{[ 196 ]} Comenzando con tan solo cinco barcos y quinientos hombres acompañados por monjes agustinos, y reforzados en 1567 con doscientos soldados, logró repeler a los portugueses y sentar las bases para la unificación y colonización del archipiélago. ^{[ 197 ]} En 1571, los españoles, sus reclutas latinoamericanos y sus aliados filipinos (visayas), comandados por hábiles conquistadores como Juan de Salcedo , nacido en México (quien estaba enamorado de la princesa de Tondo, Kandarapa , un romance que su abuelo español Miguel López de Legazpi desaprobaba), atacaron Maynila , un estado vasallo del Sultanato de Brunei, y liberaron e incorporaron el reino de Tondo, además de establecer Manila como la capital de las Indias Orientales Españolas . ^{[ 198 ]}^{[ 199 ]}^{[ 200 ]} Durante la primera parte de la colonización española de Filipinas, el fraile agustino español Gaspar de San Agustín, OSA, describe a Iloilo y Panay como una de las islas más pobladas del archipiélago y la más fértil de todas las islas de Filipinas. También habla de Iloilo, en particular del antiguo asentamiento de Halaur, como lugar de un puesto comercial progresista y una corte de nobles ilustres. ^{[ 201 ]}

Legazpi construyó un fuerte en Maynila e hizo propuestas de amistad a Lakan Dula , Lakan de Tondo, quien aceptó. Sin embargo, el antiguo gobernante de Maynila, el rajá musulmán Rajá Sulayman , que era vasallo del sultán de Brunei, se negó a someterse a Legazpi, pero no logró obtener el apoyo de Lakan Dula ni de los asentamientos de Pampangan y Pangasinan al norte. Cuando Tarik Sulayman , junto con una fuerza de guerreros musulmanes kapampangan y tagalos, atacaron a los españoles en la batalla de Bangkusay , finalmente fue derrotado y asesinado. Los españoles también destruyeron la ciudad-estado amurallada de Cainta en Kapampangan .

Un manuscrito de finales del siglo XVII de Gaspar de San Agustín, procedente del Archivo de Indias , que representa la conquista de Filipinas por López de Legazpi.

En 1578, estalló la Guerra de Castilla entre los españoles cristianos y los bruneanos musulmanes por el control del archipiélago filipino. Por un lado, los visayanos no musulmanes de Panay y Cebú , recientemente cristianizados, así como los de Butuan (provenientes del norte de Mindanao), y los restos de Bo-ol ( Dapitan ), habían librado previamente guerras contra el Sultanato de Sulu , el Sultanato de Maguindanao y el Reino de Maynila , y se unieron a los españoles en la guerra contra el Imperio de Brunéi y sus aliados: el estado títere bruneano de Maynila, Sulu (con vínculos dinásticos con Brunéi) y Maguindanao (aliado de Sulu). Los españoles y sus aliados visayanos atacaron Brunéi y tomaron su capital, Kota Batu . Esto se logró en parte gracias a la ayuda prestada por dos nobles : Pengiran Seri Lela y Pengiran Seri Ratna. El primero había viajado a Manila para ofrecer a Brunéi como tributario de España a cambio de ayuda para recuperar el trono usurpado por su hermano, Saiful Rijal. ^{[ 202 ]} Los españoles acordaron que si lograban conquistar Brunéi, Pengiran Seri Lela se convertiría en sultán, mientras que Pengiran Seri Ratna sería el nuevo Bendahara . En marzo de 1578, la flota española, liderada por el propio De Sande, actuando como capitán general , inició su viaje hacia Brunéi. La expedición estaba compuesta por 400 españoles y mexicanos, 1500 nativos filipinos y 300 borneanos. ^{[ 203 ]} La campaña fue una de muchas, que también incluyó acciones en Mindanao y Sulu . ^{[ 204 ]}^{[ 205 ]}

Los españoles lograron invadir la capital el 16 de abril de 1578, con la ayuda de Pengiran Seri Lela y Pengiran Seri Ratna. El sultán Saiful Rijal y Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar se vieron obligados a huir a Meragang y luego a Jerudong . En Jerudong, planearon expulsar al ejército conquistador de Brunéi. Los españoles sufrieron grandes pérdidas debido a un brote de cólera o disentería . ^{[ 206 ]}^{[ 207 ]} Estaban tan debilitados por la enfermedad que decidieron abandonar Brunéi y regresar a Manila el 26 de junio de 1578, después de tan solo 72 días. Antes de hacerlo, incendiaron la mezquita, una estructura alta con un techo de cinco niveles. ^{[ 208 ]}

Pengiran Seri Lela murió entre agosto y septiembre de 1578, probablemente de la misma enfermedad que había aquejado a sus aliados españoles, aunque existía la sospecha de que pudiera haber sido envenenado por el sultán reinante. La hija de Seri Lela, la princesa de Brunéi, partió con los españoles y se casó con un cristiano tagalo llamado Agustín de Legazpi de Tondo, con quien tuvo hijos en Filipinas. ^{[ 209 ]}

Simultáneamente, el norte de Luzón se convirtió en un centro del "Comercio de Bahan" (comercio de bafan), que se encuentra en la Historia de Japam de Luís Fróis, y se refiere principalmente a los robos, incursiones y saqueos llevados a cabo por los piratas japoneses de Kyūshūa mientras atacaban los mares de China. El período Sengoku (1477-1603) o el período de los estados en guerra de Japón había extendido las actividades de los wakō (piratas japoneses) en los mares de China; algunos grupos de estos asaltantes se trasladaron a Filipinas y establecieron sus asentamientos en Luzón. Debido a la proximidad a las playas de China, Filipinas era un lugar favorable para lanzar incursiones en las provincias de Guangdong y Fujian, y para el transporte marítimo con Indochina y las islas Ryūkyū. ^{[ 210 ]} Estos fueron los días de gloria de la rama filipina del comercio de Bahan. Así, los españoles intentaron combatir a estos piratas japoneses, entre los que destacaba el caudillo Tayfusa, ^{[ 211 ]} a quien los españoles expulsaron después de que estableciera los inicios de una ciudad-estado de piratas japoneses en el norte de Luzón. ^{[ 212 ]} Los españoles los repelieron en las legendarias batallas de Cagayan de 1582. [ ^{213 ] Debido} a la prohibición comercial impuesta por la dinastía Ming en 1549 contra el shogunato Ashikaga como consecuencia de las incursiones de los piratas Wokou, se prohibió la entrada de todos los japoneses a China y la navegación de barcos chinos a Japón. Por lo tanto, Manila se convirtió en el único lugar donde japoneses y chinos podían comerciar abiertamente, intercambiando a menudo plata japonesa por seda china. ^{[ 214 ]}

En 1587, Magat Salamat , uno de los hijos de Lakandula, junto con el sobrino de Lakandula y señores de las áreas vecinas de Tondo, Pandacan, Marikina, Candaba, Navotas y Bulacan, fueron ejecutados cuando fracasó la Conspiración de Tondo de 1587-1588 ^{[ 215 ]} en la que una gran alianza planeada con el capitán cristiano japonés Gayo (Gayo mismo era un Woku que una vez fue pirata en Cagayan) y el sultán de Brunei, habría restaurado la antigua aristocracia. Su fracaso resultó en el ahorcamiento de Agustín de Legazpi y la ejecución de Magat Salamat (el príncipe heredero de Tondo). ^{[ 216 ]} Posteriormente, algunos de los conspiradores fueron exiliados a Guam o Guerrero, México.

El poder español se consolidó aún más después de la completa asimilación de Madja-as por parte de Miguel López de Legazpi, su subyugación del Rajá Tupas , la conquista del Rajá de Cebú y Juan de Salcedo de las provincias de Zambales, La Unión, Ilocos, la costa de Cagayán y el saqueo del reino pirata del señor de la guerra chino Limahong en Pangasinan . ^{[ 217 ]}^{[ 218 ]}

Español Los españoles también invadieron el norte de Taiwán y Ternate en Indonesia, usando guerreros filipinos, antes de ser expulsados por los holandeses. ^{[ 219 ]} El Sultanato de Ternate volvió a la independencia y luego lideró una coalición de sultanatos contra España. ^{[ 220 ]}^{[ 221 ]} Mientras Taiwán se convirtió en el bastión del estado pirata y leal a Ming del Reino de Tungning . Los españoles y los moros de los sultanatos de Maguindanao, Lanao y Sulu también libraron muchas guerras durante cientos de años en el conflicto hispano-moro , fueron apoyados por el Sultanato de Ternate de habla papú en Indonesia que recuperó la independencia de España, ^{[ 222 ]} así como el Sultanato de Brunei, no fue hasta el siglo XIX que España logró derrotar al Sultanato de Sulu y tomar Mindanao bajo soberanía nominal.

Persas, árabes, egipcios y turcos trajeron aquí la veneración [de Mahoma] y su secta maligna, e incluso moros de Túnez y Granada llegaron aquí, a veces en las armadas de Campson [Kait Bey], antiguo sultán de El Cairo y rey de Egipto... Así me parece que estos moros de las Islas Filipinas son principalmente aquellos que, como se ha dicho, vienen de Egipto, Arabia y La Meca, y son sus parientes, discípulos y miembros, y cada año dicen que los turcos vienen a Sumatra y Borneo, y a Ternate, donde ahora se encuentran algunos de los derrotados en la famosa batalla que ganó el señor Don Juan de Austria. ^{[ 223 ]}

— Melchor Dávalos

Español Los españoles consideraron su guerra con los musulmanes en el sudeste asiático una extensión de la Reconquista , una campaña de siglos de duración para recuperar y recristianizar la patria española que había sido invadida por los musulmanes del Califato Omeya . Las expediciones españolas a Filipinas también fueron parte de un conflicto mundial ibero-islámico más amplio ^{[ 224 ]} que incluía una guerra contra el Califato Otomano que acababa de invadir tierras anteriormente cristianas en el Mediterráneo oriental y que tenía un centro de operaciones en el sudeste asiático en su vasallo cercano, el Sultanato de Aceh . ^{[ 225 ]} Así, Filipinas se convirtió en un escenario de las guerras mundiales en curso entre el Otomano y los Habsburgo .

Con el tiempo, también se establecieron fortificaciones españolas en Taiwán y las islas Molucas . Estas fueron abandonadas y los soldados españoles, junto con los nativos recién cristianizados de las Molucas , se retiraron a Filipinas para reagrupar sus fuerzas militares debido a la amenaza de una invasión por parte de Koxinga , gobernante del Reino de Tungning , leal a la dinastía Ming y nacido en Japón . ^[²²⁶^] Sin embargo, la invasión planeada fue abortada. Mientras tanto, se enviaron colonos a las islas del Pacífico de Palaos y las Marianas . ^[²²⁷^]

Para contrarrestar las amenazas musulmanas reforzadas desde la Turquía otomana , los españoles importaron soldados latinoamericanos de Perú , Panamá y México . ^{[ 228 ]}

"Él (el gobernador Don Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera) trajo un gran contingente de soldados, muchos de ellos procedentes del Perú, cuando realizó su viaje a Acapulco desde ese reino." ^{[ 228 ]}

— Casimiro Díaz

En 1593, una comitiva diplomática dirigida al "Rey de Luzón" por el Rey de Camboya, que llevaba un elefante como tributo ^{[ 229 ],} llegó a Manila. El Rey de Camboya, que había presenciado la actividad militar de los luzones precoloniales , mercenarios en todo el sudeste asiático, incluyendo Birmania y Siam, ^{[ 230 ]} imploró a los nuevos gobernantes de Luzón, los españoles, que lo ayudaran en una guerra para recuperar su reino de la invasión siamesa. ^{[ 231 ]} Esto había provocado la desafortunada expedición española a Camboya que, aunque terminó en fracaso, sentó las bases de la futura restauración de Camboya del dominio tailandés bajo la Cochinchina francesa, que recurrió a los aliados españoles.

Incorporación al Virreinato de Nueva España, con sede en México.

La fundación de Manila al unir los dominios de Sulayman III y Rajah Ache Matanda de Maynila , que era vasallo del sultán de Brunei, y Lakandula de Tondo , que pagaba tributo a la China de la dinastía Ming , provocó la creación de Manila el 6 de febrero de 1579, a través de la bula papal Illius Fulti Præsidio del Papa Gregorio XIII , abarcando todas las colonias españolas en Asia como sufragánea de la Arquidiócesis de México . ^{[ 232 ]} Aparte de Manila, la capital, las poblaciones española y latina se concentraron primero en las cinco ciudades reales españolas recién fundadas de Cebú , Arévalo , Nueva Segovia , Nueva Cáceres y Vigán . ^{[ 233 ]} Aparte de estas ciudades, también estaban dispersos por los Presidios de Cavite , Calamianes , Caraga y Zamboanga . ^{[ 234 ]} Durante gran parte del período español, Filipinas formó parte del Virreinato de Nueva España, con sede en México . De los españoles y latinos enviados a Filipinas, casi la mitad de los individuos deportados a Manila fueron registrados en los archivos judiciales como españoles (españoles nacidos en las colonias, que a menudo eran simplemente " mestizos muy pálidos "), y alrededor de un tercio, como mestizos (mientras que los indígenas ( nativos americanos ), mulatos y negros podían ser confundidos con mestizos de color más oscuro). ^{[ 235 ]} Los castizos representaron un total del 15 por ciento, mientras que los peninsulares (españoles nacidos en España) fueron alrededor del 5 por ciento de los castigados con la deportación a Manila. ^{[ 236 ]}

Los españoles racionalizaron la distribución demográfica, la extracción de recursos, la defensa y el comercio de la colonia, que anteriormente era una constelación dispersa de reinos precoloniales rivales, mediante un proceso conocido como las " Reducciones Ibéricas ", en el que la gente fue reubicada, a veces por la fuerza, de sus asentamientos anteriores y reasentada en nuevos pueblos y barrios que se modelaron según los estándares académicos establecidos en España y Portugal. ^{[ 237 ]} La gente fue trasladada a una cabecera centralizada (capital de pueblo/distrito), donde se ubicaron una iglesia recién construida y un ayuntamiento (ayuntamiento). ^{[ 238 ]} Esto permitió al gobierno defender, controlar y cristianizar a la población indígena en asentamientos independientes dispersos, realizar censos de población y recaudar tributos . ^{[ 239 ]} La nueva aristocracia en estos pueblos recién fundados fue la Principalía , que surgió cuando los colonos españoles y mexicanos se mezclaron con la realeza nativa precolonial y las élites mercantiles chinas, y formaron una naciente nobleza terrateniente en cada localidad . ^{[ 240 ]}^{: p1 columnas 1–4}

El asentamiento español durante los siglos XVI y XVII

La «Memoria de las Encomiendas en las Islas» de 1591, apenas veinte años después de la conquista de Luzón, revela un notable progreso en la labor de colonización y la difusión del cristianismo. ^{[ 241 ]} Se construyó una catedral en la ciudad de Manila con un palacio episcopal, monasterios agustinos, dominicos y franciscanos, y una casa jesuita. El rey mantenía un hospital para los colonos españoles y había otro para los nativos, administrado por los franciscanos. Para defender los asentamientos que los españoles establecieron en Filipinas, se construyó una red de fortalezas militares llamadas « Presidios », dirigidas por los españoles y vigiladas por latinoamericanos y filipinos, a lo largo del archipiélago, para protegerlo de naciones extranjeras como los portugueses, británicos y holandeses, así como de las incursiones de musulmanes y wokou . ^{[ 242 ]}

La guarnición de Manila estaba compuesta por aproximadamente cuatrocientos soldados españoles y el área de Intramuros , así como sus alrededores, fueron inicialmente poblados por 1200 familias españolas. ^{[ 243 ]} En la ciudad de Cebú , en las Visayas, el asentamiento recibió un total de 2100 soldados colonos de Nueva España . ^{[ 244 ]} Inmediatamente al sur de Manila, los mexicanos estaban presentes en Ermita ^{[ 245 ]} y en Cavite ^{[ 246 ]}^{[ 247 ]}^{[ 248 ]} donde estaban apostados como centinelas. Además, hombres reclutados del Perú , también fueron enviados a colonizar la ciudad de Zamboanga en Mindanao, para hacer la guerra contra los piratas musulmanes. ^{[ 249 ]} Estos soldados peruanos que se establecieron en Zamboanga fueron liderados por Don Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera, quien era gobernador de Panamá . ^{[ 250 ]} También utilizó panameños, incluyendo incluso algunos genoveses de Panamá Viejo descendientes de colonos de la República de Génova , una nación que alguna vez participó activamente en las Cruzadas . ^{[ 251 ]} También hubo comunidades de mestizos españoles que se desarrollaron en Iloilo , ^{[ 252 ]} Negros , ^{[ 253 ]} y Vigan . ^{[ 254 ]}

Familia Principalía de Simón Flores y de la Rosa, tío del pintor Fabián de la Rosa

Las interacciones entre los filipinos nativos ^{[ 256 ]} y los españoles inmigrantes, además de los latinoamericanos y sus descendientes mestizos españoles, finalmente causaron la formación de una nueva lengua, el chavacano , un criollo del español mexicano . ^{[ 257 ]} Mientras tanto, en el suburbio de Tondo, había un convento dirigido por frailes franciscanos y otro por los dominicos que ofrecían educación cristiana a los conversos chinos al cristianismo. El mismo informe revela que en Manila y sus alrededores se recaudaron 9410 tributos, lo que indica una población de aproximadamente 30 640 que estaban bajo la instrucción de trece misioneros (ministros de doctrina), además de los monjes en los monasterios. En la antigua provincia de Pampanga la población estimada era de 74 700 y 28 misioneros. En Pangasinan 2400 personas con ocho misioneros. En Cagayan y las islas Babuyanes 96 000 personas pero ningún misionero. En La Laguna 48 400 personas con 27 misioneros. En Bicol y Camarines, las islas Catanduanes, 86.640 personas con quince misioneros. Según los recuentos de tributos, la población fundadora total de las Filipinas españolas, en el año 1591, era de 667.612 personas, ^{[ 258 ]} de las cuales: 20.000 eran comerciantes migrantes chinos, ^{[ 259 ]} 15.600 eran soldados-colonos latinos enviados desde Perú y México (en el siglo XVII), ^{[ 260 ]} Los inmigrantes incluían 3.000 residentes japoneses, ^{[ 261 ]} y 600 españoles puros de Europa. ^{[ 262 ]} De los 600 españoles de Europa, doscientos treinta y seis de ellos recibieron encomiendas y fueron ennoblecidos, ya que se dispersaron por las numerosas provincias de Filipinas para servir como administradores. ^{[ 263 ]} También había un gran número, aunque desconocido, de filipinos de origen indio, ya que la mayoría de los esclavos importados al archipiélago provenían de Bengala o del sur de la India , ^{[ 264 ]} añadiendo a la mezcla étnica a indios del sur de habla dravídica y bangladesíes de habla indoeuropea , y el resto eran malayos y negritos. Estaban bajo el cuidado de 140 misioneros, de los cuales 79 eran agustinos, nueve dominicos y 42 franciscanos. ^[²⁶⁵^] Añadiendo durante la evacuación española de Ternate, Indonesia , a las 200 familias de ascendencia mixta mexicano-filipina-española y moluqueña-portuguesa que habían gobernado el breve Sultanato de Ternate, cristianizado.(Más tarde se convirtieron al Islam) fueron reubicados en Ternate, Cavite y Ermita, Manila. ^{[ 266 ]} y fueron precedidos por su anterior gobernante, el sultán Said Din Burkat, quien fue esclavizado pero finalmente se convirtió al cristianismo y fue liberado después de ser deportado a Manila . ^{[ 267 ]}

Las islas estaban fragmentadas y escasamente pobladas ^{[ 268 ]} debido a las constantes guerras entre reinos ^{[ 269 ]} y los desastres naturales (ya que el país se encuentra en el cinturón de tifones y el Anillo de Fuego del Pacífico ), ^{[ 191 ]} lo que facilitó la invasión española. Los españoles luego unificaron políticamente la mayor parte del archipiélago filipino mediante la conquista de los diversos pequeños estados marítimos, aunque no pudieron incorporar completamente partes de los sultanatos de Mindanao y las áreas donde se establecieron los grupos étnicos y la plutocracia de las tierras altas de los Ifugao animistas del norte de Luzón . Los españoles introdujeron elementos de la civilización occidental , como el código de leyes , la imprenta occidental y el calendario gregoriano, junto con nuevos recursos alimenticios como el maíz, la piña y el chocolate de América Latina. ^{[ 270 ]}

La educación desempeñó un papel fundamental en la transformación socioeconómica del archipiélago. Las universidades, colegios y escuelas vocacionales más antiguas , así como el primer sistema moderno de educación pública en Asia, se crearon durante el período colonial español. Para cuando Estados Unidos reemplazó a España como potencia colonial, los filipinos se encontraban entre los súbditos más educados de toda Asia. ^{[ 271 ]} Los jesuitas fundaron el Colegio de Manila en 1590, que más tarde se convirtió en la Universidad de San Ignacio , una universidad real y pontificia. También fundaron el Colegio de San Ildefonso el 1 de agosto de 1595. Tras la expulsión de la Compañía de Jesús en 1768, la administración de las escuelas jesuitas pasó a otras entidades. El 28 de abril de 1611, por iniciativa del obispo Miguel de Benavides, se fundó la Universidad de Santo Tomás en Manila. Los jesuitas también fundaron el Colegio de San José (1601) y se hicieron cargo de la Escuela Municipal, que más tarde se llamaría Universidad Ateneo de Manila (1859). Todas las instituciones ofrecían cursos que incluían no solo temas religiosos, sino también materias científicas como física, química, historia natural y matemáticas. La Universidad de Santo Tomás, por ejemplo, comenzó impartiendo teología, filosofía y humanidades, y la Facultad de Jurisprudencia y Derecho Canónico, junto con las escuelas de medicina y farmacia, se inauguraron durante el siglo XVIII.

Fuera de las instituciones de educación superior, los esfuerzos de los misioneros no se limitaron a la instrucción religiosa, sino que también se orientaron a promover el progreso social y económico de las islas. Inculcaron en los nativos el gusto por la música y enseñaron español a los niños. ^{[ 272 ]} También introdujeron avances en el cultivo del arroz, trajeron maíz y cacao de América, y desarrollaron el cultivo de añil, café y caña de azúcar. La única planta comercial introducida por una agencia gubernamental fue el tabaco.

Iglesia y Estado estaban inseparablemente unidos en la política española, asumiendo el Estado la responsabilidad de los establecimientos religiosos. ^{[ 273 ]} Uno de los objetivos de España en la colonización de Filipinas fue la conversión de la población local al cristianismo. La labor de conversión se vio facilitada por la desunión y la insignificancia de otras religiones organizadas, a excepción del islam, que aún predominaba en el suroeste. ^{[ 273 ]} El boato de la iglesia tenía un amplio atractivo, reforzado por la incorporación de costumbres sociales indígenas a las observancias religiosas. El resultado final fue una nueva mayoría cristiana, de la cual los musulmanes del oeste de Mindanao y los pueblos tribales y animistas de las tierras altas de Luzón permanecieron separados y alienados (grupos étnicos como los ifugaos de la región de la Cordillera y los mangyans de Mindoro).

En los niveles inferiores de la administración, los españoles se basaron en la organización aldeana tradicional cooptando a los líderes locales. Este sistema de gobierno indirecto contribuyó a la creación de una clase alta indígena, denominada principalía , que poseía riqueza local, alto estatus y otros privilegios. Esto perpetuó un sistema oligárquico de control local. Entre los cambios más significativos bajo el dominio español se encuentra la sustitución de la idea indígena de uso y propiedad comunal de la tierra por el concepto de propiedad privada y la concesión de títulos a los miembros de la principalía . ^{[ 273 ]}

Hacia 1608, William Adams , un navegante inglés, contactó al gobernador interino de Filipinas, Rodrigo de Vivero y Velasco , en nombre de Tokugawa Ieyasu , quien deseaba establecer contactos comerciales directos con Nueva España . Se intercambiaron cartas amistosas, dando inicio oficialmente a las relaciones entre Japón y Nueva España. Desde 1565 hasta 1821, Filipinas fue gobernada como territorio del Virreinato de Nueva España desde México, a través de la Real Audiencia de Manila, y administrada directamente desde España desde 1821 después de la Revolución Mexicana , ^{[ 274 ]} hasta 1898.

Los galeones de Manila fueron construidos en Bicol y Cavite . ^{[ 275 ]} Los galeones de Manila iban acompañados de una gran escolta naval cuando viajaban hacia y desde Manila y Acapulco . ^{[ 276 ]} Los galeones navegaban una o dos veces al año, entre los siglos XVI y XIX. ^{[ 277 ]} Los galeones de Manila traían consigo mercancías, ^{[ 278 ]} colonos ^{[ 247 ]} y refuerzos militares ^{[ 279 ]} destinados a Filipinas, desde América Latina . ^{[ 280 ]} El viaje de regreso también trajo productos comerciales asiáticos ^{[ 281 ]} e inmigrantes ^{[ 282 ]} al lado occidental de las Américas. ^{[ 283 ]} Legalmente, a los galeones de Manila solo se les permitía comerciar entre México y Filipinas; Sin embargo, el comercio ilegal, el intercambio comercial y la migración interna se llevaban a cabo en secreto entre Filipinas y otras naciones que aspiraban a formar parte de la América española, debido a la enorme demanda y rentabilidad de los productos asiáticos en América Latina. Este desafío clandestino a los decretos coloniales españoles que prohibían el comercio continuó durante toda la existencia de los galeones de Manila . ^{[ 284 ]}

El ejército español sofocó diversas revueltas indígenas y varios desafíos externos, especialmente de piratas británicos, holandeses, portugueses y chinos. Los misioneros cristianos convirtieron a la mayoría de los habitantes de las tierras bajas al cristianismo y fundaron escuelas, universidades y hospitales. En 1863, un decreto español introdujo la educación, estableciendo la enseñanza pública en español. ^{[ 286 ]}

En 1646, se libró una serie de cinco batallas navales conocidas como las Batallas de La Naval de Manila entre las fuerzas de España y la República Holandesa , en el marco de la Guerra de los Ochenta Años . Aunque las fuerzas españolas consistían en tan solo dos galeones de Manila y una galera con tripulaciones compuestas principalmente por voluntarios filipinos, frente a tres escuadrones holandeses separados, que sumaban dieciocho barcos, los escuadrones holandeses fueron derrotados severamente en todos los frentes por las fuerzas hispano-filipinas, lo que obligó a los holandeses a abandonar sus planes de invasión de Filipinas.

En 1687, Isaac Newton incluyó una referencia explícita a Filipinas en su obra clásica Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica al mencionar Leuconia, el antiguo nombre ptolemaico de Filipinas. ^{[ 71 ]}

El dominio español durante el siglo XVIII

El escudo de armas de Manila figuraba en las esquinas de la Cruz de Borgoña en el estandarte de batalla hispano-filipino.

Los ingresos coloniales provenían principalmente del comercio de tránsito : los galeones de Manila que navegaban desde el puerto de Manila hasta el puerto de Acapulco, en la costa oeste de México, transportaban cargamentos de plata en lingotes y monedas acuñadas que se intercambiaban por cargamentos de productos asiáticos y del Pacífico. Un total de 110 galeones de Manila zarparon durante los 250 años de la ruta comercial entre Manila y Acapulco (1565 a 1815). No hubo comercio directo con España hasta 1766. ^{[ 273 ]}

Filipinas nunca fue rentable como colonia durante el dominio español, y la larga guerra contra los holandeses desde el oeste, en el siglo XVII junto con el conflicto intermitente con los musulmanes en el sur y la lucha contra la piratería japonesa Wokou desde el norte casi arruinaron el tesoro colonial. ^{[ 273 ]} Además, el estado de guerra casi constante causó una alta tasa de muerte y deserción entre los soldados mestizos e indígenas ( nativos americanos ) ^{[ 280 ]} enviados desde México y Perú que estaban estacionados en Filipinas. ^{[ 287 ]} La alta tasa de muerte y deserción también afectó a los guerreros nativos filipinos ^{[ 256 ]} reclutados por España para luchar en batallas por todo el archipiélago. Las repetidas guerras, la falta de salarios y la casi hambruna fueron tan intensas que casi la mitad de los soldados enviados desde Latinoamérica murieron o huyeron al campo para vivir como vagabundos entre los nativos rebeldes o los indígenas esclavizados que escapaban (de la India) ^{[ 288 ]} donde se mezclaron racialmente a través de la violación o la prostitución, difuminando aún más el sistema de castas raciales que España se esforzaba por mantener. ^{[ 289 ]} La ascendencia mixta español-filipina puede ser más común de lo esperado, ya que muchos españoles a menudo tenían concubinas y amantes filipinas, y frecuentemente tenían hijos fuera del matrimonio. ^{[ 290 ]} Estas circunstancias contribuyeron a la creciente dificultad de gobernar Filipinas. El Fiscal Real de Manila escribió una carta al rey Carlos III de España en la que aconsejaba abandonar la colonia, pero las órdenes religiosas se opusieron, ya que consideraban a Filipinas una plataforma para la conversión del Lejano Oriente. ^{[ 291 ]}^{: 7–8}^{[ 292 ]}

Filipinas subsistía gracias a un subsidio anual pagado por la Corona española, que a menudo provenía de los impuestos y beneficios del Virreinato de Nueva España (México), y las fortificaciones de Manila, con 200 años de antigüedad, no habían sufrido grandes mejoras desde su construcción por los españoles. ^{[ 293 ]} Esta fue una de las circunstancias que posibilitó la breve ocupación británica de Manila entre 1762 y 1764.

Ocupación británica (1762–1764)

Gran Bretaña declaró la guerra a España el 4 de enero de 1762, y el 24 de septiembre de 1762, una fuerza de soldados regulares del ejército británico y de la Compañía Británica de las Indias Orientales , apoyados por los barcos y hombres del Escuadrón de las Indias Orientales de la Marina Real Británica , zarpó hacia la bahía de Manila desde Madrás, India. ^{[ 294 ]} Manila fue sitiada y cayó en manos británicas el 4 de octubre de 1762.

Fuera de Manila, el líder español Simón de Anda y Salazar organizó una milicia de 10.000 hombres, en su mayoría de Pampanga, para resistir los intentos británicos de extender su conquista fuera de Manila. Anda y Salazar estableció su cuartel general primero en Bulacán y luego en Bacolor. ^{[ 295 ]} Tras varias escaramuzas e intentos fallidos de apoyar los levantamientos filipinos, el mando británico admitió ante el Secretario de Guerra en Londres que los españoles estaban "en plena posesión del país". ^{[ 296 ]} La ocupación de Manila terminó en abril de 1764, tal como se acordó en las negociaciones de paz de la Guerra de los Siete Años en Europa. Los españoles persiguieron entonces a la comunidad china de Binondo por su papel en la ayuda a los británicos. ^{[ 297 ]} Un número desconocido de soldados indios , conocidos como cipayos , que llegaron con los británicos, desertaron y se establecieron en la cercana Cainta, Rizal , lo que explica los rasgos indios únicos de generaciones de residentes de Cainta. ^{[ 298 ]}

El dominio español en la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII.

En 1766 se estableció comunicación directa con España y comercio con Europa a través de un barco nacional con base en España. En 1774, oficiales coloniales de Bulacán, Tondo, Laguna de Bay y otras áreas alrededor de Manila informaron con consternación que soldados dados de baja y desertores (de México, España y Perú) durante la ocupación británica estaban proporcionando a los indígenas entrenamiento militar en el uso de las armas que se habían diseminado por todo el territorio durante la guerra. ^{[ 299 ]} Las expediciones de España fueron administradas desde 1785 por la Real Compañía de Filipinas , a la que se le otorgó un monopolio del comercio entre España y las islas que duró hasta 1834, cuando la corona española disolvió la compañía debido a la mala gestión y las pérdidas financieras. ^{[ 300 ]} Por esta época, el gobernador general Anda se quejó de que los soldados latinoamericanos y españoles enviados a Filipinas se habían dispersado "por todas las islas, incluso las más remotas, buscando sustento". ^{[ 301 ]}

En 1780, el comercio directo entre Manila , Filipinas en Asia; y Callao, Perú ; en Sudamérica, fue aprobado oficialmente por el rey de España y organizado por la Compañía Real Filipina, lo que llevó a una gran inmigración de filipinos a Perú y peruanos a Filipinas. ^{[ 302 ]}^{[ 303 ]} En 1781, el gobernador general José Basco y Vargas estableció la Sociedad Económica de los Amigos del País . ^{[ 304 ]} Filipinas fue administrada desde el Virreinato de Nueva España hasta que la independencia de México en 1821 hizo necesaria la administración directa de Filipinas por parte de España a partir de ese año.

A finales del siglo XVIII y principios del XIX, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, un fraile agustino de España, en su libro de dos volúmenes: "Estadismo de las islas Filipinas" ^{[ 305 ]}^{[ 306 ]} compiló un censo de las Filipinas españolas basado en los recuentos de tributos (que representaban una familia promedio de siete a diez hijos ^{[ 307 ]} y dos padres, por tributo) ^{[ 291 ]} y llegó a las siguientes estadísticas:

La proporción de población hispano-filipina en las provincias variaba considerablemente; con hasta un 19% de la población de la provincia de Tondo ^{[ 305 ]}^{: 539} (la provincia más poblada y antiguo nombre de Manila), a Pampanga 13,7%, ^{[ 305 ]}^{: 539} Cavite al 13%, ^{[ 305 ]}^{: 539} Laguna 2,28%, ^{[ 305 ]}^{: 539} Batangas 3%, ^{[ 305 ]}^{: 539} Bulacan 10,79%, ^{[ 305 ]}^{: 539} Bataan 16,72%, ^{[ 305 ]}^{: 539} Ilocos 1,38%, ^{[ 306 ]}^{: 31} Pangasinan 3,49%, ^{[ 306 ]}^{: 31} Albay 1,16%, ^{[ 306 ]}^{: 54} Cebu 2,17%, ^{[ 306 ]}^{: 113} Samar 3,27%, ^{[ 306 ]}^{: 113} Iloilo 1%, ^{[ 306 ]}^{: 113} Capiz 1%, ^{[ 306 ]}^{: 113} Bicol 20%, ^{[ 308 ]} y Zamboanga 40%. ^{[ 308 ]} Según los datos, en la Arquidiócesis de Manila, que administra gran parte de Luzón, alrededor del 10% de la población era hispano-filipina. ^{[ 305 ]}^{: 539} Sumando todas las provincias, incluidas aquellas sin hispano-filipinas, en total, en la población total de Filipinas, los hispano-filipinas y los hispano-filipinas mixtos componían el 5% de la población. ^{[ 305 ]}^{: 539}^{[ 306 ]}^{: 31, 54, 113}

El libro "Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 By Paula C. Park", que cita "Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808)", dio un número mayor de soldados mexicanos inmigrantes posteriores a Filipinas, fijando el número en 35.000 inmigrantes en el siglo XVIII, ^{[ 309 ]} en una población filipina que era de solo alrededor de 1,5 millones, ^{[ 310 ]} formando así el 2,33% de la población. ^{[ 311 ]}

Mientras tanto, los registros gubernamentales muestran que el 20% de la población total de Filipinas era china pura o filipina de ascendencia mixta chino-filipina ^{[ 312 ]}^{[ 313 ].}

El dominio español durante el siglo XIX

Filipinas se incluyó en el vasto territorio del Reino de España, según la primera constitución española promulgada en Cádiz en 1812. Nunca fue una colonia, como lo afirma la historiografía moderna, sino una región de ultramar en Asia (Constitución española de 1812). La Constitución española de 1870 estableció la primera comunidad autónoma para el "Archipiélago Filipino", donde todas las provincias de las Islas Filipinas gozarían de un programa de autonomía parcial.

[Haga clic en "Expandir" para ver los datos demográficos del censo de Felipe Bravo (1818) recopilados]

During the 19th century Spain invested heavily in education and infrastructure. Through the Education Decree of December 20, 1863, Queen Isabella II of Spain decreed the establishment of a free public school system that used Spanish as the language of instruction, leading to increasing numbers of educated Filipinos.^[318] Additionally, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 cut travel time to Spain, which facilitated the rise of the ilustrados, an enlightened class of Spanish-Filipinos that had been able to enroll in Spanish and European universities.

A great number of infrastructure projects were undertaken during the 19th century that put the Philippine economy and standard of living ahead of most of its Asian neighbors and even many European countries at that time. Among them were a railway system for Luzon, a tramcar network for Manila, and Asia's first steel suspension bridge Puente Claveria, later called Puente Colgante.

^[319]

On August 1, 1851, the Banco Español-Filipino de Isabel II was established to attend the needs of the rapid economic boom, that had greatly increased its pace since the 1800s as a result of a new economy based on a rational exploitation of the agricultural resources of the islands. The increase in textile fiber crops such as abacá, oil products derived from the coconut, indigo, that was growing in demand, etc., generated an increase in money supply that led to the creation of the bank. Banco Español-Filipino was also granted the power to print a Philippine-specific currency (the Philippine peso) for the first time (before 1851, many currencies were used, mostly the pieces of eight).

Spanish Manila was seen in the 19th century as a model of colonial governance that effectively put the interests of the original inhabitants of the islands before those of the colonial power. As John Crawfurd put it in its History of the Indian Archipelago, in all of Asia the "Philippines alone did improve in civilization, wealth, and populousness under the colonial rule" of a foreign power.^[320]John Bowring, Governor General of British Hong Kong from 1856 to 1860, wrote after his trip to Manila:

Credit is certainly due to Spain for having bettered the condition of a people who, though comparatively highly civilized, yet being continually distracted by petty wars, had sunk into a disordered and uncultivated state. The inhabitants of these beautiful Islands upon the whole, may well be considered to have lived as comfortably during the last hundred years, protected from all external enemies and governed by mild laws vis-a-vis those from any other tropical country under native or European sway, owing in some measure, to the frequently discussed peculiar (Spanish) circumstances which protect the interests of the natives.^[321]

In The Inhabitants of the Philippines, Frederick Henry Sawyer wrote:

Until an inept bureaucracy was substituted for the old paternal rule, and the revenue quadrupled by increased taxation, the Filipinos were as happy a community as could be found in any colony. The population greatly multiplied; they lived in competence, if not in affluence; cultivation was extended, and the exports steadily increased. [...] Let us be just; what British, French, or Dutch colony, populated by natives can compare with the Philippines as they were until 1895?.^[322]

The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1878. The colony's population as of December 31, 1877, was recorded at 5,567,685 persons.^[323] This was followed by the 1887 census that yielded a count of 6,984,727,^[324] while that of 1898 yielded 7,832,719 inhabitants.^[325]

Latin-American revolutions and direct Spanish rule

In the Americas; overseas Filipinos were involved in several anti-colonial movements, Filomeno V. Aguilar Jr. in his paper: "Manilamen and seafaring: engaging the maritime world beyond the Spanish realm", stated therein that Filipinos who were internationally called Manilamen were active in the navies and armies of the world even after the era of the Manila Galleons such as the case of the Argentine war of independence wherein an Argentinian of French descent, Hypolite Bouchard, laid siege to Monterey California as a privateer for the Argentine army. His second ship, the Santa Rosa, which was captained by the American Peter Corney, had a multi-ethnic crew which included Filipinos.^[326] It has been proposed that those Filipinos were recruited in San Blas, an alternative port to Acapulco Mexico where several Filipinos had settled during the Manila-Acapulco Galleon trade era.^[327] Argentinian-Philippine relations can be traced even earlier since the Philippines already received immigrants from South America, like the soldier Juan Fermín de San Martín, who was the brother of the leader of the Argentinian Revolution Jose de San Martin. Likewise, in Mexico, about 200 Filipinos were recruited by Miguel Hidalgo in his revolution against Spain, the most prominent of which was the Manila-born Ramon Fabié^[328]^[329] afterwards when the revolution was continued by President Guerrero, General Isidoro Montes de Oca, another Filipino-Mexican, had participated in the Mexican Revolutionary war against Spain too.^[330] The recent participation of overseas Filipinos in Anti-Imperial wars in the Americas started even earlier when Filipinos in the settlement of Saint Malo, Louisiana assisted the United States in the defense of New Orleans during the War of 1812.^[331]

Upon Mexican independence, the Filipinos had such an effect on Mexico that there were plans among the newly independent Mexicans to help the Filipinos revolt against Spain too. There was even a secret memorandum from the Mexican government which read:

Now that we Mexicans have fortunately obtained our independence by revolution against Spanish rule, it is our solemn duty to help the less fortunate countries especially the Philippines, with whom our country has had the most intimate relations during the last two centuries and a half. We should send secret agents with a message to their inhabitants to rise in revolution against Spain and that we shall give them financial and military assistance to win their freedom. Should the Philippines succeed in gaining her independence from Spain, we must felicitate her warmly and from an alliance of amity and commerce with her as a sister nation. Moreover, we must resume the intimate Mexico-Philippine relations, as they were during the halcyon days of the Acapulco-Manila galleon trade.^[332]

Likewise, in this period, overseas Filipinos were also active in the Asia-Pacific especially in China and Indochina. During the Taiping rebellion, Frederick Townsend Ward had a militia employing foreigners to quell the rebellion for the Qing government, at first he hired American and European adventurers but they proved unruly, while recruiting for better troops, he met his aide-de-camp, Vincente (Vicente?) Macanaya, who was twenty three years old in 1860 and was part of the large Filipino population then living in Shanghai, who "were handy on board ships and more than a little troublesome on land", as Caleb Carr journalistically put it.^[333] Smith, another writer about China also notes in his book: "Mercenaries and Mandarins" that Manilamen were "Reputed to be brave and fierce fighters" and "were plentiful in Shanghai and always eager for action". During this Taiping rebellion, by July 1860, Townsend Ward's force of Manilamen ranging from one to two hundred mercenaries successfully assaulted Sung-Chiang Prefecture.^[334] Thus, while the Philippines was slowly engendered with revolutionary fervour being suppressed by Spain, overseas Filipinos have had an active role in the military and naval engagements of various nations in the Americas and Asia-Pacific.^[335] Soldiers from the Philippines were recruited by France, which was allied to Spain, to initially protect Indo-Chinese Christian converts who were persecuted by their native governments, and later, for an actual conquest of Vietnam and Laos, as well as the establishment of the Protectorate of Cambodia which was liberated from Thai invasions and re-established as a vassal-state of France with the combined Franco-Spanish-Filipino forces, creating French Cochinchina which was governed from the former Cambodian and now Vietnamese city of Saigon.^[336]

Santa Lucia Gate, Intramuros, Manila overlooking San Agustin, San Ignacio Church belltowers and Ateneo de Manila where Jose Rizal once studied.

The Criollo and Latino dissatisfaction against the Peninsulares (Spaniards direct from Spain), spurred by their love of the land and their suffering people, had a justified hatred against the exploitative Peninsulares who were only appointed to high positions due to their race and unflinching loyalty to the homeland. This resulted in the 1823 uprising of Andres Novales, a Philippine born soldier of Mexican descent,^[337]^[338]^[339] who earned great fame in richer Spain but chose to return to serve in poorer Philippines. He was supported by local soldiers as well as former officers in the Spanish army of the Philippines who were primarily from the now sovereign Mexico^[340] as well as the freshly independent nations of Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Chile, Argentina and Costa Rica.^[341] The uprising was brutally suppressed, but it foreshadowed the 1872 Cavite Mutiny that was a precursor to the Philippine Revolution.^[342]^[343]^[344] However, Hispanic-Philippines reached its zenith when the Philippine-born Marcelo Azcárraga Palmero became a hero as he restored the Bourbon dynasty of Spain to the throne during his stint as Lieutenant-General (Three Star General) after the Bourbons have been deposed by revolutionaries. He eventually became Prime Minister of the Spanish Empire and was awarded membership in the Order of the Golden Fleece, which is considered the most exclusive and prestigious order of chivalry in the world.^[345] In the aftermath of Chilean soldiers' participation in the Andres Novales uprising against Spain, the Irish-Chilean founder of Chile, Bernardo O'Higgins, caught wind of anti-Spanish sentiment among Filipinos and planned to send a fleet to liberate the Philippines from Spain, under the command of Scottish-Chilean admiral, Lord Thomas Cochrane. The fleet would have been sent to the Philippines had it not been for Bernardo O'Higgins' untimely exile.^[346]

Philippine Revolution

Revolutionary sentiments arose in 1872 after three Filipino priests, Mariano Gomez, José Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora, known as Gomburza, were accused of sedition by colonial authorities and executed by garotte. This would inspire the Propaganda Movement in Spain, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, that clamored for adequate representation to the Spanish Cortes and later for independence. José Rizal, the most celebrated intellectual and radical ilustrado of the era, wrote the novels "Noli Me Tángere" and "El filibusterismo", which greatly inspired the movement for independence.^[347] The Katipunan, a secret society whose primary purpose was that of overthrowing Spanish rule in the Philippines, was founded by Andrés Bonifacio who became its Supremo (leader).

In the 1860s to 1890s, in the urban areas of the Philippines, especially at Manila, according to burial statistics, as much as 3.3% of the population were pure European Spaniards and the pure Chinese were as high as 9.9%. The Spanish-Filipino and Chinese-Filipino Mestizo populations also fluctuated. Eventually, everybody belonging to these non-native categories diminished because they were assimilated into and chose to self-identify as pure Filipinos^[348] since during the Philippine Revolution, the term "Filipino" included anybody born in the Philippines coming from any race.^[349]^[350] That would explain the abrupt drop of otherwise high Chinese, Spanish, and mestizo percentages across the country by the time of the first American census in 1903.^[351]

The Philippine Revolution began in 1896. Rizal was wrongly implicated in the outbreak of the revolution and executed for treason in 1896. The Katipunan in Cavite split into two groups, Magdiwang, led by Mariano Álvarez (a relative of Bonifacio's by marriage), and Magdalo, led by Baldomero Aguinaldo cousin of Emilio Aguinaldo. Tension between the factions led to the Tejeros Convention in 1897, at which an election chose Emilio Aguinaldo as president over Bonifacio and Trias. Subsequent leadership conflicts with Bonifacio culminated in his execution by Aguinaldo's soldiers. Aguinaldo agreed to a truce with the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and Aguinaldo and his fellow revolutionaries were exiled to Hong Kong. Not all the revolutionary generals complied with the agreement. One, General Francisco Macabulos, established a Central Executive Committee to serve as the interim government until a more suitable one was created. Armed conflicts resumed, this time coming from almost every province in Spanish-governed Philippines.

In 1898, as conflicts continued in the Philippines, the USS Maine, having been sent to Cuba because of U.S. concerns for the safety of its citizens during an ongoing Cuban revolution, exploded and sank in Havana harbor. This event precipitated the Spanish–American War.^[352] After Commodore George Dewey defeated the Spanish squadron at Manila, a German squadron arrived in Manila and engaged in maneuvers which Dewey, seeing this as obstruction of his blockade, offered war—after which the Germans backed down.^[353] The German Emperor expected an American defeat, with Spain left in a sufficiently weak position for the revolutionaries to capture Manila—leaving the Philippines ripe for German picking.^[354]

The U.S. invited Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines in the hope he would rally Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19, 1898, via transport provided by Dewey. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared the independence of the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite. Aguinaldo proclaimed a Revolutionary Government of the Philippines on June 23. By the time U.S. land forces arrived, the Filipinos had taken control of the entire island of Luzon except for the Spanish capitol in the walled city of Intramuros. In the Battle of Manila, on August 13, 1898, the United States captured the city from the Spanish. This battle marked an end of Filipino-American collaboration, as Filipino forces were prevented from entering the captured city of Manila, an action deeply resented by the Filipinos.^[355]

The First Philippine Republic (1899–1901)

Emilio Aguinaldo, President of the First Philippine Republic

On January 23, 1899, the First Philippine Republic was proclaimed under Asia's first democratic constitution, with Aguinaldo as its president.^[347] Under Aguinaldo, The Philippine Revolutionary Army was also renowned to be racially tolerant and progressive as it had a multi-ethnic composition that included various other races and nationalities asides from the native Filipino,^[256] being its officers. Juan Cailles an Indian and French Mestizo served as a Major General,^[356] the Chinese Filipino José Ignacio Paua was a Brigadier General,^[357] and Vicente Catalan who was appointed supreme Admiral of the Philippine Revolutionary Navy was a Cuban of Criollo descent.^[358] There were even Japanese, French and Italian soldiers in the Revolution and Republic, such as the Japanese officer Captain Chizuno Iwamoto, French soldier Estaquio Castellor, and Italian revolutionary Captain Camillo Ricchiardi. And, even among the defeated Spanish Army and American invaders, there are those who defected to the side of the Philippine Republic. The most famous of which was African-American Captain David Fagen who joined the Filipinos due to his disgust of American racism against both African-Americans and Filipinos. Various nations, mostly Latin American, also influenced the new Republic, the Sun in the Philippine flag was taken from the Sun of May of Peru, Argentina, and Uruguay which symbolized Inti who was the Incan Sun God, while the stars in the flag were inspired by the stars in the flags of the nations of Texas, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.^[359] The Constitution of the First Philippine Republic was also influenced by the Constitutions of Cuba, Belgium, Mexico, Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Guatemala, in addition to using the French Constitution of 1793.^[360]

Despite the establishment of the First Philippine Republic, Spain and the United States had sent commissioners to Paris to draw up the terms of the Treaty of Paris to end the Spanish–American War. The Filipino representative, Felipe Agoncillo, had been excluded from sessions as Aguinaldo's government was not recognized by the family of nations.^[355] Although there was substantial domestic opposition, the United States decided to annex the Philippines. Despite the fact that the first Philippine Republic was patterned after the French and American Revolutions, plus the Latin-American Republics; the Americans and French themselves sought to crush the revolution in the Philippines.^[361] In addition to Guam and Puerto Rico, Spain was forced in the negotiations to cede the Philippines to the U.S. in exchange for US$20,000,000.00.^[362] U.S. President McKinley justified the annexation of the Philippines by saying that it was "a gift from the gods" and that since "they were unfit for self-government, ... there was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them",^[363]^[364] even though the Philippines had already been Christianized by the Spanish over the course of several centuries. The First Philippine Republic resisted the U.S. occupation, resulting in the Philippine–American War (1899–1913).

American rule (1898–1946)

1898 political cartoon showing U.S. President McKinley with a native child. Here, returning the Philippines to Spain is compared to throwing the child off a cliff.

Filipinos initially saw their relationship with the United States as that of two nations joined in a common struggle against Spain.^[365] However, the United States later distanced itself from the interests of the Filipino insurgents. Emilio Aguinaldo was unhappy that the United States would not commit to paper a statement of support for Philippine independence.^[366] The islands were ceded by Spain to the United States alongside Puerto Rico and Guam as a result of the latter's victory in the Spanish–American War.^[367] A compensation of US$20 million was paid to Spain according to the terms of the 1898 Treaty of Paris.^[368] Relations deteriorated and tensions heightened as it became clear that the Americans were in the islands to stay.^[366]

Philippine–American War

Hostilities broke out on February 4, 1899, after two American privates killed three Filipino soldiers as American forces launched a major attack in San Juan, a Manila suburb.^[369] This began the Philippine–American War, which cost far more money and took far more lives than the Spanish–American War.^[347] Some 126,000 American soldiers would be committed to the conflict; 4,234 Americans died,^[369] as did 12,000–20,000 Philippine Republican Army soldiers who were part of a nationwide guerrilla movement of at least 80,000 to 100,000 soldiers.^[370]

The general population, caught between Americans and rebels, suffered significantly. At least 200,000 Filipino civilians died as an indirect result of the war mostly as a result of the cholera epidemic at the war's end that took between 150,000 and 200,000 lives.^[371] Atrocities were committed by both sides.^[369]

The poorly equipped Filipino troops were easily overpowered by American troops in open combat, but they were formidable opponents in guerrilla warfare.^[369]Malolos, the revolutionary capital, was captured on March 31, 1899. Aguinaldo and his government escaped, however, establishing a new capital at San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. On June 5, 1899, Antonio Luna, Aguinaldo's most capable military commander, was killed by Aguinaldo's guards in an apparent assassination while visiting Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija to meet with Aguinaldo.^[372] With his best commander dead and his troops suffering continued defeats as American forces pushed into northern Luzon, Aguinaldo dissolved the regular army on November 13 and ordered the establishment of decentralized guerrilla commands in each of several military zones.^[373] Another key general, Gregorio del Pilar, was killed on December 2, 1899, in the Battle of Tirad Pass—a rear guard action to delay the Americans while Aguinaldo made good his escape through the mountains.

Aguinaldo was captured at Palanan, Isabela on March 23, 1901, and was brought to Manila. Convinced of the futility of further resistance, he swore allegiance to the United States and issued a proclamation calling on his compatriots to lay down their arms, officially bringing an end to the war.^[369] However, sporadic insurgent resistance continued in various parts of the Philippines, especially in the Muslim south, until 1913.^[374]

In 1900, President McKinley sent the Taft Commission to the Philippines with a mandate to legislate laws and re-engineer the political system.^[375] On July 1, 1901, William Howard Taft, the head of the commission, was inaugurated as Civil Governor, with limited executive powers.^[376] The authority of the Military Governor was continued in those areas where the insurrection persisted.^[377] The Taft Commission passed laws to set up the fundamentals of the new government, including a judicial system, civil service, and local government. A Philippine Constabulary was organized to deal with the remnants of the insurgent movement and gradually assume the responsibilities of the United States Army.^[378]

The Tagalog, Negros, and Zamboanga Republics

Brigadier General James F. Smith arrived at Bacolod on March 4, 1899, as the Military Governor of the Sub-district of Negros, after receiving an invitation from Aniceto Lacson, president of the breakaway Cantonal Republic of Negros.^[379] The Negros Republic became a Pro-American protectorate of the United States.^[380] Another insurgent republic was briefly formed during American administration: the Tagalog Republic in Luzon, under Macario Sakay.^[381] In the island of Mindanao the Chavacano-speaking Republic of Zamboanga was proclaimed.^[382] That government was formed by Vicente Álvarez with the support of Jamalul Kiram II, the then Sultan of Sulu, and included Latin-American (Peruvian, Uruguayan and Argentinian)^[383] enslaved soldiers who had revolted against the Spanish colonial government and included Muslims, Lumads, and Christians in his anti-Spanish army.^[384]

Insular Government (1901–1935)

The Philippine Organic Act was the basic law for the Insular Government, so called because civil administration was under the authority of the U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs. This government saw its mission as one of tutelage, preparing the Philippines for eventual independence.^[385] On July 4, 1902, the office of military governor was abolished and full executive power passed from Adna Chaffee, the last military governor, to Taft, who became the first U.S. Governor-General of the Philippines.^[386] United States policies towards the Philippines shifted with changing administrations.^[347] During the early years of territorial administration, the Americans were reluctant to delegate authority to the Filipinos, but an elected Philippine Assembly was inaugurated in 1907, as the lower house of a bicameral legislature, with the appointive Philippine Commission becoming the upper house.

Philippines was a major target for the progressive reformers. A 1907 report to Secretary of War Taft provided a summary of what the American civil administration had achieved. It included, in addition to the rapid building of a public school system based on English teaching, and boasted about such modernizing achievements as:

steel and concrete wharves at the newly renovated Port of Manila; dredging the River Pasig; streamlining of the Insular Government; accurate, intelligible accounting; the construction of a telegraph and cable communications network; the establishment of a postal savings bank; large-scale road-and bridge-building; impartial and incorrupt policing; well-financed civil engineering; the conservation of old Spanish architecture; large public parks; a bidding process for the right to build railways; Corporation law; and a coastal and geological survey.^[387]

In 1903 the American reformers in the Philippines passed two major land acts designed to turn landless peasants into owners of their farms. By 1905 the law was clearly a failure. Reformers such as Taft believed landownership would turn unruly agrarians into loyal subjects. The social structure in the rural Philippines was highly traditional and highly unequal. Drastic changes in landownership posed a major challenge to local elites, who would not accept it, nor would their peasant clients. The American reformers blamed peasant resistance to landownership for the law's failure and argued that large plantations and sharecropping was the Philippines' best path to development.^[388]

Elite Filipina women played a major role in the reform movement, especially on health issues. They specialized on such urgent needs as infant care and maternal and child health, the distribution of pure milk and teaching new mothers about children's health. The most prominent organizations were the La Protección de la Infancia, and the National Federation of Women's Clubs.^[389]

When Democrat Woodrow Wilson became U.S. president in 1913, new policies were launched designed to gradually lead to Philippine independence. In 1902 U.S. law established Filipinos citizenship in the Philippine Islands; unlike Hawaii in 1898 and Puerto Rico in 1918, they did not become citizens of the United States. The Jones Law of 1916 became the new basic law, promising eventual independence. It provided for the election of both houses of the legislature.

In socio-economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in this period. Foreign trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in 1895, 13% of which was with the United States. By 1920, it had increased to 601 million pesos, 66% of which was with the United States.^[390] A health care system was established which, by 1930, reduced the mortality rate from all causes, including various tropical diseases, to a level similar to that of the United States itself. The practices of slavery, piracy and headhunting were suppressed but not entirely extinguished. A new educational system was established with English as the medium of instruction, eventually becoming a lingua franca of the Islands. The 1920s saw alternating periods of cooperation and confrontation with American governors-general, depending on how intent the incumbent was on exercising his powers vis-à-vis the Philippine legislature. Members of the elected legislature lobbied for immediate and complete independence from the United States. Several independence missions were sent to Washington, D.C. A civil service was formed and was gradually taken over by Filipinos, who had effectively gained control by 1918.

Philippine politics during the American territorial era was dominated by the Nacionalista Party, which was founded in 1907. Although the party's platform called for "immediate independence", their policy toward the Americans was highly accommodating.^[391] Within the political establishment, the call for independence was spearheaded by Manuel L. Quezon, who served continuously as Senate president from 1916 until 1935.

World War I gave the Philippines the opportunity to pledge assistance to the US war effort. This took the form of an offer to supply a division of troops, as well as providing funding for the construction of two warships. A locally recruited national guard was created and significant numbers of Filipinos volunteered for service in the US Navy and army.^[392]

Daniel Burnham built an architectural plan for Manila which would have transformed it into a modern city.^[393]

Frank Murphy was the last Governor-General of the Philippines (1933–35), and the first U.S. High Commissioner of the Philippines (1935–36). The change in form was more than symbolic: it was intended as a manifestation of the transition to independence.

Commonwealth

The Great Depression in the early thirties hastened the progress of the Philippines towards independence. In the United States it was mainly the sugar industry and labor unions that had a stake in loosening the U.S. ties to the Philippines since they could not compete with the Philippine cheap sugar (and other commodities) which could freely enter the U.S. market. Therefore, they agitated in favor of granting independence to the Philippines so that its cheap products and labor could be shut out of the United States.^[394]

In 1933, the United States Congress passed the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act as a Philippine Independence Act over President Herbert Hoover's veto.^[395] Though the bill had been drafted with the aid of a commission from the Philippines, it was opposed by Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon, partially because of provisions leaving the United States in control of naval bases. Under his influence, the Philippine legislature rejected the bill.^[396] The following year, a revised act known as the Tydings–McDuffie Act was finally passed. The act provided for the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines with transition to full independence after a ten-year period. The commonwealth would have its own constitution and be self-governing, though foreign policy would be the responsibility of the United States, and certain legislation required approval of the United States president.^[396] The Act stipulated that the date of independence would be on July 4 following the tenth anniversary of the establishment of the Commonwealth.

A Constitutional Convention was convened in Manila on July 30, 1934. On February 8, 1935, the 1935 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines was approved by the convention by a vote of 177 to 1. The constitution was approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 23, 1935, and ratified by popular vote on May 14, 1935.^[397]^[398]

On September 17, 1935,^[399]presidential elections were held. Candidates included former president Emilio Aguinaldo, the Iglesia Filipina Independiente leader Gregorio Aglipay, and others. Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña of the Nacionalista Party were proclaimed the winners, winning the seats of president and vice-president, respectively.^[400]

The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15, 1935, in ceremonies held on the steps of the Legislative Building in Manila. The event was attended by a crowd of around 300,000 people.^[399] Under the Tydings–McDuffie Act this meant that the date of full independence for the Philippines was set for July 4, 1946, a timetable which was followed after the passage of almost eleven very eventful years.

The new government embarked on ambitious nation-building policies in preparation for economic and political independence.^[401] These included national defense (such as the National Defense Act of 1935, which organized a conscription for service in the country), greater control over the economy, the perfection of democratic institutions, reforms in education, improvement of transport, the promotion of local capital, industrialization, and the colonization of Mindanao.

However, uncertainties, especially in the diplomatic and military situation in Southeast Asia, in the level of U.S. commitment to the future Republic of the Philippines, and in the economy due to the Great Depression, proved to be major problems. The situation was further complicated by the presence of agrarian unrest, and of power struggles between Osmeña and Quezon,^[401] especially after Quezon was permitted to be re-elected after one six-year term.

A proper evaluation of the policies' effectiveness or failure is difficult due to Japanese invasion and occupation during World War II.

World War II and Japanese occupation

Military

Japan launched a surprise attack on the Clark Air Base in Pampanga on the morning of December 8, 1941, just ten hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Aerial bombardment was followed by landings of ground troops on Luzon. The defending Philippine and United States troops were under the command of General Douglas MacArthur. Under the pressure of superior numbers, the defending forces withdrew to the Bataan Peninsula and to the island of Corregidor at the entrance to Manila Bay.

On January 2, 1942, General MacArthur declared the capital city, Manila, an open city to prevent its destruction.^[402] The Philippine defense continued until the final surrender of United States-Philippine forces on the Bataan Peninsula in April 1942 and on Corregidor in May of the same year. Most of the 80,000 prisoners of war captured by the Japanese at Bataan were forced to undertake the infamous Bataan Death March to a prison camp 105 kilometers to the north. About 10,000 Filipinos and 1,200 Americans died before reaching their destination.^[403] President Quezon and Osmeña had accompanied the troops to Corregidor and later left for the United States, where they set up a government in exile.^[404] MacArthur was ordered to Australia, where he started to plan for a return to the Philippines.

The Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing a new government structure in the Philippines and established the Philippine Executive Commission. They initially organized a Council of State, through which they directed civil affairs until October 1943, when Japan declared the Philippines an independent republic at Gozen Kaigi since U.S. government had promised independence of the Philippines in 1935. The Japanese-sponsored republic headed by President José P. Laurel proved to be unpopular.^[405]

From mid-1942 through mid-1944, Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground and guerrilla activity.^[406]^[407] The Philippine Army, as well as remnants of the U.S. Army Forces Far East,^[408]^[409] continued to fight the Japanese in a guerrilla war and was considered an auxiliary unit of the United States Army.^[410] Supplies and encouragement were provided by U.S. Navy submarines and a few parachute drops.^[411] Their effectiveness was such that by the end of the war, Japan controlled only twelve of the forty-eight provinces.^[405] One element of resistance in the Central Luzon area was furnished by the Hukbalahap, which armed some 30,000 people and extended their control over much of Luzon.^[405] While remaining loyal to the United States, many Filipinos hoped and believed that liberation from the Japanese would bring them freedom and their already-promised independence.^[412]

The Philippines was the bloodiest theater of the war for the invading empire, with at least 498,600 Japanese troops killed in fighting the combined Filipino resistance and American soldiers, a larger number of casualties compared to the second-placed theater, the entirety of China, which caused the Japanese about 455,700 casualties.^[413]^[412] The occupation of the Philippines by Japan ended at the war's conclusion. At the eve of the liberation of the Philippines, the Allied forces and the Japanese Empire waged the largest naval battle in history, by gross tonnage in the Battle of Leyte Gulf.^[416] The American army had been fighting the Philippines Campaign since October 1944, when MacArthur's Sixth United States Army landed on Leyte. Landings in other parts of the country had followed, and the Allies, with the Philippine Commonwealth troops, pushed toward Manila. However, fighting continued until Japan's formal surrender on September 2, 1945. Approximately 10,000 U.S. soldiers were missing in action in the Philippines when the war ended, more than in any other country in the Pacific or European Theaters. The Philippines suffered great loss of life and tremendous physical destruction, especially during the Battle of Manila. An estimated 1 million Filipinos had been killed, a large portion during the final months of the war, and Manila had been extensively damaged.^[405]

Home front

As in most occupied countries, crime, looting, corruption, and black markets were endemic. Japan in 1943 proposed independence on new terms, and some collaborators went along with the plan, but Japan was clearly losing the war and nothing became of it.^[417]

With a view of building up the economic base of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, the Japanese Army envisioned using the islands as a source of agricultural products needed by its industry. For example, the Japanese had a surplus of sugar from Taiwan but a severe shortage of cotton, so they tried to grow cotton on sugar lands with disastrous results. They lacked the seeds, pesticides, and technical skills to grow cotton. Jobless farm workers flocked to the cities, where there was minimal relief and few jobs. The Japanese Army also tried using cane sugar for fuel, castor beans and copra for oil, derris for quinine, cotton for uniforms, and abaca (hemp) for rope. The plans were very difficult to implement in the face of limited skills, collapsed international markets, bad weather, and transportation shortages. The program was a failure that gave very little help to Japanese industry, and diverted resources needed for food production.

Living conditions were bad throughout the Philippines during the war. Transportation between the islands was difficult because of lack of fuel. Food was in very short supply, due to inflation.^[418]

The Third Republic (1946–1965)

The return of the Americans in spring 1945 was welcomed by nearly all the Filipinos, in sharp contrast to the situation in nearby Dutch East Indies. The collaborationist "Philippine Republic" set up by the Japanese under Jose P. Laurel, was highly unpopular, and the extreme destructiveness of the Japanese Army in Manila in its last days solidified Japan's image as a permanent target of hate. The pre-war Commonwealth system was reestablished under Sergio Osmeña, who became president in exile after President Quezon died in 1944. Osmeña was little-known and his Nacionalista Party was no longer such a dominant force. Osmeña supporters challenged the legitimacy of Manuel Roxas who had served as secretary to Laurel. MacArthur testified to Roxas' patriotism and the collaborationist issue disappeared after Roxas was elected in 1946 on a platform calling for closer ties with the United States; adherence to the new United Nations; national reconstruction; relief for the masses; social justice for the working class; the maintenance of peace and order; the preservation of individual rights and liberties of the citizenry; and honesty and efficiency of government.^[419] The United States Congress passed a series of programs to help rehabilitation, including $2 billion over five years for war damages and rehabilitation, and a new tariff law that provided for a 20-year transition from free trade to a low tariff with the United States. Washington also demanded that Americans would have equal rights with Filipinos in business activities, a special treatment that was resented. In 1947 the United States secured an agreement that it would keep its major military and naval bases. On the whole the transition to independence, achieved in 1946, was mostly peaceful and highly successful, despite the extreme difficulties caused by massive war damages.^[420] The special relationship with the United States remained the dominant feature until sharp criticism arose in the 1960s.^[421]

Administration of Manuel Roxas (1946–1948)

Manuel Roxas inaugurated as president in 1946

Elections were held in April 1946, with Manuel Roxas becoming the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines. The United States ceded its sovereignty over the Philippines on July 4, 1946, as scheduled. Ending the 381 years of colonial rule in the country that had lasted from April 27, 1565, since the Spanish settlement.^[347]^[422] However, the Philippine economy remained highly dependent on United States markets—more dependent, according to United States high commissioner Paul McNutt, than any single U.S. state was dependent on the rest of the country.^[423] The Philippine Trade Act, passed as a precondition for receiving war rehabilitation grants from the United States,^[424] exacerbated the dependency with provisions further tying the economies of the two countries. A military assistance pact was signed in 1947 granting the United States a 99-year lease on designated military bases in the country.

During Roxas' term of office administration of the Turtle Islands and Mangsee Islands was transferred by the United Kingdom to the Republic of the Philippines. By an international treaty concluded in 1930 between the United States (in respect of its then overseas territory, the Philippine Archipelago) and the United Kingdom (in respect of its then protectorate, the State of North Borneo) the two powers agreed the international boundaries between those respective territories.^[425] In that treaty the United Kingdom also accepted that the Turtle Islands as well as the Mangsee Islands were part of the Philippines Archipelago and therefore under US sovereignty. However, by a supplemental international treaty concluded at the same time, the two powers agreed that those islands, although part of the Philippines Archipelago, would remain under the administration of the State of North Borneo's British North Borneo Company.^[426] The supplemental treaty provided that the British North Borneo Company would continue to administer those islands unless and until the United States government gave notice to the United Kingdom calling for administration of the islands to be transferred to the U.S. The U.S. never gave such a notice. On July 4, 1946, the Republic of the Philippines was born. It became the successor to the U.S. under the treaties of 1930. On July 15, 1946, the United Kingdom annexed the State of North Borneo and, in the view of the United Kingdom, became the sovereign power with respect to what had been the State of North Borneo.^[427] On September 19, 1946, the Republic of the Philippines notified the United Kingdom that it wished to take over the administration of the Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi and the Mangesse Islands. Pursuant to a supplemental international agreement, the transfer of administration became effective on October 16, 1947.^[428]^[429]

Roxas did not stay long in office, dying of a heart attack soon after a speech at Clark Air Base on April 15, 1948. He was succeeded by his vice president Elpidio Quirino.^[430]

Administration of Elpidio Quirino (1948–1953)

The Roxas administration granted general amnesty to those who had collaborated with the Japanese in World War II, except for those who had committed violent crimes. Roxas died suddenly of a heart attack in April 1948, and the vice president, Elpidio Quirino, was elevated to the presidency. He ran for president in his own right in 1949, defeating José P. Laurel and winning a four-year term.

World War II had left the Philippines demoralized and severely damaged. The task of reconstruction was complicated by the activities of the Communist-supported Hukbalahap guerrillas (known as "Huks"), who had evolved into a violent resistance force against the new Philippine government. Government policy towards the Huks alternated between gestures of negotiation and harsh suppression. Secretary of Defense Ramon Magsaysay initiated a campaign to defeat the insurgents militarily and at the same time win popular support for the government. The Huk movement had waned in the early 1950s, finally ending with the unconditional surrender of Huk leader Luis Taruc in May 1954.

Enhancing President Manuel Roxas' policy of social justice to alleviate the lot of the common mass, President Quirino, almost immediately after assuming office, started a series of steps calculated to effectively ameliorate the economic condition of the people.^[431] After periodic surprise visits to the slums of Manila and other backward regions of the country, President Quirino officially made public a seven-point program for social security, to wit:^[431] unemployment insurance, old-age insurance, accident and permanent disability insurance, health insurance, maternity insurance, state relief, and labor opportunity.

President Quirino also created the Social Security Commission, making Social Welfare Commissioner Asuncion Perez chairman of the same.^[431] This was followed by the creation of the President's Action Committee on Social Amelioration, charged with extending aid, loans, and relief to the less fortunate citizens. Both the policy and its implementation were hailed by the people as harbingers of great benefits.^[431]

Administration of Ramon Magsaysay (1953–1957)

As President, he was a close friend and supporter of the United States and a vocal spokesman against communism during the Cold War. He led the foundation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, also known as the Manila Pact of 1954, that aimed to defeat communist-Marxist movements in Southeast Asia, South Asia and the Southwestern Pacific.

During his term, he made Malacañang literally a "house of the people", opening its gates to the public. One example of his integrity followed a demonstration flight aboard a new plane belonging to the Philippine Air Force (PAF): President Magsaysay asked what the operating costs per hour were for that type of aircraft, then wrote a personal check to the PAF, covering the cost of his flight. He restored the people's trust in the military and in the government.

Magsaysay's administration was considered one of the cleanest and most corruption-free in modern Philippine history; his rule is often cited as the Philippines' "Golden Years". Trade and industry flourished, the Philippine military was at its prime, and the country gained international recognition in sports, culture, and foreign affairs. The Philippines placed second on a ranking of Asia's clean and well-governed countries.

Supported by the United States, Magsaysay was elected president in 1953 on a populist platform. He promised sweeping economic reform, and made progress in land reform by promoting the resettlement of poor people in the Catholic north into traditionally Muslim areas. Though this relieved population pressure in the north, it heightened religious hostilities.^[432] Remnants of the communist Hukbalahap^[433] were defeated by Magsaysay.^[434]^[435] He was extremely popular with the common people, and his death in an airplane crash in March 1957 dealt a serious blow to national morale.^[436] At this time, the Philippines joined the United Nations in defending South Korea from North Korean invasions. The Philippines was the first country in Southeast Asia to recognize South Korean independence and was the first to send military units to fight on South Korea's behalf.^[437]^[438]

Administration of Carlos P. Garcia (1957–1961)

Carlos P. Garcia succeeded to the presidency after Magsaysay's death, and was elected to a four-year term in the election of November that same year. His administration emphasized the nationalist theme of "Filipino first", arguing that the Filipino people should be given the chances to improve the country's economy.^[439]

Garcia successfully negotiated for the United States' relinquishment of large military land reservations. However, his administration lost popularity on issues of government corruption as his term advanced.^[440]

Administration of Diosdado Macapagal (1961–1965)

In the presidential elections held on November 14, 1961, Vice President Diosdado Macapagal defeated re-electionist President Carlos P. Garcia and Emmanuel Pelaez as a vice president. President Macapagal changed the independence day of the Philippines from July 4 to June 12.

The Agricultural Land Reform Code (RA 3844) was a major Philippine land reform law enacted in 1963 under President Macapagal.^[441]

Marcos era

Macapagal ran for re-election in 1965, but was defeated by his former party-mate, Senate President Ferdinand Marcos, who had switched to the Nacionalista Party. Early in his presidency, Marcos initiated public works projects and intensified tax collection.^[442] In a failed attempt to retake east Sabah, the Jabidah massacre, where Muslim Tausug Filipinos were killed by the Philippine Army, occurred under the authority of Marcos.^[443] Due to his popularity among Christians, Marcos was re-elected president in 1969, becoming the first president of the Philippines to get a second term.^[442] Crime and civil disobedience increased. The Communist Party of the Philippines formed the New People's Army and the Moro National Liberation Front continued to fight for an independent Muslim nation in Mindanao. An explosion which killed opposition lawmakers during the proclamation rally of the senatorial slate of the Liberal Party on August 21, 1971, led Marcos to suspend the writ of habeas corpus. Protests surged and the writ was restored on January 11, 1972.^[444]

Martial law

Amid the growing popularity of the opposition, Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1972, by virtue of Proclamation No. 1081 to stifle dissent. Marcos justified the declaration by citing the threat of Communist insurgency and the alleged ambush of defense secretary Juan Ponce Enrile.^[444] Ruling by decree, Marcos curtailed press freedom and other civil liberties, abolished Congress, closed down major media establishments, ordered the arrest of opposition leaders and militant activists, including his staunchest critics: senators Benigno Aquino Jr., Jovito R. Salonga, and José W. Diokno.^[445]^[444] Crime rates plunged dramatically after a curfew was implemented.^[446] Many protesters, students, and political opponents were forced to go into exile, and a number were killed.^[444]^[447]

A constitutional convention, which had been called for in 1970 to replace the colonial 1935 Constitution, continued the work of framing a new constitution after the declaration of martial law. The new constitution went into effect in early 1973, changing the form of government from presidential to parliamentary and allowing Marcos to stay in power beyond 1973. Marcos claimed that martial law was the prelude to creating a "New Society", which he would rule for more than two decades.^[444] The economy during the 1970s was robust, due to previous engagements by various administrations. However, the economy suffered after incurring massive debt and downgrading prospects of the Philippines under martial rule, while the wife of the president, Imelda Marcos, lived in high society.^[444]^[447]

The human rights abuses^[448]^[17] under the dictatorship particularly targeted political opponents, student activists,^[449] journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought back against the administration. Based on the documentation of Amnesty International, Task Force Detainees of the Philippines, and similar human rights monitoring entities,^[450] the dictatorship was marked by 3,257 known extrajudicial killings,^[450] 35,000 documented tortures, 77 'disappeared', and 70,000 incarcerations.^[451]^[452]

Some 2,520 of the 3,257 murder victims were tortured and mutilated before their bodies were dumped in various places for the public to discover – a tactic meant to sow fear among the public,^[451]^[453] which came to be known as "salvaging."^[454] Some bodies were even cannibalized.^[455]

Fourth Republic

Marcos officially lifted martial law on January 17, 1981. However, he retained much of the government's power for arrest and detention. Corruption and nepotism as well as civil unrest contributed to a serious decline in economic growth and development under Marcos, whose own health faced obstacles due to lupus. The political opposition boycotted the 1981 presidential elections, which pitted Marcos against retired general Alejo Santos, in protest over his control over the results.^[445] Marcos won by a margin of over 16 million votes, allowing him to have another six-year term under the new Constitution that his administration crafted.^[447] Finance Minister Cesar Virata was eventually appointed to succeed Marcos as Prime Minister.^[456]

In 1983, opposition leader Ninoy Aquino was assassinated at Manila International Airport upon his return to the Philippines after a long period of exile. This coalesced popular dissatisfaction with Marcos and began a succession of events, including pressure from the United States, that culminated in a snap presidential election in February 1986.^[447] The opposition united under Aquino's widow, Corazon Aquino. The official election canvasser, the Commission on Elections (Comelec), declared Marcos the winner of the election. However, there was a large discrepancy between the Comelec results and that of Namfrel, an accredited poll watcher. The allegedly fraudulent result was rejected by local and international observers.^[457]Cardinal Jaime Sin declared support for Corazon Aquino, which encouraged popular revolts.^[458] General Fidel Ramos and Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile withdrew their support for Marcos. A peaceful civilian-military uprising, now popularly called the People Power Revolution, forced Marcos into exile and installed Corazon Aquino as president on February 25, 1986. The administration of Marcos has been called by various sources as a kleptocracy^[459]^[460]^[461] and a conjugal dictatorship.^[442]^[447]

Fifth Republic (1986–present)

Administration of Corazon Aquino (1986–1992)

Corazon Aquino immediately formed an emergency government to try stabilizing the country's situation that provided for a transitional "Freedom Constitution".^[462] A new permanent constitution would later be ratified and enacted in February 1987.^[463]

The constitution crippled presidential power to declare martial law, proposed the creation of autonomous regions in the Cordilleras and Muslim Mindanao, and restored the presidential form of government and the bicameral Congress.^[464]

Progress was made in revitalizing democratic institutions and respect for civil liberties, but Aquino's administration was also viewed as weak and fractious, and a return to full political stability and economic development was hampered by several attempted coups staged by disaffected members of the Philippine military.^[465]

Economic growth was additionally hampered by a series of natural disasters, including the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo that left 700 dead and 200,000 homeless.^[466]

During the Aquino presidency, Manila witnessed six unsuccessful coup attempts, the most serious occurring in December 1989.^[467]

In 1991, the Philippine Senate rejected a treaty that would have allowed a 10-year extension of the U.S. military bases in the country.^[468] The United States turned over Clark Air Base in Pampanga to the government in November, and Subic Bay Naval Base in Zambales in December 1992, ending almost a century of U.S. military presence in the Philippines.^[469]

Administration of Fidel V. Ramos (1992–1998)

In the 1992 elections, Defense Secretary Fidel V. Ramos, endorsed by Aquino, won the presidency with just 23.6% of the vote in a field of seven candidates. Early in his administration, Ramos declared "national reconciliation" his highest priority and worked at building a coalition to overcome the divisiveness of the Aquino years.^[464]

He legalized the Communist Party and laid the groundwork for talks with communist insurgents, Muslim separatists, and military rebels, attempting to convince them to cease their armed activities against the government. In June 1994, Ramos signed into law a general conditional amnesty covering all rebel groups, and Philippine military and police personnel accused of crimes committed while fighting the insurgents.^[470]

In October 1995, the government signed an agreement bringing the military insurgency to an end. A peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), a major separatist group fighting for an independent homeland in Mindanao, was signed in 1996, ending the 24-year-old struggle.^[470] However, an MNLF splinter group, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, continued the armed struggle for an Islamic state.

Efforts by Ramos supporters to gain passage of an amendment that would allow him to run for a second term were met with large-scale protests, leading Ramos to declare he would not seek re-election.^[471]

On his presidency the death penalty was revived in the light of the rape-slay case of UPLB students Eileen Sarmienta and Allan Gomez in 1993 and the first person to be executed was Leo Echegaray in 1999.^[472]

Administration of Joseph Estrada (1998–2001)

Joseph Estrada, a former movie actor who had served as Ramos' vice president, was elected president by a landslide victory in 1998. His election campaign pledged to help the poor and develop the country's agricultural sector. He enjoyed widespread popularity, particularly among the poor.^[473] Estrada assumed office amid the Asian Financial Crisis. The economy did, however, recover from a low −0.6% growth in 1998 to a moderate growth of 3.4% by 1999.^[474]

Like his predecessor there was a similar attempt to change the 1987 constitution. The process is termed as CONCORD or Constitutional Correction for Development. Unlike Charter change under Ramos and Arroyo the CONCORD proposal, according to its proponents, would only amend the 'restrictive' economic provisions of the constitution that is considered as impeding the entry of more foreign investments in the Philippines. However, it was not successful in amending the constitution.^[475]

After the worsening secessionist movement in Mindanao in April 2000, Estrada declared an "all-out-war" against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF).^[476]^[477] The government later captured 46 MILF camps including the MILF's headquarters, Camp Abubakar.^[476]^[478]^[479]

In October 2000, however, Estrada was accused of having accepted millions of pesos in payoffs from illegal gambling businesses.^[480] He was impeached by the House of Representatives^[481] but his impeachment trial in the Senate broke down when the senate voted to block examination of the president's bank records. In response, massive street protests erupted demanding Estrada's resignation. Faced with street protests, cabinet resignations, and a withdrawal of support from the armed forces, Estrada resigned from office on January 20, 2001.^[482]^[483]

Administration of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001–2010)

Vice President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (the daughter of President Diosdado Macapagal) was sworn in as Estrada's successor on the day of his departure. Her accession to power was further legitimized by the mid-term congressional and local elections held four months later, when her coalition won an overwhelming victory.^[484]

Arroyo's initial term in office was marked by fractious coalition politics as well as a military mutiny in Manila in July 2003 that led her to declare a month-long nationwide state of rebellion.^[484] Later on in December 2002 she said would not run in the May 10, 2004, presidential election, but she reversed herself in October 2003 and decided to join the race anyway.^[484]

She was elected and sworn in for her own six-year term as president on June 30, 2004. In 2005, a tape of a wiretapped conversation surfaced bearing the voice of Arroyo apparently asking an election official if her margin of victory could be maintained.^[485] The tape sparked protests calling for Arroyo's resignation.^[485] Arroyo admitted to inappropriately speaking to an election official, but denied allegations of fraud and refused to step down.^[485] Attempts to impeach the president failed later that year.

Halfway through her second term, Arroyo unsuccessfully attempted to push for an overhaul of the constitution to transform the present presidential-bicameral republic into a federal parliamentary-unicameral form of government, which critics describe would be a move that would allow her to stay in power as Prime Minister.^[486]

Her term saw the completion of infrastructure projects like Line 2 in 2004.^[487]

Numerous other scandals (such as the Maguindanao massacre, wherein 58 people were killed, and the unsuccessful NBN-ZTE broadband deal) took place in the dawn of her administration.

On May 20, 2008, the K–12 curriculum was implemented in the Philippines through the Omnibus Education Reform Act of 2008 filed by Mar Roxas and further emphasized by ASEAN Charter on December 15, 2008, adding two more years to the country's pre-university cycle. Its implementation process took 9 years and three presidents from May 2008 to June 5, 2017, from Arroyo to Rodrigo Duterte.^[488]

She formally ended her term as president on June 30, 2010 (wherein she was succeeded by Senator Benigno Aquino III) and ran for a seat in congress the same year (becoming the second president after Jose P. Laurel to run for lower office following the presidency).

Administration of Benigno Aquino III (2010–2016)

Benigno Aquino III, the son of president Corazon C. Aquino, began his presidency on June 30, 2010. His administration claimed to be focused on major reforms that would bring greater transparency, reduced poverty, reduced corruption, and a booming market which will give birth to a newly industrialized nation.

He continued the 9-year implementation process of the K–12 curriculum that was started under his predecessor Gloria Macapagal Arroyo in 2008. Part of the it is the new curriculum's effectivity on April 24, 2012. To maintain continuity, Kindergarten was made compulsory through Kidergarten Education Reform Act of 2012 and the further 12 years by Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013.^[489]^[490]

The 2010 Manila hostage crisis caused deeply strained relations between Manila and Hong Kong for a time.

The Sultanate of Panay, the newset of 21 in the country, was formally established covering 10 000 Muslims in the island.^[491]

Tensions regarding Sabah due to the Sultanate of Sulu's claim gradually rose during the early years of his administration. Standoffs in Sabah between The Sultanate of Sulu's Royal Army and the Malaysian forces struck in 2013.^[492]^[493] A surprise incursion by the supporters of the Sultanate of Sulu on Sabah resulted in the killing of civilians and members of the Malaysian armed forces.^[494] Following this attack, Malaysia ceased the annual cession of approximately $1,000 to the Sultan's heirs, which it had honored as part of an 1878 agreement with a British trading company over the use of the Sultanate's territory. In response to Malaysia's suspension of the annual payments, the Sulu claimants sought international arbitration, demanding US$32 billion. In January 2022, Spanish arbitrator Gonzalo Stampa ruled in their favor, awarding a historic US$14.9 billion. However, on 27 June 2023, the French Court of Appeals annulled the award, delivering a landmark victory for Malaysia.^[495] Recently, Stampa was convicted of contempt of court for defying rulings from the Madrid High Court and sentenced to six months in prison.^[496]

In 2012, the Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro was signed to create the Bangsamoro Government in Mindanao.^[497] In response, the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF) was assembled by religious extremists with the goal of seceding from the Philippines.

The economy performed well at 7.2% GDP growth, the second fastest in Asia.

The country was hit by Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) on November 8, 2013, which heavily devastated the Visayas.^[498]^[499] Massive rehabilitation efforts by foreign world powers sending aid, devolved into chaos following the revelations that the administration and that the government had not been properly handing out the aid packages and preference for political maneuvering over the safety of the people, leading to mass deterioration of food and medical supplies.

In 2014, the Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro was signed after 17 years of negotiation with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), a move which sought to bring peace in Mindanao and the Sulu.^[500] When US President Barack Obama visited the Philippines on April 28, 2014, Aquino signed the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement, facilitating the return of United States Armed Forces bases into the country.^[501]^[502]^[503]^[504]

From January 15 to 19, 2015, Pope Francis stayed in the Philippines for a series of publicity tours and paid visits to the victims of Typhoon Haiyan.^[505]^[506] On January 25, 2015, 44 members of the Philippine National Police-Special Action Force (PNP-SAF) were killed during an encounter between MILF and BIFF in Mamasapano, Maguindanao, leading to a delay in the passage of the Bangsamoro Basic Law.^[507]^[508]

Under Aquino's presidency, the Philippines has had controversial clashes with the People's Republic of China on a number of issues (such as the standoff in Scarborough Shoal in the South China Sea and the dispute over the Spratly Islands). This resulted in the proceedings of the Philippines to file a sovereignty case against China in a global arbitration tribunal. Later on in 2014, the Aquino Administration then filed a case to the Arbitration Tribunal in The Hague which challenged Beijing's claim in the South China Sea after Chinese ships were accused of harassing a small Philippine vessel carrying goods for stationed military personnel in the South Thomas Shoal where an old Philippine ship had been stationed for many years.^[509]

On January 12, 2016, the Philippine Supreme Court upheld the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement paving the way for the return of United States Armed Forces bases into the country.^[510] On March 23, 2016, Diwata-1 was launched to the International Space Station (ISS), becoming the country's first micro-satellite and the first satellite to be built and designed by Filipinos.^[511]

Administration of Rodrigo Duterte (2016–2022)

Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte succeeded Aquino and became the first president from Mindanao. Under Duterte's first 100 days, the government launched a 24-hour complaint office accessible to the public through a nationwide hotline, 8888, and changed the nationwide emergency telephone number from 117 to 911.^[512]^[513] Duterte launched an intensified anti-drug campaign to fulfill a campaign promise of wiping out criminality in six months;^[514] by August 2019, the death toll for the war on drugs was 5,779.^[515]^[516]^[517]

The implementation of K–12 from 2008, carried over from his predecessors Arroyo and Aquino III, continued throughout Duterte administration until the new curriculum was implemented on Grade 6 on June 5, 2017, which entirely phased out the older 1945–2017 K–4th Year system first used on May 28, 1945, and completed the 9-year process of the former.

On July 12, 2016, the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled in favor of the Philippines in its case against China's claims in the South China Sea; the ruling deprived surface features in the contested area of territorial-generating status, effectively deflating China's nine-dash line territorial claims.^[518] Later that November, president Ferdinand Marcos' remains were buried at the Libingan ng mga Bayani (the country's official cemetery for heroes) after the Supreme Court of the Philippines ruled in favor of the burial, provoking protests from various groups.^[519]

Following clashes between government forces and the Maute group in Marawi, Duterte, on May 23, 2017, signed Proclamation No. 216 declaring a 60-day martial law in Mindanao.^[520] To attain inclusive economic growth and improve quality of life in the country, in 2017, the Duterte administration launched its socioeconomic policy, DuterteNomics, in which infrastructure development and industrialization were a significant part of.^[521] The policy included the Build! Build! Build! Infrastructure Plan, which aimed to sustain the country's economic growth and accelerate poverty reduction^[522] by developing transport infrastructure such as railways, roads, airports, and seaports, irrigation, and flood control projects.^[523]^[524] Duterte signed the Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act, providing free tuition and exemption from other fees in public universities and colleges, as well as subsidies for those enrolled in private higher education institutions. Duterte also signed into law the Universal Health Care Act, the creation of the Department of Human Settlements and Urban Development, establishing a national cancer control program, and allowing subscribers to keep their mobile numbers for life.^[525]

In 2018, the Bangsamoro Organic Law was legislated into law^[526] and was ratified following a successful plebiscite a year later. The Bangsamoro transition period began, paving the way for the formal creation of the Bangsamoro ARMM.^[527]

Administration of Bongbong Marcos (2022–present)

Marcos delivers his first State of the Nation Address on July 25, 2022, with Senate President Migz Zubiri (left) and House Speaker Martin Romualdez.

In May 2022, Ferdinand Marcos Jr. (known by his nickname "Bongbong"), son of former president and dictator Ferdinand Marcos, won the presidential election by a landslide. His vice presidential candidate was Sara Duterte, daughter of then-president Rodrigo Duterte.^[528] On June 30, 2022, Marcos was sworn in as the Philippine president and Sara Duterte was sworn in as vice-president.^[529] A few weeks after his inauguration as president, the 2022 Luzon earthquake hit Northern Luzon, resulting in 11 casualties and 615 people injured.^[530]

Bagong Pilipinas (transl.New Philippines), the administration's term for its brand of governance and leadership, was officially launched with a kick-off rally on January 28, 2024, at the Quirino Grandstand in Manila, the capital of the Philippines. It was attended by about 400,000 supporters with the participation of Vice President Sara Duterte, other key Malacañang officials, and Manila Mayor Honey Lacuna.^[531]^[532] The rally was streamed online to engage a wider audience beyond Manila.^[533]

As president, Marcos signed into law the creation of the Maharlika Investment Fund, the first sovereign wealth fund of the Philippines.^[534] Under his term, the Philippines ratified the RCEP in February, and entered into force in June 2023.^[535]^[536] Marcos also went on many foreign trips in hopes to attract more foreign investments in the country.

During Marcos' administration, the number of American citizens who lived in the country increased from 300,000 as of 2023,^[537] to 750,000 by year 2025,^[538] (forming 0.75% of the demographics)^[538] mainly due to his liberal visa policies. Furthermore, up to 250,000 Amerasians,^[539] (0.25% of the country), can be found living across the cities of Clark, Angeles, Manila, and Olongapo^[539](When combined, American^[538] and Amerasian descent,^[539] form 1% of the population).^[538]^[539] Under Marcos' term despite the pressure of the US-Israel vs Iran war, the 2026 ASEAN summit held in the Philippines, had pushed through, and in the Philippines, East Timor's Catholic ally, was the first ASEAN summit wherein East Timor participated as a full member of ASEAN.^[540] This occurred simultaneously with the chairmanship of António Guterres who is the reigning Secretary-General of the United Nations and is of Portuguese and East Timorese ancestry.^[541]^[542]

Notes

↑Including others such as Latin-Americans and Chinese-Mestizos, pure Chinese paid tribute but were not Philippine citizens as they were transients who returned to China, and Spaniards were exempt

References

Citations

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↑Thakur, Upendra (1986). Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture. Abhinav Publications. p. 4. ISBN 978-81-7017-207-9.
1234567Junker, Laura Lee (1999). Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2035-0. Archived from the original on April 13, 2021. Retrieved February 16, 2021.
↑Bisht, N. S.; Bankoti, T. S. (2004). Encyclopaedia of the South-east Asian Ethnography: Communities and Tribes. Global Vision. p. 69. ISBN 978-81-87746-96-6.
1 2Abinales, Patricio N.; Amoroso, Donna J. (2005). State and society in the Philippines. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7425-1023-4. OCLC 57452454.
↑Bergreen, Laurence (October 14, 2003). Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe. William Morrow. ISBN 978-0-06-621173-2.
1234Pigafetta, Antonio (c. 1525). Journal of Magellan's Voyage (in French). Archived from the original on July 28, 2020. Retrieved June 1, 2020.
↑"PH to Mark the First Circumnavigation Route". 2021 Quincentennial Commemorations in the Philippines. National Quincentennial Committee. March 14, 2021. Archived from the original on January 28, 2022.
↑De Borja, Marciano R. (2005). Basques In The Philippines. Reno: University of Nevada Press. pp. 17–29. ISBN 978-0-87417-590-5.
↑Zaide 1994, p. 281
↑"A Very Long Way to Eat Rhino - Archaeology Magazine". www.archaeology.org. Retrieved February 16, 2023.
↑Jett, Stephen C. (2017). Ancient Ocean Crossings: Reconsidering the Case for Contacts with the Pre-Columbian Americas. University of Alabama Press. pp. 168–171. ISBN 978-0-8173-1939-7.
↑Détroit, Florent; Corny, Julien; Dizon, Eusebio Z.; Mijares, Armand S. (2013). ""Small Size" in the Philippine Human Fossil Record: Is It Meaningful for a Better Understanding of the Evolutionary History of the Negritos?"(PDF). Human Biology. 85 (1): 45–66. doi:10.3378/027.085.0303. PMID 24297220. S2CID 24057857. Archived from the original(PDF) on March 23, 2019. Retrieved May 20, 2020.
↑Scott 1984, p. 138. "Not one roof beam, not one grain of rice, not one pygmy Negrito bone has been recovered. Any theory which describes such details is therefore pure hypothesis and should be honestly presented as such."
1 2 3Chambers, Geoff (2013). "Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians". eLS. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0020808.pub2. ISBN 978-0-470-01617-6.
↑Mijares, Armand Salvador B. (2006). "The Early Austronesian Migration To Luzon: Perspectives From The Peñablanca Cave Sites". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association (26): 72–78. Archived from the original on July 7, 2014.
1 2Bellwood, Peter (2014). The Global Prehistory of Human Migration. p. 213.
↑Lipson, Mark; Loh, Po-Ru; Patterson, Nick; Moorjani, Priya; Ko, Ying-Chin; Stoneking, Mark; Berger, Bonnie; Reich, David (2014). "Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia". Nature Communications. 5 (1): 4689. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5.4689L. doi:10.1038/ncomms5689. PMC 4143916. PMID 25137359.
↑Scott 1984, p. 52.
↑Goodenough, Ward Hunt (1996). Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5. American Philosophical Society. pp. 127–128.
↑Goodenough, Ward Hunt (1996). Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5. American Philosophical Society. p. 52.
↑"Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum". Archived from the original on February 28, 2014. Retrieved April 16, 2014.
↑Sagart, Laurent (July 25, 2008). "The expansion of Setaria farmers in East Asia: a linguistic and archaeological model". In Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia; Lin, Marie (eds.). Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. Routledge. pp. 165–190. ISBN 978-1-134-14962-9.
↑Li, H; Huang, Y; Mustavich, LF; et al. (November 2007). "Y chromosomes of prehistoric people along the Yangtze River". Hum. Genet. 122 (3–4): 383–8. doi:10.1007/s00439-007-0407-2. PMID 17657509. S2CID 2533393.
↑Ko, Albert Min-Shan; Chen, Chung-Yu; Fu, Qiaomei; Delfin, Frederick; Li, Mingkun; Chiu, Hung-Lin; Stoneking, Mark; Ko, Ying-Chin (March 2014). "Early Austronesians: Into and Out Of Taiwan". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 94 (3): 426–436. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.02.003. PMC 3951936. PMID 24607387.
1 2Bellwood, Peter (2004). "The origins and dispersals of agricultural communities in Southeast Asia"(PDF). In Glover, Ian; Bellwood, Peter (eds.). Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History. RoutledgeCurzon. pp. 21–40. ISBN 978-0-415-29777-6. Archived(PDF) from the original on March 12, 2023. Retrieved May 20, 2020.
↑Liu, Li; Chen, Xingcan (2012). "Emergence of social inequality – The middle Neolithic (5000–3000 BC)". The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge University Press. p. 204. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139015301.007. ISBN 978-0-521-64432-7.
↑Blench, Roger (2004). "Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo-Pacific region". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 24 (The Taipei Papers (Volume 2)): 31–50. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved May 20, 2020.
1 2Legarda, Benito Jr. (2001). "Cultural Landmarks and their Interactions with Economic Factors in the Second Millennium in the Philippines". Kinaadman (Wisdom) A Journal of the Southern Philippines. 23: 40.
↑Munoz 2006, p. 45.
↑Glover, Ian; Bellwood, Peter, eds. (2004). Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History. Psychology Press. pp. 36, 157. ISBN 978-0-415-29777-6.
↑The Philippines and India – Dhirendra Nath Roy, Manila 1929 and India and The World – By Buddha Prakash p. 119–120.
↑Hsiao-Chun Hung, et al. (2007). Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia. PNAS.
↑Father Gabriel Casal & Regalado Trota Jose, Jr., Eric S. Casino, George R. Ellis, Wilhelm G. Solheim II, The People and Art of the Philippines, printed by the Museum of Cultural History, UCLA (1981)
↑Bellwood, Peter, Hsiao-Chun Hung, and Yoshiyuki Iizuka. "Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction." Paths of Origins: The Austronesian Heritage in the Collections of the National Museum of the Philippines, the Museum Nasional Indonesia, and the Netherlands Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde (2011): 31–41.
↑Scott 1984, p. 17.
↑Bellwood, Peter (2011). Pathos of Origin. pp. 31–41.
↑Hsiao-Chun, Hung (2007). Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia.
↑Tsang, Cheng-hwa (2000), "Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan", Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 20: 153–158, doi:10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751
↑Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan's relations with the Philippines date back millennia, so it's a mystery that it's not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound PolicyArchived March 24, 2022, at the Wayback Machine. Taiwan Times.
↑Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.
↑Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.
↑Mallari, P. G. S. (2014). War and peace in precolonial Philippines. The Manila Times.
↑Junker, L. L. (1999). Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms. University of Hawaii Press.
↑Solheim, William (1969). "Prehistoric Archaeology in Eastern Mainland Southeast Asia and the Philippines". Asian Perspectives. 3: 97–108. hdl:10125/19126.
↑Miksic, John N. (2003). Earthenware in Southeast Asia: Proceedings of the Singapore Symposium on Premodern Southeast Asian Earthenwares. Singapore: Singapore University Press, National University of Singapore.
↑Dhani Irwanto (2019). Sundaland: Tracing The Cradle of Civilizations. Indonesia Hydro Media. p. 41. ISBN 978-602-724-493-1.
↑Yamagata, Mariko; Matsumura, Hirofumi (2017). "Austronesian Migration to Central Vietnam: Crossing over the Iron Age Southeast Asian Sea". In Matsumura, Hirofumi; Piper, Philip J.; Bulbeck, David (eds.). New Perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific Prehistory. Vol. 45. ANU Press. pp. 333–356. ISBN 978-1-76046-094-5. JSTOR j.ctt1pwtd26.26.
↑Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800 By John N. Miksic Chapter 4 Page 179.
1 2 3Nicholl 1983, p. 38
1 2Santarita, Joefe B. (2018). "Panyupayana: The Emergence of Hindu Polities in the Pre-Islamic Philippines". Cultural and Civilisational Links between India and Southeast Asia. pp. 93–105. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-7317-5_6. ISBN 978-981-10-7316-8.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7Scott, William Henry (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. ISBN 978-971-550-135-4.
1 2Jocano, Felipe Jr. (August 7, 2012). "A Question of Origins". In Wiley, Mark (ed.). Arnis: Reflections on the History and Development of Filipino Martial Arts. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4629-0742-7.
1 2 3Osborne, Milton (2004). Southeast Asia: An Introductory History (Ninth ed.). Australia: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74114-448-2.
↑Reyeg, Fernardo; Marsh, Ned (December 2011). "2"(PDF). The Filipino Way of War: Irregular Warfare Through The Centuries (Post Graduate). Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, California. p. 21. hdl:10945/10681. Archived(PDF) from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved February 15, 2021.
↑Newson, Linda A. (2009). Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824832728.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-3272-8. Given the significance of the size and distribution of the population to the spread of diseases and their ability to become endemic, it is worth commenting briefly on the physical and human geography of the Philippines. The hot and humid tropical climate would have generally favored the propagation of many diseases, especially water-borne infections, though there might be regional or seasonal variations in climate that might affect the incidence of some diseases. In general, however, the fact that the Philippines comprise some seven thousand islands, some of which are uninhabited even today, would have discouraged the spread of infections, as would the low population density.
↑Philippine Journal of Linguistics – 23 – p. 67
↑The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History by Richard Bulliet, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson p.186
1 2"Mathematical Ideas in Early Philippine Society"(PDF). Archived(PDF) from the original on August 19, 2019. Retrieved December 27, 2019.
↑Gallop, Annabel (2016). "The Early Use of Seals in the Malay World". Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient. 102: 125–164. doi:10.3406/befeo.2016.6233. JSTOR 26435124.
↑"Butuan Ivory Seal". National Museum of the Philippines. February 10, 2015. Archived from the original on November 19, 2018. Retrieved May 21, 2020.
↑Guillermo, Ramon; Paluga, Myfel Joseph (2011). "Barang king banga: A Visayan language reading of the Calatagan pot inscription (CPI)". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 42 (1): 121–159. doi:10.1017/S0022463410000561. S2CID 162984793– via Cambridge University Press.
↑Philippine History by Maria Christine N. Halili. "Chapter 3: Precolonial Philippines" (Published by Rex Bookstore; Manila, Sampaloc St. Year 2004)
↑Volume 5Archived October 10, 2017, at the Wayback Machine of A study of the Eastern and Western Oceans (Japanese: 東西洋考) mentions that Luzon first sent tribute to Yongle Emperor in 1406.
↑"Akeanon Online – Aton Guid Ra! – Aklan History Part 3 – Confederation of Madyaas". Akeanon.com. March 27, 2008. Archived from the original on January 26, 2009. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
↑"Katutubo, Muslim, Kristyano". Salazar at Mendoza-Urban. 1985.
↑Munoz 2006, p. 171.
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↑"Introduction". Mangyan Heritage Center. Archived from the original on February 13, 2008. Retrieved November 15, 2010.
1 2Postma, Antoon (1992). "The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary". Philippine Studies. 40 (2): 183–203. JSTOR 42633308.
↑Ring, Trudy; Robert M. Salkin & Sharon La Boda (1996). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania. Taylor & Francis. pp. 565–569. ISBN 978-1-884964-04-6. Retrieved January 7, 2010.
↑Ho Khai Leong (2009). Connecting and Distancing: Southeast Asia and China. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 33. ISBN 978-981-230-856-6.
↑Karnow, Stanley (2010). In Our Image. Random House Publishing. ISBN 978-0-307-77543-6. Retrieved August 24, 2015.
↑Scott 1985, p. 104
↑Woods, Damon L. (2006). The Philippines: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-85109-675-6.
↑Blair, Emma Helen; Robertson, James Alexander, eds. (1903). "Relation of the Conquest of the Island of Luzon". The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 3. Ohio, Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company. p. 145.
↑Huerta, Felix de (1865). Estado Geografico, Topografico, Estadistico, Historico-Religioso de la Santa y Apostolica Provincia de San Gregorio Magno. Binondo: Imprenta de M. Sanchez y Compañia.
1 2Fox, Robert B. and Avelino M. Legaspi. 1977. Excavations at Santa Ana. Manila: National Museum of the Philippines
↑"Limhoco.net, Batangas History". limjoco.net. Retrieved December 27, 2024.
↑DocumentArchived December 27, 2024, at the Wayback Machine from the National Library of the Philippines
↑Towards an Early History of Pangasinan: Preliminary Notes and Observations By: Erwin S. Fernandez. Page 181
↑Scott, William Henry (1989). "Filipinos in China in 1500"(PDF). China Studies Program. De la Salle University. p. 8. Archived from the original(PDF) on July 24, 2015. Retrieved April 17, 2015.
1 2Scott, William Henry (1989). "Filipinos in China in 1500"(PDF). China Studies Program. De la Salle University. p. 8. Archived(PDF) from the original on July 24, 2015. Retrieved September 25, 2015.
↑Zhenping, Wang (2008). "Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial History of the Philippines". Journal of East Asian Cultural Interaction Studies. 1: 249–260. hdl:10112/3180.
↑Scott 1984, p. 67.
↑Scott 1984, p. .
↑"South East Asia Pottery – Philippines". Seapots.com. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011. Retrieved October 27, 2011.
↑Old Chinese Book Tells of the World 800 Years AgoArchived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine; Chau-Ju-Kua's Chronicles of the Twelfth Century, Now First Translated, Give a "Description of Barbarous Peoples" Picked Up by This Noted Inspector of Foreign Trade and Descendant of Emperors.
↑FILIPINOS IN CHINA BEFORE 1500 By William Henry Scott Page 2
↑Yang Bowen, Zhufan zhi jiaoshi (Beijing, 1996), p. 145
↑Hugh R. Clark, Community, trade, and networks, Southern Fujian province from the third to the thirteenth century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 127‒132.
1 2A Chinese Gazetteer of Foreign LandsArchived February 1, 2023, at the Wayback Machine A new translation of Part 1 of the Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 (1225) By Shao-yun Yang (Department of History, Denison University) October 2, 2022
↑Bellwood, Peter (2017). First Islanders: Prehistory and Human Migration in Island Southeast Asia. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 230–245. ISBN 978-1119251552.
↑Mulder, "The Philippine Islands in the Chinese World Map of 1674," page 222.
1 2The First Voyage Round the World by Antonio Pigafetta, translated by Lord Stanley of Alderley (Page 105)
↑Isorena, Efren B. (2004). "The Visayan Raiders of the China Coast, 1174–1190 Ad". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 32 (2): 73–95. JSTOR 29792550. Chau Ju-Kua, writing in the thirteenth century, probably was the first to mention that certain ferocious raiders of China's Fukien coast probably came by way of the southern portion of the island of Formosa, He referred to them as the Pi-sho-ye.
↑Isorena, Efren B. (2004). "The Visayan Raiders of the China Coast, 1174–1190 Ad". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 32 (2): 73–95. JSTOR 29792550.
↑Jovito S. Abellana, "Bisaya Patronymesis Sri Visjaya" (Ms., Cebuano Studies Center, ca. 1960)
↑Sonia M. Zaide (1999). The Philippines: a unique nation. All-Nations Pub. pp. 39 and note 19 on p. 416, which cites Dr. Juan C. Orendain, Ten Datus of Madiaas (Manila: Mabuhay Publ. 1963), Dr. Manuel L. Carreon, Maragtas: The Datus from Borneo, Sarawak Museum Journal Vol. VIII (1957) pp. 51–99, and an 1858 manuscript by Fr. Tomas Santaren. ISBN 978-971-642-071-5.
↑Abeto, Isidro Escare (1989). "Chapter X – Confederation of Madyaas". Philippine history: reassessed / Isidro Escare Abeto. Metro Manila :: Integrated Publishing House Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Library. p. 54. OCLC 701327689. Already conceived while he was in Binanua-an, and as the titular head of all the datus left behind by Datu Puti, Datu Sumakwel thought of some kind of system as to how he could exercise his powers given him by Datu Puti over all the other datus under his authority.
↑Maragtas by Pedro Alcantara Monteclaro
↑"The Pre-Islamic Kings of Brunei By Rozan Yunos taken from the Magazine "Pusaka" published on year 2009". Archived from the original on December 7, 2023. Retrieved December 9, 2023.
↑Brunei Rediscovered: A Survey of Early Times By Robert NichollArchived July 20, 2021, at the Wayback Machine p. 35 citing Ferrand. Relations, page 564-65. Tibbets, Arabic Texts, pg 47.
↑Nicholl 1983, p. 37 (Sub-citation taken from Ferrand, Relations p. 333)
↑Talaguit, Christian (January 2020). "Mga Maragtas ng Panay: Comparative Analysis of Documents about the Bornean Settlement Tradition". De la Salle University, History Department.
↑Santarita, J. B. (2018). Panyupayana: The Emergence of Hindu Polities in the Pre-Islamic Philippines. Cultural and Civilisational Links Between India and Southeast Asia, 93–105.
1 2SONG, MING, AND OTHER CHINESE SOURCES ON PHILIPPINES-CHINA RELATIONSArchived March 8, 2023, at the Wayback Machine By Carmelea Ang See. Page 74.
↑""A Chinese Gazetteer of Foreign Lands" A new translation of Part 1 of the Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 (1225) By Shao-yun Yang (Department of History, Denison University)". Archived from the original on February 1, 2023. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
↑THE GENEALOGY OF HARI' TUPAS: AN ETHNOHISTORY OF CHIEFLY POWER AND HIERARCHY IN SUGBU AS A PROTOSTATE Astrid Sala-BozaArchived April 5, 2023, at the Wayback Machine Page 280.
↑Lee, Joshua. "5 other places in Asia which are also called Singapura". mothership.sg. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
↑"Notes from Mactan By Jim Foster". Archived from the original on July 7, 2023. Retrieved January 24, 2023.
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↑Cruz & Adiong 2020.
↑Kinaadman. 2001. Volume 23. Xavier University Press. Page 34.
↑Scott 1984, p. 59.
↑Cruz & Adiong 2020, p. 24.
↑Santos, Hector (1999). "The Butuan Silver Strip. A Philippine Leaf". Archived from the original on July 24, 2011. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
↑Eric Casino. "The Barangays of Butuan: Lumad Mindanaoans in China and the Sulu Zone". Asia Mindanaw: Dialogue of Peace and Development (2014): 2.
↑"A historical perspective on the word 'Keling'". Archived from the original on April 21, 2017. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
↑Wang, Zhenping (March 31, 2008). "Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial History of the Philippines"(PDF). Journal of East Asian Cultural Interaction Studies. Archived(PDF) from the original on February 13, 2023. Retrieved January 4, 2022– via Kansai University Institutional Reposaitory.
↑FILIPINOS IN CHINA BEFORE 1500 By William Henry Scott (Page 4)
↑Ptak, Roderich (1998). "From Quanzhou to the Sulu Zone and beyond: Questions Related to the Early Fourteenth Century". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 29 (2): 269–294. doi:10.1017/S002246340000744X. JSTOR 20072046. S2CID 162707729.
↑Rausa-Gomez 1967, Lourdes Rausa-Gomez cited Sir Stamford Raffles, himself citing the 'Traditional History of Java' wherein he said that Manila and Sulu in the Philippines were part of Majapahapit, however she doubted the veracity of Stamford Raffles assertion due to the lack of archaeological evidence between Majapahit and the Philippines in her 1967 article. However, that article has been renderred outdated due to the discovery of the Laguna Copperplate Inscription in 1989 which proved links between Java and Manila, which makes her dismissal of the Raffles assertion null and the Raffles assertion feasible.
↑History for Brunei Darussalam: Sharing our Past. Curriculum Development Department, Ministry of Education. 2009. ISBN 978-99917-2-372-3.
↑Rausa-Gomez 1967, p. 92.
↑Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial History of the PhilippinesArchived February 13, 2023, at the Wayback Machine By Wang Zhenping Page 258.
↑Andy Barski, Albert Beaucort; Bruce Carpenter, Barski (2007). Bali and Lombok. Dorling Kindersley, London. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-7566-2878-9.
↑Odal-Devora, Grace (2000). "The River Dwellers". In Alejandro, Reynaldo Gamboa; Yuson, Alfred A. (eds.). Pasig: The River of Life. Unilever Philippines. pp. 43–66.
↑100 Events That Shaped The Philippines (Adarna Book Services Inc. 1999 Published by National Centennial Commission) Page 72 "The Founding of the Sulu Sultanate"
↑Sundita, Christopher Allen (2002). In Bahasa Sug: An Introduction to Tausug. Lobel & Tria Partnership, Co. ISBN 971-92226-6-2.
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↑Philippine History. Rex Bookstore, Inc. 2004. pp. 46–. ISBN 978-971-23-3934-9.
↑"Brunei". CIA World Factbook. 2011. Archived from the original on July 6, 2022. Retrieved January 13, 2011.
↑"The Maguindanao Sultanate", Moro National Liberation Front web site. "The Political and Religious History of the Bangsamoro People, condensed from the book Muslims in the Philippines by Dr. C. A. Majul." (archived from the original on January 26, 2003) Retrieved January 9, 2008.
↑Palafox, Queenie. "The Sultan of the River". National Historical Commission. Archived from the original on June 17, 2013. Retrieved March 16, 2013.
↑Shinzō Hayase (2007). Mindanao Ethnohistory Beyond Nations: Maguindanao, Sangir, and Bagobo Societies in East Maritime Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-971-550-511-6.
↑Laarhoven, Ruurdje (1986). "We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 14 (1): 35. ISSN 0115-0243. JSTOR 29791876.
↑Scott 1984.
↑Santiago, Luciano P.R., The Houses of Lakandula, Matanda, and Soliman [1571–1898]: Genealogy and Group Identity, Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 18 [1990]
↑Henson, Mariano A. 1965. The Province of Pampanga and Its Towns: A.D. 1300–1965. 4th ed. revised. Angeles City: By the author.
↑Agoncillo 1990, p. 22.
↑Saunders 2002, p. 60.
↑Herbert & Milner 1989, p. 99.
↑Lea & Milward 2001, p. 16.
↑Hicks 2007, p. 34.
↑Church 2012, p. 16.
↑Eur 2002, p. 203.
↑Abdul Majid 2007, p. 2.
↑Welman 2013, p. 8.
↑Cf. William Henry Scott (1903). "Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society". (January 1, 1994) pp. 109–110.
↑Scott, William Henry (1989). "The Mediterranean Connection". Philippine Studies. 37 (2). Ateneo de Manila University Press: 131–144. doi:10.13185/2244-1638.1337. ISSN 2244-1638. Archived from the original on May 19, 2022. Retrieved June 24, 2021. (p.)
↑Pinto, Paulo Jorge de Sousa; Lourenço, Miguel Rodrigues; Pinto, Pedro; Roe, Jeremy (2025). Historia Obscura: The Philippines in 16th and 17th Century Portuguese Sources(PDF). Vol. 1. Manila: National Historical Commission of the Philippines. p. 4. ISBN 978-971-538-386-8. Retrieved March 25, 2026.
1 2Scott 1989, p. 195.
↑The former sultan of Malacca decided to retake his city from the Portuguese with a fleet of ships from Lusung in 1525 CE. SOURCE: Barros, Joao de, Decada terciera de Asia de Ioano de Barros dos feitos que os Portugueses fezarao no descubrimiento dos mares e terras de Oriente [1628], Lisbon, 1777, courtesy of William Henry Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society, Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994, page 194.
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↑Reid, Anthony (1995). "Continuity and Change in the Austronesian Transition to Islam and Christianity". In Peter Bellwood; James J. Fox; Darrell Tryon (eds.). The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives(PDF). Canberra: Department of Anthropology, The Australian National University. doi:10.22459/A.09.2006. ISBN 978-0-7315-2132-6.
↑Turnbull, C. M. (1977). A History of Singapore: 1819–1975. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-580354-9.
↑Antony, Robert J., ed. (2010). Elusive Pirates, Pervasive Smugglers. doi:10.5790/hongkong/9789888028115.001.0001. ISBN 978-988-8028-11-5.
1 2Pinto, Fernao Mendes (1989) [1578]. The Travels of Mendes Pinto. Translated by Rebecca Catz. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
↑Ocampo -, Ambeth R. (October 18, 2017). "Luzon jars in Japanese tea ceremony". Inquirer.net. Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved June 23, 2018.
↑Inumaru, Tadashi; Yoshida, Mitsukuni, eds. (1992). The Traditional Crafts of Japan. Volume 3: Ceramics. Diamond, Inc. p. 7.
↑Scott 1989, p. 194.
↑Duarte Barbosa, Livro (Boxer, pp. 132–134, § 21)
↑ João de Barros, Décadas da Ásia (Stevens, vol 3, pp. 290–293)
↑Gaspar Correia, Lendas da Índia (Acad. Ciências, vol 1, pp. 290–295)
↑Fernão Lopes de Castanheda (1551 ed., vol 1, pp. 160–163)
↑Décadas da Ásia (Lisbon, 1778) Vol. 5, pp. 95–100 (Década VIII, Livro II, cap. V) Siam (1547)
↑"Quest of the Dragon and Bird Clan; The Golden Age (Volume III)" -Lungshanoid (Glossary)- By Paul Kekai Manansala
↑Bayao, Bras, Letter to the king dated Goa November 1, 1540, Archivo Nacional de Torre de Tombo: Corpo Cronologico, parte 1, maco 68, doc. 63, courtesy of William Henry Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society, Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994, page 194.
↑The Mediterranean Connection by William Henry Scott Page 138 (Published By: Ateneo de Manila University) Taken from "Translated in Teixera, The Portuguese Missions, p. 166."
↑Fernão Mendes Pinto, Peregrinação (C. R. Boxer, ed., The Travels of Mendes Pinto, vol. 1, Hakluyt Society, 1956) pp. 256–261 (Book II, ch. XLIX) Aceh (1539)
↑Skaff, Jonathan Karam, Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800
↑The Janissaries by David Nicolle and Christa Hook (p.12, ELI - 58)"The boys are registered by the devşirme officer and allotted a certain amount of money for travel expenses. On their backs, the boys carry small packs filled with their possessions for the long journey to the capital. Once they arrive, they will be circumcised and commence training for different administrative and military posts. They are dressed in red in order to be easily identified should they escape. As the accompanying text indicates, boys could only be taken from families with more than one son. The boys were chosen on the basis of their intelligence and physical appearance and beauty, with ugly boys and orphans being deemed unfit for state service."
↑Scott, William Henry (1989). "The Mediterranean Connection". Philippine Studies. 37 (2): 131–144. doi:10.13185/2244-1638.1337. Archived from the original on August 4, 2020. Retrieved January 21, 2023. Quoting from; Cortes 30, Suma, pp. 376–77, and 362.
↑Pigafetta, Antonio (1524). Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo.
↑Marivir Montebon, Retracing Our Roots – A Journey into Cebu's Pre-Colonial Past, p.15
↑Celestino C. Macachor (2011). "Searching for Kali in the Indigenous Chronicles of Jovito Abellana". Rapid Journal. 10 (2). Archived from the original on July 3, 2012. Retrieved March 1, 2018.
1 2Storms of history Water, hazard and society in the Philippines 1565–1930Archived June 5, 2022, at the Wayback Machine By Greg Bankoff
↑Pigafetta, Antonio (1874). The first voyage round the world by Magellan. Translated by Lord Stanley of Alderley. London: The Hakluyt Society.
↑Lacsamana 1990, p. 47
↑Donoso, Isaac (2015). "The Philippines and al-Andalus: Linking the Edges of the Classical Islamic World". Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints. 63 (2): 247–273. doi:10.13185/2244-1638.4074. Retrieved March 25, 2026.
↑Scott 1985, p. 51.
↑Latino Book Review (February 16, 2023). "When Tlaxcalan Natives Went to War in the Philippines". Retrieved March 25, 2026.
↑Wing, J.T. (2015). Roots of Empire: Forests and State Power in Early Modern Spain, c.1500-1750. Brill's Series in the History of the Environment. Brill. p. 109. ISBN 978-90-04-26137-2. At the time of Miguel López de Legazpi's voyage in 1564-5, the Philippines were not a unified polity or nation.
↑Kurlansky 1999, p. 64.
↑Joaquin 1988.
↑De Borja, Marciano R. (2005). Basques in the Philippines. Reno: University of Nevada Press. pp. 30–39. ISBN 978-0-87417-590-5.
↑The friar says: Es la isla de Panay muy parecida a la de Sicilia, así por su forma triangular come por su fertilidad y abundancia de bastimentos... Es la isla más poblada, después de Manila y Mindanao, y una de las mayores, por bojear más de cien leguas. En fertilidad y abundancia es en todas la primera... El otro corre al oeste con el nombre de Alaguer [Halaur], desembocando en el mar a dos leguas de distancia de Dumangas...Es el pueblo muy hermoso, ameno y muy lleno de palmares de cocos. Antiguamente era el emporio y corte de la más lucida nobleza de toda aquella isla...Mamuel Merino, O.S.A., ed., Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas (1565–1615), Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, 1975, pp. 374–376.
↑Alip 1964, p. 201,317.
↑Annual report of the Secretary of War 1903, p. 379.
↑McAmis 2002, p. 33.
↑"Letter from Francisco de Sande to Felipe II, 1578". Archived from the original on October 14, 2014. Retrieved October 17, 2009.
↑Frankham 2008, p. 278.
↑Atiyah 2002, p. 71.
↑Saunders 2002, pp. 54–60.
↑Saunders 2002, p. 57.
↑Hall and McClain 1991, 235.
↑His name appears also as "Taizufú", "Tayfuzu" or "Zaizufu". San Agustín 1975, 541
↑AGI, Filipinas, 6, r. 5, n. 53.
↑""Merchants, Missionaries and Marauders: Trade and Traffic between Kyūshū (Japan) and Luzon (Philippines) in the Late Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries" By Ubaldo IACCARINO"(PDF).
↑The "Indo-Pacific" CrossroadsArchived January 23, 2025, at the Wayback Machine: The Asian Waters as Conduits of Knowledge, People, Cargoes, and Technologies Page 107 (Citing:"Wang 1953; Tanaka Takeo 1961.")
↑Martinez, Manuel F. Assassinations & conspiracies : from Rajah Humabon to Imelda Marcos. Manila: Anvil Publishing, 2002.
↑Fernando A. Santiago Jr. "Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–1898". Archived from the original on August 14, 2009. Retrieved July 18, 2008.
↑Kurlansky, Mark. (1999). The Basque History of the World. New York: Walker & Company. p. 64. ISBN 0-8027-1349-1.
↑Joaquin, Nick. (1988). Culture and History: Occasional Notes on the Process of Philippine Becoming. Manila: Solar Publishing.
↑Borschberg, Peter (2015). Journal, Memorials and Letters of Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge: Security, Diplomacy and Commerce in 17th-century Southeast Asia. NUS Press. pp. 82, 84, 126, 421. ISBN 978-9971-69-527-9.
↑"Antonio de Morga, in Blair and Robertson, The Philippines Islands, XV, Pages 97-98"
↑Cesar A. Majul, Muslims in the Philippines (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1999), 128–129.
↑Sordilla, Shane Patrick. "MAGUINDANAO AND TERNATE CONNECTION AND DISCONNECTION DURING THE AGE OF EUROPEAN COLONIZATION: AN OVERVIEW". Archived from the original on April 11, 2021. Retrieved April 11, 2021.
↑Blair, Emma Helen; Robertson, James Alexander (1903). "Letter from Melchor Davalos to Felipe II, June 20, 1585". The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 6. Cleveland: A. H. Clark Company. p. 60.
↑Truxillo, Charles A. (2012). Crusaders in the Far East: The Moro Wars in the Philippines in the Context of the Ibero-Islamic World War. Jain Publishing Company. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-89581-864-5.
↑Peacock Gallop (2015) "From Anatolia to Aceh: Ottomans, Turks and Southeast Asia".
↑Borao, José Eugenio (2010). "The Baroque Ending of a Renaissance Endeavour". The Spanish experience in Taiwan, 1626–1642: the Baroque ending of a Renaissance endeavor. Hong Kong University Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-962-209-083-5. JSTOR j.ctt1xcrpk.
↑"Catholic Missions in the Carolines and Marshall Islands". micsem.org. Archived from the original on November 28, 2017. Retrieved May 22, 2020.
1 2Díaz, Casimiro (1905). "Augustinians in the Philippines, 1616–41". In Blair, Emma Helen; Robertson, James Alexander (eds.). The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898, Volume XXV, 1635–1636. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company. p. 289. Retrieved March 24, 2026.
↑Morga (2008), Sucesos, p. 81.
↑Reid, Anthony (1995). "Continuity and Change in the Austronesian Transition to Islam and Christianity". In Peter Bellwood; James J. Fox; Darrell Tryon (eds.). The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives(PDF). Canberra: Department of Anthropology, The Australian National University. doi:10.22459/A.09.2006. hdl:2027/mdp.39015051647942. ISBN 978-0-7315-2132-6.
↑George Childs Kohn (October 31, 2013). Dictionary of Wars. Routledge. pp. 445–. ISBN 978-1-135-95494-9.
↑"History – the First Cathedral 1581–1583". Manila Metropolitan Cathedral-Basilica Official Website. Archived from the original on May 24, 2013. Retrieved March 22, 2013.
↑"A History of the Philippines by David P. Barrows". Archived from the original on February 8, 2019. Retrieved January 15, 2022. The Largest Cities.—Most of this Spanish population dwelt in Manila or in the five other cities which the Spaniards had founded in the first three decades of their occupation. Those were as follows:—
↑Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific By Stephanie J. MawsonArchived June 3, 2018, at the Wayback Machine AGI, México, leg. 25, núm. 62; AGI, Filipinas, leg. 8, ramo 3, núm. 50; leg. 10, ramo 1, núm. 6; leg. 22, ramo 1, núm. 1, fos. 408 r −428 v; núm. 21; leg. 32, núm. 30; leg. 285, núm. 1, fos. 30 r −41 v.
↑Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765–1811. By Eva Maria Mehl, Published at University of North Carolina Wilmington. Chapter 4: Levies for the Philippines in Late Colonial Mexico (Page 174)
↑Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765–1811. By Eva Maria Mehl, Published at University of North Carolina Wilmington. Chapter 4: Levies for the Philippines in Late Colonial Mexico (Page 172)
↑"Reducciones". Dicionario de la Lengua Espanola. Real Academia Espanola. Retrieved March 20, 2023.
↑Constantino, Renato; Constantino, Letizia R. (1975). "Chapter V - The Colonial Landscape". The Philippines: A Past Revisited (Vol. I) (Sixteenth Printing (January 1998) ed.). Manila, Philippines: Renato Constantino. pp. 60–61. ISBN 971-895-800-2. OL 9180911M.
↑Abinales, P. N.; Amoroso, Donna J. (2005). State and Society in the Philippines. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 53, 68. ISBN 978-0-7425-1024-1. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
↑José de la Concha, El ministro de Ultramar (December 24, 1863). "Real Decreto"[Spanish Royal Decree of 20 December 1863](PDF). Gaceta de Madrid (in Spanish). Retrieved October 25, 2014.
↑Sánchez-Jiménez, David (October 1, 2010). "La hispanización y la identidad hispana en Filipinas". Publications and Research. Archived from the original on September 14, 2021. Retrieved September 14, 2021.
↑"Fortress of Empire, Rene Javellana, S. J. 1997". Archived from the original on July 15, 2017. Retrieved June 11, 2017.
↑Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the Philippines". Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1: 179. Archived from the original on December 6, 2016. Retrieved February 2, 2017. Within the walls, there were some six hundred houses of a private nature, most of them built of stone and tile, and an equal number outside in the suburbs, or "arrabales," all occupied by Spaniards ("todos son vivienda y poblacion de los Españoles"). This gives some twelve hundred Spanish families or establishments, exclusive of the religious, who in Manila numbered at least one hundred and fifty, the garrison, at certain times, about four hundred trained Spanish soldiers who had seen service in Holland and the Low Countries, and the official classes.
↑"Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines". PHILIPPINE-HISTORY.ORG. 2005. Archived from the original on August 31, 2019. Retrieved March 24, 2017.
↑Herrington, Don. "West Coast Of The Island Of Luzon | Tourist Attractions". www.livinginthephilippines.com. Archived from the original on December 6, 2016. Retrieved February 2, 2017.
↑Galaup "Travel Accounts" page 375.
1 2"Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World" By Eva Maria Mehl, page 235.
↑Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the Philippines". Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1: 229. Archived from the original on December 6, 2016. Retrieved February 2, 2017. Reforms under General Arandía.—The demoralization and misery with which Obando's rule closed were relieved somewhat by the capable government of Arandía, who succeeded him. Arandía was one of the few men of talent, energy, and integrity who stood at the head of affairs in these islands during two centuries. He reformed the greatly disorganized military force, establishing what was known as the "Regiment of the King," made up very largely of Mexican soldiers [note: emphasis added]. He also formed a corps of artillerists composed of Filipinos. These were regular troops, who received from Arandía sufficient pay to enable them to live decently and like an army.
↑Blair, Emma Helen; Robertson, James Alexander (1905). The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 25. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company. pp. 150–177.
↑"SECOND BOOK OF THE SECOND PART OF THE CONQUESTS OF THE FILIPINAS ISLANDS, AND CHRONICLE OF THE RELIGIOUS OF OUR FATHER, ST. AUGUSTINE"Archived May 8, 2021, at the Wayback Machine (Zamboanga City History) "He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reënforcements of soldiers, many of them from Perú, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom."
↑"One moment, please..."www.panamaviejo.org. Archived from the original on February 5, 2012.
↑"Iloilo History Part 5". Research Center for Iloilo. Archived from the original on October 9, 2014.
↑"The Philippine Archipelago" By Yves Boquet Page 262
↑De la Torre, Visitacion (2006). The Ilocos Heritage. Makati City: Tower Book House. p. 2. ISBN 978-971-91030-9-7.
↑Duka 2008, p. 72.
1 2 3During the Spanish colonial period, the terms Insulares and Filipino generally referred to full-blooded Spaniards who had been born in the Philippines, distinguishing them from Spaniards born in Spain who were termed Peninsulares. The first documented use of the tern Filipino to refer to persons of Philippine ethnicity was in the 19th century poem A la juventud filipina by Jose Rizal.^[255]
↑Park 2022, p. "For this, Bernal borrows a premise offered by linguist Keith Whinnom in Spanish Contact Vernaculars in the Philippine Islands (1956), namely that "Mexican Spanish" is "the basis of the vocabulary of the contact vernaculars." Quoted from León-Portilla, "Algunos nahuatlismos en el castellano de Filipinas." León-Portilla, in turn, affirms that he constructs his short reflection from Retana's Diccionario de Filipinismos (1923).
↑The Unlucky Country: The Republic of the Philippines in the 21St Century By Duncan Alexander McKenzie (Page xii)
↑Carol R. Ember; Melvin Ember; Ian A. Skoggard, eds. (2005). "History". Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures around the World, Volume 1. Springer.
↑Stephanie Mawson, 'Between Loyalty and Disobedience: The Limits of Spanish Domination in the Seventeenth Century Pacific' (Univ. of Sydney M.Phil. thesis, 2014), appendix 3.
↑"Japanese Christian". Philippines: Google map of Paco district of Manila, Philippines. Archived from the original on May 7, 2010.
↑"Spanish Settlers in the Philippines (1571–1599) By Antonio Garcia-Abasalo"(PDF). Archived(PDF) from the original on January 17, 2021. Retrieved August 8, 2018.
↑Relacion de las Encomiendas existentes en Filipinas el dia 31 de Mayo de 1591. in Retana: Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino, iv, pp. 39-112.
↑Peasants, Servants, and Sojourners: Itinerant Asians in Colonial New Spain, 1571–1720 By Furlong, Matthew J.Archived April 29, 2022, at the Wayback Machine "Slaves purchased by the indigenous elites, Spanish and Hokkiens of the colony seemed drawn most often from South Asia, particularly Bengal and South India, and less so, from other sources, such as East Africa, Brunei, Makassar, and Java..." Chapter 2 "Rural Ethnic Diversity" Page 164 (Translated from: "Inmaculada Alva Rodríguez, Vida municipal en Manila (siglos xvi–xvii) (Córdoba: Universidad de Córdoba, 1997), 31, 35–36."
↑Retana, "Relacion de las Encomiendas existentes en Filipinas el dia 31 de 1.591" Archivo del Bibliófilo Filipino IV, p 39–112
↑Zamboangueño Chavacano: Philippine Spanish Creole or Filipinized Spanish Creole? By Tyron Judes D. Casumpang (Page 3)
↑Bartolome Juan Leonardy y de Argensola, Conquistas de las islas Molucas (Madrid: Alonso Martin, 1909) pp. 351–8; Cesar Majul, Muslims in the Philippines (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1973) pp. 119–20; Hal, History of Southeast Asia, pp. 249–50.
↑Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the Philippines". Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1: 139. Archived from the original on December 6, 2016. Retrieved February 2, 2017. Fourth.—In considering this Spanish conquest, we must understand that the islands were far more sparsely inhabited than they are to-day. The Bisayan islands, the rich Camarines, the island of Luzon, had, in Legaspi's time, only a small fraction of their present great populations. This population was not only small, but it was also extremely disunited. Not only were the great tribes separated by the differences of language, but, as we have already seen, each tiny community was practically independent, and the power of a dato very limited. There were no great princes, with large forces of fighting retainers whom they could call to arms, such as the Portuguese had encountered among the Malays south in the Moluccas.
↑Reyeg, Fernardo; Marsh, Ned (December 2011). "2"(PDF). The Filipino Way of War: Irregular Warfare Through The Centuries (Post Graduate). Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, California. p. 21. hdl:10945/10681. Archived(PDF) from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved February 15, 2021.
↑Spain (1680). Recopilación de las Leyes de Indias. Titulo Quince. De las Audiencias y Chancillerias Reales de las Indias. Madrid. Spanish-language facsimile of the original.
↑Coleman 2009, pp. 17–59
↑Antonio de Morga (1609). Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas. Fondo de Cultura. ISBN 978-0-521-01035-1.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
1 2 3 4 5Dolan & 1991-4
↑Shafer 1958, p.
↑"Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon"(PDF). Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia. Archaeology Division, National Museum of the Philippines. Archived(PDF) from the original on April 13, 2015. Retrieved October 26, 2015.
↑Williams, Glyn (1999). The Prize of All the Oceans. New York: Viking. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-670-89197-9.
↑Schurz, William Lytle. The Manila Galleon, 1939. p. 193.
↑1996. "Silk for Silver: Manila-Macao Trade in the 17th Century." Philippine Studies 44, 1:52–68.
↑"Orden de enviar hombres a Filipinas desde México" (Consejo de Indias España)Archived January 4, 2025, at the Wayback Machine(English Translation from Spanish original: "Royal Decree to the Count of Coruña, Viceroy of New Spain, informing him that, according to information from Captain Gabriel de Rivera who came from the Philippines, on a journey made by Governor Gonzalo Ronquillo to the Cagayan River some Spaniards were lost, and that to make up for this lack and populate these islands it was necessary to take up to two hundred men to them. The viceroy is ordered to attend to this request and send them from New Spain, in addition to another two hundred that were entrusted to him from Lisbon."
1 2Letter from Fajardo to Felipe III From Manila, August 15 1620.(From the Spanish Archives of the Indies)Archived February 4, 2018, at the Wayback Machine("The infantry does not amount to two hundred men, in three companies. If these men were that number, and Spaniards, it would not be so bad; but, although I have not seen them, because they have not yet arrived here, I am told that they are, as at other times, for the most part boys, mestizos, and mulattoes, with some Indians (Native Americans). There is no little cause for regret in the great sums that reënforcements of such men waste for, and cost, your Majesty. I cannot see what betterment there will be until your Majesty shall provide it, since I do not think, that more can be done in Nueva Spaña, although the viceroy must be endeavoring to do so, as he is ordered.")
↑Fish, Shirley. The Manila-Acapulco Galleons: The Treasure Ships of the Pacific, with an Annotated List of the Transpacific Galleons 1565–1815. Central Milton Keynes, England: Authorhouse 2011.
↑Seijas, Tatiana (2014). Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-95285-9.Rose, Christopher (January 13, 2016). "Episode 76: The Trans-Pacific Slave Trade". 15 Minute History. University of Texas at Austin. Archived from the original on July 19, 2019. Retrieved January 13, 2016.
↑Eloisa Gomez Borah (1997). "Chronology of Filipinos in America Pre-1989"(PDF). Anderson School of Management. University of California, Los Angeles. Archived from the original(PDF) on February 8, 2012. Retrieved February 25, 2012.
↑Villamar, Cuauhtemoc (March 2022). "El Galeón de Manila y el comercio de Asia: Encuentro de culturas y sistemas". Interacción Sino-Iberoamericana / Sino-Iberoamerican Interaction. 2 (1): 85–109. doi:10.1515/sai-2022-0008. S2CID 249318172.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific By Stephanie J. MawsonArchived June 3, 2018, at the Wayback Machine AGI, México, leg. 25, núm. 62; AGI, Filipinas, leg. 8, ramo 3, núm. 50; leg. 10, ramo 1, núm. 6; leg. 22, ramo 1, núm. 1, fos. 408 r –428 v; núm. 21; leg. 32, núm. 30; leg. 285, núm. 1, fos. 30 r –41 v.
↑Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1993). Philippines: a country study. Area handbook series (4th ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 108–112. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8. Archived from the original on May 26, 2022. Retrieved February 16, 2021– via The Library of Congress.
↑Garcıa de los Arcos, "Grupos etnicos," ´ 65–66
↑The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market Page 36
↑Tomás de Comyn, general manager of the Compañia Real de Filipinas, in 1810 estimated that out of a total population of 2,515,406, "the European Spaniards, and Spanish creoles and mestizos do not exceed 4,000 persons of both sexes and all ages, and the distinct castes or modifications known in America under the name of mulatto, quarteroons, etc., although found in the Philippine Islands, are generally confounded in the three classes of pure Indians, Chinese mestizos and Chinese." In other words, the Mexicans who had arrived in the previous century had so intermingled with the local population that distinctions of origin had been forgotten by the 19th century. The Mexicans who came with Legázpi and aboard succeeding vessels had blended with the local residents so well that their country of origin had been erased from memory.
↑Doran, Christine (1993). "Spanish and Mestizo Women of Manila". Philippine Studies. 41 (3): 269–286. JSTOR 42633385.
1 2Newson, Linda A. (April 16, 2009). Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-6197-1. Archived from the original on March 8, 2023. Retrieved February 3, 2024.
↑Crossley, John Newsome (July 28, 2013). Hernando de los Ríos Coronel and the Spanish Philippines in the Golden Age. London, England: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 168–169. ISBN 978-1-4094-8242-0. Archived from the original on February 11, 2023. Retrieved January 13, 2021.
↑Tracy 1995, pp. 12, 55
↑Tracy 1995, p. 9
↑Tracy 1995, p. 58
↑Backhouse, Thomas (1765). The Secretary at War to Mr. Secretary Conway. London: British Library. pp. v. 40.
↑Raitisoja, Geni " Chinatown Manila: Oldest in the world"Archived April 2, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, Tradio86.com, July 8, 2006, accessed March 19, 2011.
↑Fish 2003, p. 158
↑Mehl, Eva Maria (2016). Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World. Cambridge University Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-107-13679-3.
↑"The Board of the Philippines". Fundacion Goya en Aragon. Archived from the original on July 5, 2021. Retrieved June 24, 2021.
↑Mehl, Eva Maria (2016). "Unruly Mexicans in Manila: Imperial Goals and Colonial Concerns". Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World. pp. 227–266. doi:10.1017/CBO9781316480120.007. ISBN 978-1-316-48012-0. In Governor Anda y Salazar's opinion, an important part of the problem of vagrancy was the fact that Mexicans and Spanish disbanded after finishing their military or prison terms all over the islands, even the most distant, looking for subsistence.
↑Paquette, Gabriel B. (2011). Enlightenment, Governance, and Reform in Spain and its Empire, 1759–1808. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-30052-1. Retrieved March 25, 2026.
↑Cheong, Weng Eang (September 1970). "Changing the Rules of the Game (The India-Manila Trade: 1785–1809)". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 1 (2). Cambridge University Press: 1–19. doi:10.1017/S002246340001925X. Retrieved March 25, 2026.
↑Dolan & 1991-5
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26Martínez de Zúñiga, Joaquín; Retana, W. E. (Wenceslao Emilio) (June 19, 1893). "Estadismo de las islas Filipinas : ó, Mis viajes por este país". Madrid : [Impr. de la viuda de M. Minuesa de los Rios] – via Internet Archive.
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1 2Maximilian Larena (January 21, 2021). "Supplementary Information for Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years (Appendix, Page 35)"(PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (13): 35. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11826132L. doi:10.1073/pnas.2026132118. PMC 8020671. PMID 33753512. Archived(PDF) from the original on July 1, 2021. Retrieved March 23, 2021.
↑"Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 Paula C. Park" Page 100
↑McKenzie, Duncan Alexander (January 27, 2012). "The Unlucky Country: The Republic of the Philippines in the 21St Century". BalboaPress – via Google Books.
↑Garcia, María Fernanda (1998). "Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808)". Bolotin Archivo General de la Nación. 4 (11). Archived from the original on August 12, 2022. Retrieved September 20, 2022.
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[44] The Philippines and India – Dhirendra Nath Roy, Manila 1929 and India and The World – By Buddha Prakash p. 119–120.

[45] Hsiao-Chun Hung, et al. (2007). Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia. PNAS.

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[Pathos_of_Origin-49] Bellwood, Peter (2011). Pathos of Origin. pp. 31–41.

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[61] Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800 By John N. Miksic Chapter 4 Page 179.

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[67] Reyeg, Fernardo; Marsh, Ned (December 2011). "2"(PDF). The Filipino Way of War: Irregular Warfare Through The Centuries (Post Graduate). Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, California. p. 21. hdl:10945/10681. Archived(PDF) from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved February 15, 2021.

[68] Newson, Linda A. (2009). Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824832728.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-3272-8. Given the significance of the size and distribution of the population to the spread of diseases and their ability to become endemic, it is worth commenting briefly on the physical and human geography of the Philippines. The hot and humid tropical climate would have generally favored the propagation of many diseases, especially water-borne infections, though there might be regional or seasonal variations in climate that might affect the incidence of some diseases. In general, however, the fact that the Philippines comprise some seven thousand islands, some of which are uninhabited even today, would have discouraged the spread of infections, as would the low population density.

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[B&R3Anonymous1572-88] Blair, Emma Helen; Robertson, James Alexander, eds. (1903). "Relation of the Conquest of the Island of Luzon". The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 3. Ohio, Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company. p. 145.

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[FOOTNOTEScott198467-97] Scott 1984, p. 67.

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[101] FILIPINOS IN CHINA BEFORE 1500 By William Henry Scott Page 2

[102] Yang Bowen, Zhufan zhi jiaoshi (Beijing, 1996), p. 145

[103] Hugh R. Clark, Community, trade, and networks, Southern Fujian province from the third to the thirteenth century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 127‒132.

[storymaps.arcgis.com-104] 1 2A Chinese Gazetteer of Foreign LandsArchived February 1, 2023, at the Wayback Machine A new translation of Part 1 of the Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 (1225) By Shao-yun Yang (Department of History, Denison University) October 2, 2022

[105] Bellwood, Peter (2017). First Islanders: Prehistory and Human Migration in Island Southeast Asia. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 230–245. ISBN 978-1119251552.

[106] Mulder, "The Philippine Islands in the Chinese World Map of 1674," page 222.

[auto2-107] 1 2The First Voyage Round the World by Antonio Pigafetta, translated by Lord Stanley of Alderley (Page 105)

[108] Isorena, Efren B. (2004). "The Visayan Raiders of the China Coast, 1174–1190 Ad". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 32 (2): 73–95. JSTOR 29792550. Chau Ju-Kua, writing in the thirteenth century, probably was the first to mention that certain ferocious raiders of China's Fukien coast probably came by way of the southern portion of the island of Formosa, He referred to them as the Pi-sho-ye.

[109] Isorena, Efren B. (2004). "The Visayan Raiders of the China Coast, 1174–1190 Ad". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 32 (2): 73–95. JSTOR 29792550.

[110] Jovito S. Abellana, "Bisaya Patronymesis Sri Visjaya" (Ms., Cebuano Studies Center, ca. 1960)

[111] Sonia M. Zaide (1999). The Philippines: a unique nation. All-Nations Pub. pp. 39 and note 19 on p. 416, which cites Dr. Juan C. Orendain, Ten Datus of Madiaas (Manila: Mabuhay Publ. 1963), Dr. Manuel L. Carreon, Maragtas: The Datus from Borneo, Sarawak Museum Journal Vol. VIII (1957) pp. 51–99, and an 1858 manuscript by Fr. Tomas Santaren. ISBN 978-971-642-071-5.

[112] Abeto, Isidro Escare (1989). "Chapter X – Confederation of Madyaas". Philippine history: reassessed / Isidro Escare Abeto. Metro Manila :: Integrated Publishing House Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Library. p. 54. OCLC 701327689. Already conceived while he was in Binanua-an, and as the titular head of all the datus left behind by Datu Puti, Datu Sumakwel thought of some kind of system as to how he could exercise his powers given him by Datu Puti over all the other datus under his authority.

[113] Maragtas by Pedro Alcantara Monteclaro

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[116] Nicholl 1983, p. 37 (Sub-citation taken from Ferrand, Relations p. 333)

[Talaguit-117] Talaguit, Christian (January 2020). "Mga Maragtas ng Panay: Comparative Analysis of Documents about the Bornean Settlement Tradition". De la Salle University, History Department.

[Santarita-118] Santarita, J. B. (2018). Panyupayana: The Emergence of Hindu Polities in the Pre-Islamic Philippines. Cultural and Civilisational Links Between India and Southeast Asia, 93–105.

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[Astrid-121] THE GENEALOGY OF HARI' TUPAS: AN ETHNOHISTORY OF CHIEFLY POWER AND HIERARCHY IN SUGBU AS A PROTOSTATE Astrid Sala-BozaArchived April 5, 2023, at the Wayback Machine Page 280.

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[FOOTNOTECruzAdiong2020-125] Cruz & Adiong 2020.

[126] Kinaadman. 2001. Volume 23. Xavier University Press. Page 34.

[FOOTNOTEScott198459-127] Scott 1984, p. 59.

[FOOTNOTECruzAdiong202024-128] Cruz & Adiong 2020, p. 24.

[129] Santos, Hector (1999). "The Butuan Silver Strip. A Philippine Leaf". Archived from the original on July 24, 2011. Retrieved July 16, 2011.

[130] Eric Casino. "The Barangays of Butuan: Lumad Mindanaoans in China and the Sulu Zone". Asia Mindanaw: Dialogue of Peace and Development (2014): 2.

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[132] Wang, Zhenping (March 31, 2008). "Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial History of the Philippines"(PDF). Journal of East Asian Cultural Interaction Studies. Archived(PDF) from the original on February 13, 2023. Retrieved January 4, 2022– via Kansai University Institutional Reposaitory.

[133] FILIPINOS IN CHINA BEFORE 1500 By William Henry Scott (Page 4)

[134] Ptak, Roderich (1998). "From Quanzhou to the Sulu Zone and beyond: Questions Related to the Early Fourteenth Century". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 29 (2): 269–294. doi:10.1017/S002246340000744X. JSTOR 20072046. S2CID 162707729.

[FOOTNOTERausa-Gomez1967Lourdes_Rausa-Gomez_cited_Sir_Stamford_Raffles,_himself_citing_the_'Traditional_History_of_Java'_wherein_he_said_that_Manila_and_Sulu_in_the_Philippines_were_part_of_Majapahapit,_however_she_doubted_the_veracity_of_Stamford_Raffles_assertion_due_to_the_lack_of_archaeological_evidence_between_Majapahit_and_the_Philippines_in_her_1967_article._However,_that_article_has_been_renderred_outdated_due_to_the_discovery_of_the_Laguna_Copperplate_Inscription_in_1989_which_proved_links_between_Java_and_Manila,_which_makes_her_dismissal_of_the_Raffles_assertion_null_and_the_Raffles_assertion_feasible-135] Rausa-Gomez 1967, Lourdes Rausa-Gomez cited Sir Stamford Raffles, himself citing the 'Traditional History of Java' wherein he said that Manila and Sulu in the Philippines were part of Majapahapit, however she doubted the veracity of Stamford Raffles assertion due to the lack of archaeological evidence between Majapahit and the Philippines in her 1967 article. However, that article has been renderred outdated due to the discovery of the Laguna Copperplate Inscription in 1989 which proved links between Java and Manila, which makes her dismissal of the Raffles assertion null and the Raffles assertion feasible.

[136] History for Brunei Darussalam: Sharing our Past. Curriculum Development Department, Ministry of Education. 2009. ISBN 978-99917-2-372-3.

[FOOTNOTERausa-Gomez196792-137] Rausa-Gomez 1967, p. 92.

[138] Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial History of the PhilippinesArchived February 13, 2023, at the Wayback Machine By Wang Zhenping Page 258.

[139] Andy Barski, Albert Beaucort; Bruce Carpenter, Barski (2007). Bali and Lombok. Dorling Kindersley, London. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-7566-2878-9.

[Odal2000-140] Odal-Devora, Grace (2000). "The River Dwellers". In Alejandro, Reynaldo Gamboa; Yuson, Alfred A. (eds.). Pasig: The River of Life. Unilever Philippines. pp. 43–66.

[141] 100 Events That Shaped The Philippines (Adarna Book Services Inc. 1999 Published by National Centennial Commission) Page 72 "The Founding of the Sulu Sultanate"

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[144] Philippine History Module-based Learning I' 2002 Ed. Rex Bookstore, Inc. pp. 39–. ISBN 978-971-23-3449-8.

[145] Philippine History. Rex Bookstore, Inc. 2004. pp. 46–. ISBN 978-971-23-3934-9.

[cia-146] "Brunei". CIA World Factbook. 2011. Archived from the original on July 6, 2022. Retrieved January 13, 2011.

[147] "The Maguindanao Sultanate", Moro National Liberation Front web site. "The Political and Religious History of the Bangsamoro People, condensed from the book Muslims in the Philippines by Dr. C. A. Majul." (archived from the original on January 26, 2003) Retrieved January 9, 2008.

[National_Historical_Commission-148] Palafox, Queenie. "The Sultan of the River". National Historical Commission. Archived from the original on June 17, 2013. Retrieved March 16, 2013.

[Hayase2007-149] Shinzō Hayase (2007). Mindanao Ethnohistory Beyond Nations: Maguindanao, Sangir, and Bagobo Societies in East Maritime Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-971-550-511-6.

[Laarhoven_1986_35-150] Laarhoven, Ruurdje (1986). "We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 14 (1): 35. ISSN 0115-0243. JSTOR 29791876.

[FOOTNOTEScott1984-151] Scott 1984.

[Santiago-152] Santiago, Luciano P.R., The Houses of Lakandula, Matanda, and Soliman [1571–1898]: Genealogy and Group Identity, Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 18 [1990]

[153] Henson, Mariano A. 1965. The Province of Pampanga and Its Towns: A.D. 1300–1965. 4th ed. revised. Angeles City: By the author.

[FOOTNOTEAgoncillo199022-154] Agoncillo 1990, p. 22.

[FOOTNOTESaunders200260-155] Saunders 2002, p. 60.

[FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner198999-156] Herbert & Milner 1989, p. 99.

[FOOTNOTELeaMilward200116-157] Lea & Milward 2001, p. 16.

[FOOTNOTEHicks200734-158] Hicks 2007, p. 34.

[FOOTNOTEChurch201216-159] Church 2012, p. 16.

[FOOTNOTEEur2002203-160] Eur 2002, p. 203.

[FOOTNOTEAbdul_Majid20072-161] Abdul Majid 2007, p. 2.

[FOOTNOTEWelman20138-162] Welman 2013, p. 8.

[163] Cf. William Henry Scott (1903). "Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society". (January 1, 1994) pp. 109–110.

[MediterraneanConnection-164] Scott, William Henry (1989). "The Mediterranean Connection". Philippine Studies. 37 (2). Ateneo de Manila University Press: 131–144. doi:10.13185/2244-1638.1337. ISSN 2244-1638. Archived from the original on May 19, 2022. Retrieved June 24, 2021. (p.)

[Luzam-165] Pinto, Paulo Jorge de Sousa; Lourenço, Miguel Rodrigues; Pinto, Pedro; Roe, Jeremy (2025). Historia Obscura: The Philippines in 16th and 17th Century Portuguese Sources(PDF). Vol. 1. Manila: National Historical Commission of the Philippines. p. 4. ISBN 978-971-538-386-8. Retrieved March 25, 2026.

[ReferenceA-166] 1 2Scott 1989, p. 195.

[167] The former sultan of Malacca decided to retake his city from the Portuguese with a fleet of ships from Lusung in 1525 CE. SOURCE: Barros, Joao de, Decada terciera de Asia de Ioano de Barros dos feitos que os Portugueses fezarao no descubrimiento dos mares e terras de Oriente [1628], Lisbon, 1777, courtesy of William Henry Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society, Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994, page 194.

[:8-168] 12Pires, Tomé; Rodrigues, Francisco; Cortesão, Armando (1978). A suma oriental de Tomé Pires e o livro de Francisco Rodrigues: Leitura e notas de Armando Cortesão. Coimbra: Universidade de Coimbra.

[Reid-169] Reid, Anthony (1995). "Continuity and Change in the Austronesian Transition to Islam and Christianity". In Peter Bellwood; James J. Fox; Darrell Tryon (eds.). The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives(PDF). Canberra: Department of Anthropology, The Australian National University. doi:10.22459/A.09.2006. ISBN 978-0-7315-2132-6.

[turnbull-170] Turnbull, C. M. (1977). A History of Singapore: 1819–1975. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-580354-9.

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[173] Ocampo -, Ambeth R. (October 18, 2017). "Luzon jars in Japanese tea ceremony". Inquirer.net. Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved June 23, 2018.

[inu-174] Inumaru, Tadashi; Yoshida, Mitsukuni, eds. (1992). The Traditional Crafts of Japan. Volume 3: Ceramics. Diamond, Inc. p. 7.

[175] Scott 1989, p. 194.

[176] Duarte Barbosa, Livro (Boxer, pp. 132–134, § 21)

[177] João de Barros, Décadas da Ásia (Stevens, vol 3, pp. 290–293)

[178] Gaspar Correia, Lendas da Índia (Acad. Ciências, vol 1, pp. 290–295)

[179] Fernão Lopes de Castanheda (1551 ed., vol 1, pp. 160–163)

[180] Décadas da Ásia (Lisbon, 1778) Vol. 5, pp. 95–100 (Década VIII, Livro II, cap. V) Siam (1547)

[181] "Quest of the Dragon and Bird Clan; The Golden Age (Volume III)" -Lungshanoid (Glossary)- By Paul Kekai Manansala

[182] Bayao, Bras, Letter to the king dated Goa November 1, 1540, Archivo Nacional de Torre de Tombo: Corpo Cronologico, parte 1, maco 68, doc. 63, courtesy of William Henry Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society, Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994, page 194.

[183] The Mediterranean Connection by William Henry Scott Page 138 (Published By: Ateneo de Manila University) Taken from "Translated in Teixera, The Portuguese Missions, p. 166."

[184] Fernão Mendes Pinto, Peregrinação (C. R. Boxer, ed., The Travels of Mendes Pinto, vol. 1, Hakluyt Society, 1956) pp. 256–261 (Book II, ch. XLIX) Aceh (1539)

[185] Skaff, Jonathan Karam, Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800

[186] The Janissaries by David Nicolle and Christa Hook (p.12, ELI - 58)"The boys are registered by the devşirme officer and allotted a certain amount of money for travel expenses. On their backs, the boys carry small packs filled with their possessions for the long journey to the capital. Once they arrive, they will be circumcised and commence training for different administrative and military posts. They are dressed in red in order to be easily identified should they escape. As the accompanying text indicates, boys could only be taken from families with more than one son. The boys were chosen on the basis of their intelligence and physical appearance and beauty, with ugly boys and orphans being deemed unfit for state service."

[187] Scott, William Henry (1989). "The Mediterranean Connection". Philippine Studies. 37 (2): 131–144. doi:10.13185/2244-1638.1337. Archived from the original on August 4, 2020. Retrieved January 21, 2023. Quoting from; Cortes 30, Suma, pp. 376–77, and 362.

[188] Pigafetta, Antonio (1524). Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo.

[marivir-189] Marivir Montebon, Retracing Our Roots – A Journey into Cebu's Pre-Colonial Past, p.15

[190] Celestino C. Macachor (2011). "Searching for Kali in the Indigenous Chronicles of Jovito Abellana". Rapid Journal. 10 (2). Archived from the original on July 3, 2012. Retrieved March 1, 2018.

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[192] Pigafetta, Antonio (1874). The first voyage round the world by Magellan. Translated by Lord Stanley of Alderley. London: The Hakluyt Society.

[lac47-193] Lacsamana 1990, p. 47

[194] Donoso, Isaac (2015). "The Philippines and al-Andalus: Linking the Edges of the Classical Islamic World". Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints. 63 (2): 247–273. doi:10.13185/2244-1638.4074. Retrieved March 25, 2026.

[195] Scott 1985, p. 51.

[196] Latino Book Review (February 16, 2023). "When Tlaxcalan Natives Went to War in the Philippines". Retrieved March 25, 2026.

[197] Wing, J.T. (2015). Roots of Empire: Forests and State Power in Early Modern Spain, c.1500-1750. Brill's Series in the History of the Environment. Brill. p. 109. ISBN 978-90-04-26137-2. At the time of Miguel López de Legazpi's voyage in 1564-5, the Philippines were not a unified polity or nation.

[FOOTNOTEKurlansky199964-198] Kurlansky 1999, p. 64.

[FOOTNOTEJoaquin1988-199] Joaquin 1988.

[200] De Borja, Marciano R. (2005). Basques in the Philippines. Reno: University of Nevada Press. pp. 30–39. ISBN 978-0-87417-590-5.

[201] The friar says: Es la isla de Panay muy parecida a la de Sicilia, así por su forma triangular come por su fertilidad y abundancia de bastimentos... Es la isla más poblada, después de Manila y Mindanao, y una de las mayores, por bojear más de cien leguas. En fertilidad y abundancia es en todas la primera... El otro corre al oeste con el nombre de Alaguer [Halaur], desembocando en el mar a dos leguas de distancia de Dumangas...Es el pueblo muy hermoso, ameno y muy lleno de palmares de cocos. Antiguamente era el emporio y corte de la más lucida nobleza de toda aquella isla...Mamuel Merino, O.S.A., ed., Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas (1565–1615), Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, 1975, pp. 374–376.

[FOOTNOTEAlip1964201,317-202] Alip 1964, p. 201,317.

[FOOTNOTEAnnual_report_of_the_Secretary_of_War1903[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidnjp32101050737699view1upseq393_379]-203] Annual report of the Secretary of War 1903, p. 379.

[FOOTNOTEMcAmis200233-204] McAmis 2002, p. 33.

[205] "Letter from Francisco de Sande to Felipe II, 1578". Archived from the original on October 14, 2014. Retrieved October 17, 2009.

[FOOTNOTEFrankham2008278-206] Frankham 2008, p. 278.

[FOOTNOTEAtiyah200271-207] Atiyah 2002, p. 71.

[FOOTNOTESaunders200254–60-208] Saunders 2002, pp. 54–60.

[FOOTNOTESaunders200257-209] Saunders 2002, p. 57.

[210] Hall and McClain 1991, 235.

[211] His name appears also as "Taizufú", "Tayfuzu" or "Zaizufu". San Agustín 1975, 541

[212] AGI, Filipinas, 6, r. 5, n. 53.

[213] ""Merchants, Missionaries and Marauders: Trade and Traffic between Kyūshū (Japan) and Luzon (Philippines) in the Late Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries" By Ubaldo IACCARINO"(PDF).

[214] The "Indo-Pacific" CrossroadsArchived January 23, 2025, at the Wayback Machine: The Asian Waters as Conduits of Knowledge, People, Cargoes, and Technologies Page 107 (Citing:"Wang 1953; Tanaka Takeo 1961.")

[Tondo-215] Martinez, Manuel F. Assassinations & conspiracies : from Rajah Humabon to Imelda Marcos. Manila: Anvil Publishing, 2002.

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[217] Kurlansky, Mark. (1999). The Basque History of the World. New York: Walker & Company. p. 64. ISBN 0-8027-1349-1.

[JoaquinPhilBecoming-218] Joaquin, Nick. (1988). Culture and History: Occasional Notes on the Process of Philippine Becoming. Manila: Solar Publishing.

[219] Borschberg, Peter (2015). Journal, Memorials and Letters of Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge: Security, Diplomacy and Commerce in 17th-century Southeast Asia. NUS Press. pp. 82, 84, 126, 421. ISBN 978-9971-69-527-9.

[220] "Antonio de Morga, in Blair and Robertson, The Philippines Islands, XV, Pages 97-98"

[221] Cesar A. Majul, Muslims in the Philippines (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1999), 128–129.

[222] Sordilla, Shane Patrick. "MAGUINDANAO AND TERNATE CONNECTION AND DISCONNECTION DURING THE AGE OF EUROPEAN COLONIZATION: AN OVERVIEW". Archived from the original on April 11, 2021. Retrieved April 11, 2021.

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[225] Peacock Gallop (2015) "From Anatolia to Aceh: Ottomans, Turks and Southeast Asia".

[226] Borao, José Eugenio (2010). "The Baroque Ending of a Renaissance Endeavour". The Spanish experience in Taiwan, 1626–1642: the Baroque ending of a Renaissance endeavor. Hong Kong University Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-962-209-083-5. JSTOR j.ctt1xcrpk.

[227] "Catholic Missions in the Carolines and Marshall Islands". micsem.org. Archived from the original on November 28, 2017. Retrieved May 22, 2020.

[Diaz1635-228] 1 2Díaz, Casimiro (1905). "Augustinians in the Philippines, 1616–41". In Blair, Emma Helen; Robertson, James Alexander (eds.). The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898, Volume XXV, 1635–1636. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company. p. 289. Retrieved March 24, 2026.

[229] Morga (2008), Sucesos, p. 81.

[230] Reid, Anthony (1995). "Continuity and Change in the Austronesian Transition to Islam and Christianity". In Peter Bellwood; James J. Fox; Darrell Tryon (eds.). The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives(PDF). Canberra: Department of Anthropology, The Australian National University. doi:10.22459/A.09.2006. hdl:2027/mdp.39015051647942. ISBN 978-0-7315-2132-6.

[Kohn2013-231] George Childs Kohn (October 31, 2013). Dictionary of Wars. Routledge. pp. 445–. ISBN 978-1-135-95494-9.

[232] "History – the First Cathedral 1581–1583". Manila Metropolitan Cathedral-Basilica Official Website. Archived from the original on May 24, 2013. Retrieved March 22, 2013.

[233] "A History of the Philippines by David P. Barrows". Archived from the original on February 8, 2019. Retrieved January 15, 2022. The Largest Cities.—Most of this Spanish population dwelt in Manila or in the five other cities which the Spaniards had founded in the first three decades of their occupation. Those were as follows:—

[234] Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific By Stephanie J. MawsonArchived June 3, 2018, at the Wayback Machine AGI, México, leg. 25, núm. 62; AGI, Filipinas, leg. 8, ramo 3, núm. 50; leg. 10, ramo 1, núm. 6; leg. 22, ramo 1, núm. 1, fos. 408 r −428 v; núm. 21; leg. 32, núm. 30; leg. 285, núm. 1, fos. 30 r −41 v.

[235] Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765–1811. By Eva Maria Mehl, Published at University of North Carolina Wilmington. Chapter 4: Levies for the Philippines in Late Colonial Mexico (Page 174)

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[ThePhilAPastRev-238] Constantino, Renato; Constantino, Letizia R. (1975). "Chapter V - The Colonial Landscape". The Philippines: A Past Revisited (Vol. I) (Sixteenth Printing (January 1998) ed.). Manila, Philippines: Renato Constantino. pp. 60–61. ISBN 971-895-800-2. OL 9180911M.

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[243] Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the Philippines". Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1: 179. Archived from the original on December 6, 2016. Retrieved February 2, 2017. Within the walls, there were some six hundred houses of a private nature, most of them built of stone and tile, and an equal number outside in the suburbs, or "arrabales," all occupied by Spaniards ("todos son vivienda y poblacion de los Españoles"). This gives some twelve hundred Spanish families or establishments, exclusive of the religious, who in Manila numbered at least one hundred and fifty, the garrison, at certain times, about four hundred trained Spanish soldiers who had seen service in Holland and the Low Countries, and the official classes.

[244] "Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines". PHILIPPINE-HISTORY.ORG. 2005. Archived from the original on August 31, 2019. Retrieved March 24, 2017.

[245] Herrington, Don. "West Coast Of The Island Of Luzon | Tourist Attractions". www.livinginthephilippines.com. Archived from the original on December 6, 2016. Retrieved February 2, 2017.

[246] Galaup "Travel Accounts" page 375.

[autogenerated235-247] 1 2"Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World" By Eva Maria Mehl, page 235.

[248] Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the Philippines". Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1: 229. Archived from the original on December 6, 2016. Retrieved February 2, 2017. Reforms under General Arandía.—The demoralization and misery with which Obando's rule closed were relieved somewhat by the capable government of Arandía, who succeeded him. Arandía was one of the few men of talent, energy, and integrity who stood at the head of affairs in these islands during two centuries. He reformed the greatly disorganized military force, establishing what was known as the "Regiment of the King," made up very largely of Mexican soldiers [note: emphasis added]. He also formed a corps of artillerists composed of Filipinos. These were regular troops, who received from Arandía sufficient pay to enable them to live decently and like an army.

[249] Blair, Emma Helen; Robertson, James Alexander (1905). The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 25. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company. pp. 150–177.

[Peru-250] "SECOND BOOK OF THE SECOND PART OF THE CONQUESTS OF THE FILIPINAS ISLANDS, AND CHRONICLE OF THE RELIGIOUS OF OUR FATHER, ST. AUGUSTINE"Archived May 8, 2021, at the Wayback Machine (Zamboanga City History) "He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reënforcements of soldiers, many of them from Perú, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom."

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[FOOTNOTEDuka2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4wk8yqCEmJUCdqfilipinopgPA72_72]-255] Duka 2008, p. 72.

[filipinoterm-256] 1 2 3During the Spanish colonial period, the terms Insulares and Filipino generally referred to full-blooded Spaniards who had been born in the Philippines, distinguishing them from Spaniards born in Spain who were termed Peninsulares. The first documented use of the tern Filipino to refer to persons of Philippine ethnicity was in the 19th century poem A la juventud filipina by Jose Rizal.^[255]

[257] Park 2022, p. "For this, Bernal borrows a premise offered by linguist Keith Whinnom in Spanish Contact Vernaculars in the Philippine Islands (1956), namely that "Mexican Spanish" is "the basis of the vocabulary of the contact vernaculars." Quoted from León-Portilla, "Algunos nahuatlismos en el castellano de Filipinas." León-Portilla, in turn, affirms that he constructs his short reflection from Retana's Diccionario de Filipinismos (1923).

[258] The Unlucky Country: The Republic of the Philippines in the 21St Century By Duncan Alexander McKenzie (Page xii)

[259] Carol R. Ember; Melvin Ember; Ian A. Skoggard, eds. (2005). "History". Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures around the World, Volume 1. Springer.

[260] Stephanie Mawson, 'Between Loyalty and Disobedience: The Limits of Spanish Domination in the Seventeenth Century Pacific' (Univ. of Sydney M.Phil. thesis, 2014), appendix 3.

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[264] Peasants, Servants, and Sojourners: Itinerant Asians in Colonial New Spain, 1571–1720 By Furlong, Matthew J.Archived April 29, 2022, at the Wayback Machine "Slaves purchased by the indigenous elites, Spanish and Hokkiens of the colony seemed drawn most often from South Asia, particularly Bengal and South India, and less so, from other sources, such as East Africa, Brunei, Makassar, and Java..." Chapter 2 "Rural Ethnic Diversity" Page 164 (Translated from: "Inmaculada Alva Rodríguez, Vida municipal en Manila (siglos xvi–xvii) (Córdoba: Universidad de Córdoba, 1997), 31, 35–36."

[265] Retana, "Relacion de las Encomiendas existentes en Filipinas el dia 31 de 1.591" Archivo del Bibliófilo Filipino IV, p 39–112

[266] Zamboangueño Chavacano: Philippine Spanish Creole or Filipinized Spanish Creole? By Tyron Judes D. Casumpang (Page 3)

[267] Bartolome Juan Leonardy y de Argensola, Conquistas de las islas Molucas (Madrid: Alonso Martin, 1909) pp. 351–8; Cesar Majul, Muslims in the Philippines (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1973) pp. 119–20; Hal, History of Southeast Asia, pp. 249–50.

[268] Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the Philippines". Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1: 139. Archived from the original on December 6, 2016. Retrieved February 2, 2017. Fourth.—In considering this Spanish conquest, we must understand that the islands were far more sparsely inhabited than they are to-day. The Bisayan islands, the rich Camarines, the island of Luzon, had, in Legaspi's time, only a small fraction of their present great populations. This population was not only small, but it was also extremely disunited. Not only were the great tribes separated by the differences of language, but, as we have already seen, each tiny community was practically independent, and the power of a dato very limited. There were no great princes, with large forces of fighting retainers whom they could call to arms, such as the Portuguese had encountered among the Malays south in the Moluccas.

[269] Reyeg, Fernardo; Marsh, Ned (December 2011). "2"(PDF). The Filipino Way of War: Irregular Warfare Through The Centuries (Post Graduate). Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, California. p. 21. hdl:10945/10681. Archived(PDF) from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved February 15, 2021.

[270] Spain (1680). Recopilación de las Leyes de Indias. Titulo Quince. De las Audiencias y Chancillerias Reales de las Indias. Madrid. Spanish-language facsimile of the original.

[271] Coleman 2009, pp. 17–59

[272] Antonio de Morga (1609). Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas. Fondo de Cultura. ISBN 978-0-521-01035-1.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)

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[274] Shafer 1958, p.

[275] "Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon"(PDF). Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia. Archaeology Division, National Museum of the Philippines. Archived(PDF) from the original on April 13, 2015. Retrieved October 26, 2015.

[276] Williams, Glyn (1999). The Prize of All the Oceans. New York: Viking. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-670-89197-9.

[277] Schurz, William Lytle. The Manila Galleon, 1939. p. 193.

[278] 1996. "Silk for Silver: Manila-Macao Trade in the 17th Century." Philippine Studies 44, 1:52–68.

[279] "Orden de enviar hombres a Filipinas desde México" (Consejo de Indias España)Archived January 4, 2025, at the Wayback Machine(English Translation from Spanish original: "Royal Decree to the Count of Coruña, Viceroy of New Spain, informing him that, according to information from Captain Gabriel de Rivera who came from the Philippines, on a journey made by Governor Gonzalo Ronquillo to the Cagayan River some Spaniards were lost, and that to make up for this lack and populate these islands it was necessary to take up to two hundred men to them. The viceroy is ordered to attend to this request and send them from New Spain, in addition to another two hundred that were entrusted to him from Lisbon."

[gutenberg1-280] 1 2Letter from Fajardo to Felipe III From Manila, August 15 1620.(From the Spanish Archives of the Indies)Archived February 4, 2018, at the Wayback Machine("The infantry does not amount to two hundred men, in three companies. If these men were that number, and Spaniards, it would not be so bad; but, although I have not seen them, because they have not yet arrived here, I am told that they are, as at other times, for the most part boys, mestizos, and mulattoes, with some Indians (Native Americans). There is no little cause for regret in the great sums that reënforcements of such men waste for, and cost, your Majesty. I cannot see what betterment there will be until your Majesty shall provide it, since I do not think, that more can be done in Nueva Spaña, although the viceroy must be endeavoring to do so, as he is ordered.")

[281] Fish, Shirley. The Manila-Acapulco Galleons: The Treasure Ships of the Pacific, with an Annotated List of the Transpacific Galleons 1565–1815. Central Milton Keynes, England: Authorhouse 2011.

[282] Seijas, Tatiana (2014). Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-95285-9.Rose, Christopher (January 13, 2016). "Episode 76: The Trans-Pacific Slave Trade". 15 Minute History. University of Texas at Austin. Archived from the original on July 19, 2019. Retrieved January 13, 2016.

[283] Eloisa Gomez Borah (1997). "Chronology of Filipinos in America Pre-1989"(PDF). Anderson School of Management. University of California, Los Angeles. Archived from the original(PDF) on February 8, 2012. Retrieved February 25, 2012.

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[Mexicans-285] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific By Stephanie J. MawsonArchived June 3, 2018, at the Wayback Machine AGI, México, leg. 25, núm. 62; AGI, Filipinas, leg. 8, ramo 3, núm. 50; leg. 10, ramo 1, núm. 6; leg. 22, ramo 1, núm. 1, fos. 408 r –428 v; núm. 21; leg. 32, núm. 30; leg. 285, núm. 1, fos. 30 r –41 v.

[286] Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1993). Philippines: a country study. Area handbook series (4th ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 108–112. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8. Archived from the original on May 26, 2022. Retrieved February 16, 2021– via The Library of Congress.

[287] Garcıa de los Arcos, "Grupos etnicos," ´ 65–66

[288] The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market Page 36

[289] Tomás de Comyn, general manager of the Compañia Real de Filipinas, in 1810 estimated that out of a total population of 2,515,406, "the European Spaniards, and Spanish creoles and mestizos do not exceed 4,000 persons of both sexes and all ages, and the distinct castes or modifications known in America under the name of mulatto, quarteroons, etc., although found in the Philippine Islands, are generally confounded in the three classes of pure Indians, Chinese mestizos and Chinese." In other words, the Mexicans who had arrived in the previous century had so intermingled with the local population that distinctions of origin had been forgotten by the 19th century. The Mexicans who came with Legázpi and aboard succeeding vessels had blended with the local residents so well that their country of origin had been erased from memory.

[290] Doran, Christine (1993). "Spanish and Mestizo Women of Manila". Philippine Studies. 41 (3): 269–286. JSTOR 42633385.

[Newson-291] 1 2Newson, Linda A. (April 16, 2009). Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-6197-1. Archived from the original on March 8, 2023. Retrieved February 3, 2024.

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[tracy1995p12p55-293] Tracy 1995, pp. 12, 55

[tracy1995p9-294] Tracy 1995, p. 9

[tracy1995p58-295] Tracy 1995, p. 58

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[301] Mehl, Eva Maria (2016). "Unruly Mexicans in Manila: Imperial Goals and Colonial Concerns". Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World. pp. 227–266. doi:10.1017/CBO9781316480120.007. ISBN 978-1-316-48012-0. In Governor Anda y Salazar's opinion, an important part of the problem of vagrancy was the fact that Mexicans and Spanish disbanded after finishing their military or prison terms all over the islands, even the most distant, looking for subsistence.

[302] Paquette, Gabriel B. (2011). Enlightenment, Governance, and Reform in Spain and its Empire, 1759–1808. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-30052-1. Retrieved March 25, 2026.

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[Pnas-309] 1 2Maximilian Larena (January 21, 2021). "Supplementary Information for Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years (Appendix, Page 35)"(PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (13): 35. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11826132L. doi:10.1073/pnas.2026132118. PMC 8020671. PMID 33753512. Archived(PDF) from the original on July 1, 2021. Retrieved March 23, 2021.

[Intercolonial-310] "Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 Paula C. Park" Page 100

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[senate.gov.ph-314] Macrohon, Pilar (January 21, 2013). "Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday" (Press release). PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines. Archived from the original on May 16, 2021.

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[Dic-316] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Diccionario Geográfico, Estadístico, Histórico, de las Islas Filipinas By Fr. Manuel Buzeta and Fr. Felipe Bravo, Volume 1, Published Madrid :(Impr. de J.C. de la Peña) 1850-1851.

[Buzeta2-317] Buzeta, Manuel; Bravo, Felipe (1850). Diccionario Geográfico, Estadístico, Histórico, de las Islas Filipinas (in Spanish). Madrid: Imp. de D. José C. de la Peña. Retrieved March 18, 2026– via University of Santo Tomas Digital Library and Archives(466).

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[319] Fundación Santa María (Madrid) 1994, p. 508

[Borja-320] De Borja, Marciano R. (2005). Basques in the Philippines. Reno: University of Nevada Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-87417-590-5.

[321] John Crawfurd, History of the Indian Archipelago, (1820), page 445

[322] John Bowring, "Travels in the Philippines", p. 18, London, 1875

[323] Frederic H. Sawyer, "The inhabitants of the Philippines", Preface, London, 1900

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[331] According to Ricardo Pinzon, these two Filipino soldiers—Francisco Mongoy and Isidoro Montes de Oca—were so distinguished in battle that they are regarded as folk heroes in Mexico. General Vicente Guerrero later became the first president of Mexico of African descent. See Floro L. Mercene, "Central America: Filipinos in Mexican History," Ezilon Infobase, January 28, 2005.

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[FOOTNOTEPark2022159-340] Park 2022, p. 159.

[341] Garcia de los Arcos has noted that the Regiment of the King, which had absorbed a large percentage of Mexican recruits and deportees between the 1770s and 1811, became the bastion of discontent supporting the Novales mutiny. ~Garcia de los Arcos, "Criollismo y conflictividad en Filipinas a principios del siglo XIX," in El lejano Oriente espanol: Filipinas ( ˜ Siglo XIX). Actas, ed. Paulino Castaneda ˜ Delgado and Antonio Garcia-Abasolo Gonzalez (Seville: Catedra General Casta ´ nos, ˜1997), 586.

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Cronología

Prehistoria

Camino de Jade Marítimo

La cultura Sa Huỳnh

Período precolonial (900 d. C. a 1565) – Entidades políticas independientes

Historial inicial registrado

Tondo

Cainta

Namayan

Kumintang

Pangasinan

Ma-i

Sandao

Pulilu

La beligerancia visaya contra la China imperial

Madja-as

Cebú (entidad política histórica)

Butuan

Sanmalan

Influencia de los Madjapahit en Filipinas

Sultanato de Maguindanao

Estados Confederados de Lanao

El Imperio de Brunéi y la expansión del Islam

Los Lucoes

Auge y caída de Bo-ol

Rivalidades entre reinos

Colonización y dominio español (1565–1898)

Primeras expediciones y conquistas españolas

Incorporación al Virreinato de Nueva España, con sede en México.

El asentamiento español durante los siglos XVI y XVII

El dominio español durante el siglo XVIII

Ocupación británica (1762–1764)

El dominio español en la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII.

El dominio español durante el siglo XIX

Latin-American revolutions and direct Spanish rule

Philippine Revolution

The First Philippine Republic (1899–1901)

American rule (1898–1946)

Philippine–American War

The Tagalog, Negros, and Zamboanga Republics

Insular Government (1901–1935)

Commonwealth

World War II and Japanese occupation

Military

Home front

The Third Republic (1946–1965)

Administration of Manuel Roxas (1946–1948)

Administration of Elpidio Quirino (1948–1953)

Administration of Ramon Magsaysay (1953–1957)

Administration of Carlos P. Garcia (1957–1961)

Administration of Diosdado Macapagal (1961–1965)

Marcos era

Martial law

Fourth Republic

Fifth Republic (1986–present)

Administration of Corazon Aquino (1986–1992)

Administration of Fidel V. Ramos (1992–1998)

Administration of Joseph Estrada (1998–2001)

Administration of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001–2010)

Administration of Benigno Aquino III (2010–2016)

Administration of Rodrigo Duterte (2016–2022)

Administration of Bongbong Marcos (2022–present)

See also

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links