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Venus de Hohle Fels Pintura de caballos del sistema de cuevas de Lascaux Máscara de Tutankamón Venus de Milo , Alejandro de Antioquía Mona Lisa , Leonardo da Vinci Las señoritas...

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Venus de Hohle Fels
Pintura de caballos del sistema de cuevas de Lascaux
Máscara de Tutankamón
Venus de Milo , Alejandro de Antioquía
Mona Lisa , Leonardo da Vinci
Las señoritas de Aviñón , Pablo Picasso

La historia del arte se centra en los objetos creados por el ser humano con diversos fines espirituales, narrativos, filosóficos, simbólicos, conceptuales, documentales, decorativos e incluso funcionales, entre otros, pero con un énfasis primordial en su forma estética visual. Las artes visuales pueden clasificarse de diversas maneras , como separando las bellas artes de las artes aplicadas ; abarcando la creatividad humana en su conjunto; o centrándose en diferentes medios como la arquitectura , la escultura , la pintura , el cine , la fotografía y las artes gráficas . En los últimos años, los avances tecnológicos han dado lugar al videoarte , el arte digital , el arte escénico , la animación , la televisión y los videojuegos .

La historia del arte se suele narrar como una cronología de las obras maestras creadas durante cada civilización . Así, puede considerarse una historia de alta cultura , personificada por las Maravillas del Mundo . Por otro lado, las expresiones artísticas populares también pueden integrarse en las narrativas de la historia del arte, denominadas artes populares o artesanía . Cuanto más se adentra un historiador del arte en estas últimas formas de cultura popular , más probable es que identifique su trabajo como un estudio de la cultura visual o la cultura material , o como una contribución a campos relacionados con la historia del arte, como la antropología o la arqueología . En estos últimos casos, los objetos de arte pueden denominarse artefactos arqueológicos .

Prehistoria

El arte prehistórico abarca una amplia gama de obras de arte creadas por pintores y escultores de culturas analfabetas, incluyendo algunos de los primeros artefactos humanos. Entre los primeros objetos de arte se encuentran artefactos decorativos del Paleolítico Medio africano. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] También se han descubierto en Sudáfrica recipientes de ese período que podrían haber sido utilizados para contener pinturas de hasta 100 000 años de antigüedad. [ 4 ]

Una forma de arte prehistórico presente en todo el mundo, especialmente en Europa, son las pequeñas estatuillas prehistóricas conocidas como figurillas de Venus , con senos y vientres exagerados. Las más famosas son la Venus de Hohle Fels y la Venus de Willendorf , encontradas en Alemania y Austria . La mayoría tiene cabezas pequeñas, caderas anchas y piernas que se estrechan hacia la punta. A menudo carecen de brazos y pies, y la cabeza suele ser pequeña y sin rostro.

La Venus de Hohle Fels es uno de los numerosos objetos encontrados en el sitio Patrimonio de la Humanidad de la UNESCO de las Cuevas y el Arte de la Edad de Hielo en el Jura de Suabia , donde se encontraron las obras de arte humano no estáticas más antiguas descubiertas hasta la fecha, en forma de figurillas talladas de animales y humanoides, además de los instrumentos musicales más antiguos desenterrados hasta el momento, con artefactos que datan de entre 43.000 y 35.000 a. C. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ]

Las obras de arte prehistóricas más conocidas son las grandes pinturas rupestres paleolíticas que representan animales en Europa continental, especialmente las de Lascaux , en la región francesa de Dordoña . Se conocen varios cientos de cuevas decoradas, que abarcan el Paleolítico Superior ( aprox. 38.000-12.000 a. C.). Existen ejemplos en Ucrania , Italia y Gran Bretaña , pero la mayoría se encuentran en Francia y España . Se han propuesto numerosas teorías sobre la finalidad de este arte, siendo la más aceptada que formaba parte de rituales religiosos, posiblemente para evocar el éxito en la caza.

Antigüedad

Antiguo Cercano Oriente

El antiguo Cercano Oriente se extendía desde Turquía y la costa mediterránea en el oeste hasta Irán y la península arábiga en el este. Con el tiempo, múltiples civilizaciones surgieron, se asentaron y desaparecieron en esta región. Una de las regiones clave fue Mesopotamia , que presenció durante el cuarto milenio a. C. el surgimiento de las primeras ciudades y la forma más primitiva de escritura. La antigua Mesopotamia abarca el actual Irak y partes de Siria y Turquía . Su mitad norte forma parte del Creciente Fértil , donde surgieron importantes desarrollos neolíticos como la agricultura temprana y los asentamientos aldeanos permanentes. Debido a que la región se encuentra enclavada en el delta de los ríos Tigris y Éufrates , numerosas civilizaciones habitaron esta zona, entre las que destacan Sumeria , Akkad , Asiria y Babilonia . La arquitectura mesopotámica se caracterizó por el uso de ladrillos , dinteles y mosaicos cónicos . Ejemplos notables son los zigurats , grandes templos con forma de pirámides escalonadas .

Las tradiciones políticas, económicas, artísticas y arquitectónicas de los sumerios sentaron las bases de la civilización occidental . En Sumeria surgieron numerosos avances: la primera ciudad-estado ( Uruk ), gobernada por el rey Gilgamesh ; la primera religión organizada, basada en una estructura jerárquica de dioses, personas y rituales; la primera escritura conocida, la cuneiforme ; el primer sistema de irrigación y los primeros vehículos con ruedas. También aparecieron sellos cilíndricos , grabados con pequeñas inscripciones e ilustraciones. Otra civilización que se desarrolló en esta región fue el Imperio acadio , el primer gran imperio del mundo.

A principios del primer milenio a. C., tras la caída de los acadios, el imperio asirio dominó todo Oriente Medio, desde el golfo Pérsico hasta el mar Mediterráneo . Sus ciudades estaban repletas de impresionantes edificios y obras de arte. El arte asirio es especialmente conocido por sus detallados relieves en piedra, que representan escenas de la vida cortesana, prácticas religiosas, la caza y batallas épicas. Estos relieves se pintaban inicialmente con colores brillantes y se colocaban en los palacios. Además de su belleza, también reflejan la vida asiria y su visión del mundo, incluyendo la vestimenta y el mobiliario asirios.

Más tarde, los babilonios conquistaron el Imperio Asirio. Durante el siglo VI a. C., Babilonia se convirtió en la ciudad más grande del mundo. Al entrar en Babilonia, los visitantes eran recibidos por la impresionante Puerta de Ishtar , con sus muros cubiertos de ladrillos vidriados de un azul intenso y relieves que representaban dragones, toros y leones. Esta puerta recibe su nombre de Ishtar , la diosa de la guerra y el amor.

A mediados del siglo VI a. C., tras una serie de campañas militares, el Imperio babilónico cayó ante el Imperio aqueménida , gobernado por el rey Ciro II , que se extendía por Oriente Medio y Asia Central , desde Egipto hasta el valle del Indo . Su arte incorpora elementos de todo el imperio, celebrando su riqueza y poder. Persépolis ( Irán ) fue la capital del imperio y alberga impresionantes esculturas que representan imágenes religiosas y personajes del imperio. También se encuentran allí las ruinas de un palacio, con una gran sala de audiencias para recibir invitados.

Además de Mesopotamia e Irán, existieron civilizaciones antiguas que produjeron arte y arquitectura en otras regiones. En Anatolia (actual Turquía ), surgió el Imperio Hitita . Durante la Antigüedad, el sur de Arabia fue importante en la producción y el comercio de plantas aromáticas, lo que generó riqueza para los reinos de la región. Antes del año 4000 a. C., el clima de Arabia era más húmedo que en la actualidad. En el suroeste surgieron varios reinos, como Saba' . La figura humana del sur de Arabia suele estar estilizada, basada en formas rectangulares, pero con detalles finos. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ]

Egipto

Una de las primeras grandes civilizaciones surgió en Egipto , donde se crearon obras de arte elaboradas y complejas por artistas y artesanos profesionales. El arte egipcio era religioso y simbólico. Dada la estructura de poder y la jerarquía altamente centralizadas de la cultura, se creó gran cantidad de arte para honrar al faraón , incluyendo grandes monumentos. El arte y la cultura egipcios enfatizaban el concepto religioso de la inmortalidad. El arte egipcio posterior incluye el arte copto y el bizantino .

La arquitectura se caracteriza por estructuras monumentales, construidas con grandes bloques de piedra, dinteles y columnas sólidas . Los monumentos funerarios incluían mastabas , tumbas de forma rectangular; pirámides , que incluían pirámides escalonadas ( Saqqarah ) o pirámides de lados lisos ( Giza ); y el hipogeo , tumbas subterráneas ( Valle de los Reyes ). Otros grandes edificios eran los templos , que solían ser complejos monumentales precedidos por una avenida de esfinges y obeliscos . Los templos utilizaban pilones y muros trapezoidales con hipetoros , salas hipóstilas y santuarios . Los templos de Karnak , Luxor , Philae y Edfu son buenos ejemplos. Otro tipo de templo es el templo rupestre , en forma de hipogeo , que se encuentra en Abu Simbel y Deir el-Bahari .

La pintura de la época egipcia empleaba la yuxtaposición de planos superpuestos. Las imágenes se representaban jerárquicamente; es decir, el faraón era más grande que los súbditos comunes o enemigos representados a su lado. Los egipcios pintaban el contorno de la cabeza y las extremidades de perfil, mientras que el torso, las manos y los ojos se pintaban de frente. En Egipto se desarrollaron las artes aplicadas , en particular la ebanistería y la metalistería . Existen magníficos ejemplos, como los muebles de cedro con incrustaciones de ébano y marfil que se pueden apreciar en las tumbas del Museo Egipcio . Otros ejemplos incluyen las piezas encontradas en la tumba de Tutankamón , que poseen un gran valor artístico. [ 19 ]

Civilización del Valle del Indo

Descubierta en 1922, mucho después de las culturas contemporáneas de Mesopotamia y Egipto, la civilización del valle del Indo, también conocida como civilización de Harappa ( c. 2400-1900 a. C.), es reconocida actualmente como extraordinariamente avanzada, comparable en algunos aspectos con dichas culturas. Sus yacimientos abarcan un área que se extiende desde el noreste del actual Afganistán , a través de gran parte de Pakistán , hasta el oeste y noroeste de la India . Entre las principales ciudades de esta cultura se encuentran Harappa y Mohenjo-daro , ubicadas respectivamente en Punjab y en la provincia de Sindh , en el norte de Pakistán, y la ciudad portuaria de Lothal , en el estado de Gujarat ( India ). Los artefactos más numerosos son sellos cuadrados y rectangulares , así como impresiones de sellos con representaciones de animales, generalmente toros, y textos harappanos muy breves . También se han encontrado numerosas figurillas estilizadas de terracota en los yacimientos de Harappa, y algunas esculturas de piedra y bronce, más naturalistas que las de cerámica. [ 24 ]

Porcelana

Guerreros del Ejército de Terracota ; c. 214  a. C .; terracota; altura (soldado promedio): c. 1,8 m ; Distrito de Lintong ( Xi'an , Shaanxi , China) [ 26 ]

Los primeros objetos de metal producidos en China datan de hace casi 4000 años, durante la dinastía Xia ( c. 2100-1700 a. C.). Durante la Edad del Bronce china ( dinastías Shang y Zhou ), las intercesiones cortesanas y la comunicación con el mundo espiritual eran realizadas por un chamán (posiblemente el propio rey). En la dinastía Shang ( c. 1600-1050  a. C.), la deidad suprema era Shangdi , pero las familias aristocráticas preferían contactar con los espíritus de sus ancestros. Les preparaban elaborados banquetes de comida y bebida, calentados y servidos en vasijas rituales de bronce . Estas vasijas de bronce tenían diversas formas, según su propósito: para vino, agua, cereales o carne, y algunas estaban marcadas con caracteres legibles, lo que demuestra el desarrollo de la escritura. Este tipo de vasijas, de gran calidad y complejidad, se descubrieron en el valle del río Amarillo , en la provincia de Henan , en yacimientos como Erlitou , Anyang o Zhengzhou . Se utilizaban en rituales religiosos para consolidar la autoridad Shang, y cuando la capital Shang cayó, alrededor del 1050  a. C., sus conquistadores, los Zhou ( c. 1050-156  a. C.), continuaron usando estos recipientes en rituales religiosos, pero principalmente para comida en lugar de bebida. La corte Shang había sido acusada de embriaguez excesiva, y los Zhou, promoviendo al Tian imperial ("Cielo") como la principal fuerza espiritual, en lugar de los ancestros, limitaron el vino en los ritos religiosos, favoreciendo la comida. El uso de bronces rituales continuó hasta principios de la dinastía Han (206 a. C.-220  d. C.).

Uno de los motivos más comunes era el taotie , un rostro estilizado dividido centralmente en dos mitades casi simétricas, con fosas nasales, ojos, cejas, mandíbulas, mejillas y cuernos, rodeado de incisiones. No se puede determinar si el taotie representaba criaturas reales, mitológicas o completamente imaginarias.

Los enigmáticos bronces de Sanxingdui , cerca de Guanghan (en la provincia de Sichuan ), son evidencia de un misterioso sistema religioso sacrificial sin parangón en la antigua China y muy diferente del arte de la dinastía Shang contemporánea en Anyang . Las excavaciones en Sanxingdui, iniciadas en 1986, han revelado cuatro fosas que contienen artefactos de bronce , jade y oro . Se encontró una gran estatua de bronce de una figura humana sobre un pedestal decorado con cabezas de elefante abstractas. Además de la figura de pie, las dos primeras fosas contenían más de 50 cabezas de bronce, algunas con tocados y tres con una cubierta frontal de pan de oro . También se descubrieron fragmentos tubulares de bronce con pequeñas ramas, que probablemente representan árboles, así como hojas, frutas y pájaros de bronce. En 1986 se encontraron más de 4000 objetos en Sanxingdui.

Tras la dinastía Shang, la dinastía Zhou (1050-221 a. C.) gobernó más que ninguna otra en la historia de China. Sus últimos siglos se caracterizaron por la violencia, periodo conocido como el de los Reinos Combatientes . Durante esta época turbulenta, surgieron algunos movimientos filosóficos: el confucianismo , el taoísmo y el legalismo .

El período de los Reinos Combatientes terminó con Qinshi Huangdi , quien unificó China en el 221 a. C. Mandó construir una enorme tumba, custodiada por el Ejército de Terracota . Otro gran proyecto fue un precursor de la Gran Muralla , erigido para repeler a las tribus saqueadoras del norte. Tras la muerte del emperador, su dinastía, la Qin (221-206 a. C.), duró solo tres años. A Qinshi Huangdi le sucedió la dinastía Han (202 a. C.-220 d. C.), durante la cual la Ruta de la Seda se desarrolló considerablemente, trayendo nuevas influencias culturales a China. [ 27 ] [ 28 ]

Griego

A diferencia de cómo las vemos hoy en día, todas las esculturas y templos egipcios , griegos y romanos fueron pintados inicialmente con colores brillantes. Se volvieron blancos debido a cientos de años de abandono y vandalismo provocado por los cristianos durante la Alta Edad Media , quienes los consideraban «paganos» y creían que promovían la idolatría. [ 29 ]

Mediante la armonía de las proporciones y el énfasis en la estética, el arte griego y romano antiguo se convirtió en el fundamento y la inspiración de todo el arte occidental, siendo el modelo al que aspiraban la mayoría de los artistas europeos hasta el siglo XIX. [ 30 ] El poeta latino Horacio , que escribió en la época del emperador romano Augusto (siglo I  a. C. al siglo I  d. C.), afirmó que, aunque conquistada en el campo de batalla, «la Grecia cautiva venció a su salvaje conquistador y llevó las artes a la rústica Roma». El poder del arte griego reside en su representación de la figura humana y en su enfoque en los seres humanos y los dioses antropomórficos como temas principales. Las obras de arte griegas estaban destinadas a decorar templos y edificios públicos, a celebrar victorias en batallas y personalidades destacadas, y a conmemorar a los muertos. También se ofrecían como ofrendas a los dioses.

Aunque no hubo una transición definitiva, el arte se suele dividir estilísticamente en cuatro periodos: Geométrico, Arcaico, Clásico y Helenístico. Durante el periodo Clásico (siglos V y IV  a. C.), el realismo y el idealismo se encontraban en un delicado equilibrio. En comparación, las obras de las épocas Geométrica (siglos IX al VIII a  . C.) y Arcaica (siglos VII al VI a  . C.) pueden parecer primitivas, pero estos artistas tenían objetivos diferentes: la representación naturalista no era necesariamente su meta. Los artistas griegos se basaron en los fundamentos artísticos de Egipto, desarrollando aún más las artes de la escultura, la pintura, la arquitectura y la cerámica. Entre las técnicas que perfeccionaron se incluyen los métodos de tallado y fundición de esculturas, la pintura al fresco y la construcción de magníficos edificios.

Los amantes del arte romano coleccionaban originales griegos antiguos, réplicas romanas de arte griego, o pinturas y esculturas de nueva creación elaboradas en diversos estilos griegos, preservando así para la posteridad obras de arte que de otro modo se habrían perdido. Pinturas murales y sobre tabla, esculturas y mosaicos decoraban espacios públicos y hogares privados. La iconografía griega también aparecía en joyas romanas, vasijas de oro, plata, bronce y terracota, e incluso en armas y pesas comerciales. Redescubiertas durante el Renacimiento temprano , las artes de la antigua Grecia, transmitidas a través del Imperio Romano , sirvieron de base para el arte occidental hasta el siglo XIX. [ 31 ]

Desde el advenimiento de la Edad Clásica en Atenas , en el siglo V a. C., la forma clásica de construir se ha entretejido profundamente en la comprensión occidental de la arquitectura y, de hecho, de la civilización misma. [ 32 ] Desde aproximadamente el 850 a. C. hasta aproximadamente el 300 d. C., la cultura griega antigua floreció en la Grecia continental , en el Peloponeso y en las islas del Egeo . Cinco de las Maravillas del Mundo eran griegas: el Templo de Artemisa en Éfeso , la Estatua de Zeus en Olimpia , el Mausoleo de Halicarnaso , el Coloso de Rodas y el Faro de Alejandría . Sin embargo, la arquitectura griega antigua es más conocida por sus templos , muchos de los cuales se encuentran por toda la región, y el Partenón es un ejemplo primordial de ello. Más tarde, servirán de inspiración para los arquitectos neoclásicos durante finales del siglo XVIII y el siglo XIX. Los templos más conocidos son el Partenón y el Erecteion , ambos en la Acrópolis de Atenas . Otro tipo de edificios importantes de la Antigua Grecia eran los teatros. Tanto los templos como los teatros utilizaban una compleja combinación de ilusiones ópticas y proporciones equilibradas.

Al observar los restos arqueológicos de edificios antiguos, es fácil percibirlos como piedra caliza y hormigón en un tono grisáceo y asumir que los edificios antiguos eran monocromáticos. Sin embargo, la arquitectura era policromada en gran parte del mundo antiguo. Uno de los edificios antiguos más emblemáticos, el Partenón ( c. 447-432 a. C.) en Atenas , tenía detalles pintados con rojos, azules y verdes vibrantes. Además de los templos antiguos, las catedrales medievales nunca fueron completamente blancas. La mayoría tenía toques de color en capiteles y columnas . [ 33 ] Esta práctica de colorear edificios y obras de arte se abandonó durante el Renacimiento temprano. Esto se debe a que Leonardo da Vinci y otros artistas renacentistas, incluido Miguel Ángel , promovieron una paleta de colores inspirada en las antiguas ruinas grecorromanas, que debido al abandono y la constante decadencia durante la Edad Media, se volvieron blancas a pesar de haber sido inicialmente coloridas. Los pigmentos utilizados en el mundo antiguo eran delicados y especialmente susceptibles a la intemperie. Sin el cuidado necesario, los colores expuestos a la lluvia, la nieve, la suciedad y otros factores, desaparecieron con el tiempo, y de esta manera los edificios y obras de arte antiguos se volvieron blancos, como lo son hoy y lo fueron durante el Renacimiento. [ 34 ]

céltico

Tumba del jefe de Hochdorf , Alemania, c. 530 a. C.; Casco de Agris , Francia, 350 a. C.; Espejo de Desborough , Gran Bretaña, 50 a. C. – 50 d. C.

El arte celta, conocido por sus intrincados patrones, motivos simbólicos y diseños distintivos, evolucionó durante un largo período, con raíces que se remontan a la temprana Edad del Hierro. Esta rica y diversa tradición artística abarca varios siglos y regiones, principalmente lo que hoy es Irlanda, Gran Bretaña, Francia y partes de Europa Central y Oriental. La historia del arte celta se puede dividir en dos períodos clave: [ 42 ]

Cultura de Hallstatt (circa 800-500 a. C.): La forma más antigua reconocible de arte celta se asocia con la cultura de Hallstatt, ubicada en lo que hoy es Austria y las regiones circundantes. Este período vio el desarrollo de técnicas distintivas de metalurgia, especialmente en oro, bronce y hierro. Los artefactos de esta época a menudo presentan patrones geométricos, motivos animales estilizados y espirales abstractas. [ 43 ]

Cultura de La Tène (circa 500 a. C. – 1 d. C.): La cultura de La Tène se considera el apogeo del arte celta primitivo. Durante este período, se produjo un aumento significativo en la complejidad y la intrincación de los diseños. Los artesanos de La Tène crearon armas, joyas y objetos cotidianos adornados con patrones en espiral, nudos y animales estilizados. Esta época también se caracteriza por el primer uso significativo del «nudo celta», una forma de diseño de bucle sin fin que simboliza la eternidad y la continuidad. [ 44 ]

Roma

Augusto de Prima Porta (izquierda: reconstrucción pintada en Braga , Portugal; derecha: estatua original de mármol, c. 20  a. C. , 2,06  m en los Museos Vaticanos en la Ciudad del Vaticano). [ 45 ]

Ninguna civilización ha tenido un impacto tan duradero y poderoso en el arte occidental como el Imperio romano . El legado de la antigua Roma es evidente a través de los períodos medieval y moderno temprano , y el arte romano continúa siendo reutilizado en la era moderna tanto en obras de arte tradicionalistas como posmodernas . [ 46 ] A veces se considera que deriva de precedentes griegos, pero también tiene sus propios rasgos distintivos, algunos de ellos heredados del arte etrusco . La escultura romana suele ser menos idealizada que sus precedentes griegos, siendo muy realista. La arquitectura romana a menudo usaba hormigón , y se inventaron elementos como el arco de medio punto y la cúpula . Los objetos de lujo en metal , grabado de gemas , tallas de marfil y vidrio a veces se consideran en términos modernos como formas menores de arte romano, [ 47 ] aunque este no habría sido necesariamente el caso para los contemporáneos. Una innovación posible gracias al desarrollo romano del soplado de vidrio fue el vidrio camafeo . Primero se creaba una "concha" blanca, en la que luego se soplaba vidrio de color para producir un revestimiento interior. La concha blanca se cortaba para crear relieves blancos sobre un fondo más oscuro. También se elaboraban mosaicos , produciendo así arte pictórico duradero con cubos de piedra tallada ( teselas ) y/o fragmentos de terracota y vidrio de colores. Algunas villas de romanos adinerados tenían sus paredes cubiertas de frescos , destinados a deslumbrar y entretener a los invitados. Gran parte de la pintura mural romana que se conserva proviene de yacimientos alrededor de la bahía de Nápoles , en particular Pompeya y Herculano , ciudades prósperas que quedaron sepultadas bajo metros de escombros volcánicos cuando el Vesubio entró en erupción en el año 79 d. C. Por ello, la pintura mural romana se suele analizar en términos de cuatro «estilos pompeyanos». [ 48 ]

Los romanos estuvieron profundamente influenciados por todos los aspectos de la cultura helenística . En arquitectura, al igual que en otras expresiones artísticas , adoptaron esencialmente el lenguaje clásico y lo adaptaron a nuevas situaciones y usos. Los romanos también aportaron sus propias innovaciones a la arquitectura clásica. Utilizaron los órdenes dórico , jónico y corintio con mucha más libertad que los griegos, creando su propia versión del dórico y empleando el corintio con mucha mayor frecuencia. También añadieron dos nuevos órdenes al repertorio: el toscano , una versión más simple y maciza del dórico derivada de la arquitectura etrusca ; y el compuesto , una combinación de las volutas en forma de pergamino del jónico con las hojas de acanto del corintio . Otras innovaciones importantes incluyen el arco y la cúpula . Mediante arcos, construyeron acueductos y monumentales arcos triunfales . Los emperadores romanos se enorgullecían de sus conquistas y las conmemoraban en sus hogares y en los territorios conquistados mediante arcos triunfales, como el Arco de Constantino en Roma. Entre el 30 y el 15 a. C., el arquitecto e ingeniero civil y militar Marco Vitruvio Polión publicó un importante tratado, De Architectura , que influyó en arquitectos de todo el mundo durante siglos. [ 49 ] [ 50 ]

Tras la Edad Media , con el Renacimiento que comenzó en Florencia ( Italia ), surgió un creciente interés por la antigua Roma. Durante este periodo, por primera vez desde la Antigüedad Clásica , el arte alcanzó un realismo convincente. El Renacimiento también despertó interés por la literatura griega y romana antigua, no solo por el arte y la arquitectura. [ 51 ]

germánico

(izquierda: fíbula y cuentas en Schwanbeck , Alemania; derecha: broches de hombro del enterramiento de un barco anglosajón del siglo VII en Sutton Hoo , Reino Unido, en el Museo Británico de Londres).

El arte germánico durante el Período de las Migraciones ( c. 300–900 d. C.) refleja los desarrollos culturales y artísticos de los pueblos germánicos a medida que migraban por Europa y se asentaban en varias regiones, incluyendo el área ahora conocida como Alemania. Este período, que acompañó y siguió al colapso del Imperio Romano de Occidente, vio a los pueblos germánicos participar en tradiciones artísticas que estaban influenciadas por los estilos romanos y a la vez eran distintas de ellos, mientras fundaban reinos germánicos [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] que eran estados establecidos por varios pueblos no romanos (principalmente germánicos) en Europa y el norte de África después del colapso del Imperio Romano de Occidente en el siglo V. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] Los reinos bárbaros fueron los principales gobiernos en Europa Occidental en la Alta Edad Media . Se considera que la era de los reinos bárbaros llegó a su fin con la coronación de Carlomagno como emperador en el año 800, aunque un puñado de pequeños reinos anglosajones persistieron hasta que Alfredo el Grande y sus sucesores los unificaron a partir de finales del siglo IX. [ 58 ] [ 59 ]

Uno de los estilos artísticos clave en los primeros territorios germánicos fue el estilo animal , que se extendió por la estepa euroasiática, se desarrolló en Escandinavia y el norte de Alemania y ejerció influencia en toda Europa. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] Este estilo, caracterizado por representaciones intrincadas y abstractas de animales, era común en la orfebrería y el adorno personal. En la Alemania actual, las regiones del Rin y el Alto Rin fueron centros importantes para estas obras, con el uso de patrones zoomorfos que se observan en objetos como broches, hebillas y joyas. Un ejemplo famoso de este estilo es la fíbula de Bingerbrück, un broche decorativo hallado en Renania, que muestra las características formas animales entrelazadas típicas del arte germánico. El estilo también es evidente en los artefactos del tesoro de Sutton Hoo , donde aparecen motivos animales similares en el arte anglosajón, pero que reflejan la influencia más amplia del arte germánico en el norte de Europa.

El estilo policromado, desarrollado por los godos en la región del Mar Negro, tuvo un impacto significativo en el arte germánico, especialmente en el sur de Alemania y en algunas zonas de Francia y España. Conocido por el uso de oro y piedras preciosas, este estilo se aprecia en objetos como broches y hebillas de cinturón con incrustaciones de granate. Piezas como la corona visigoda de Recceswinth , hallada en España, demuestran la influencia de este estilo, pero también se han descubierto ejemplos similares de orfebrería policromada en Alemania, particularmente en el reino franco , donde estos objetos solían tener funciones tanto decorativas como simbólicas.

En los siglos VI y VII, los pueblos germánicos comenzaron a adoptar el cristianismo, lo que provocó un cambio en sus tradiciones artísticas. Los símbolos cristianos empezaron a aparecer en el arte germánico, marcando un alejamiento de los motivos puramente paganos. La introducción de la iconografía cristiana en la orfebrería y los manuscritos germánicos propició el desarrollo del arte carolingio y otros estilos regionales en toda Europa. En Alemania, este periodo fue testigo del auge del arte franco, especialmente durante el reinado de Carlomagno ( 768-814 ) , que fusionó las tradiciones germánicas con la iconografía cristiana.

islámico

El arte islámico es conocido desde la Edad Media por el uso de elaborados patrones geométricos , azulejos coloridos, motivos naturales estilizados y caligrafía detallada. Pocas veces la caligrafía ha tenido un impacto tan profundo en las artes aplicadas y la arquitectura. El islam apareció en Arabia occidental en el siglo VII d. C. a través de las revelaciones entregadas al profeta Mahoma en La Meca . Un siglo después de la muerte de Mahoma, los imperios islámicos controlaban Oriente Medio , España y partes de Asia y África. Debido a esto, al igual que el arte romano , el arte y la arquitectura islámicos tuvieron versiones regionales. A medida que el mundo islámico se extendía hacia centros de la cultura tardoantigua, se enriqueció con movimientos filosóficos e intelectuales. Los primeros califatos fomentaron la traducción de obras griegas al árabe y los avances en matemáticas y ciencia. Esto contrasta con la percepción moderna de que el arte islámico es dogmático e inmutable. La representación humana y animal no era rara. Solo ciertos períodos la restringieron (de forma similar a la iconoclasia bizantina ). [ 62 ]

América

Mesoamérica

Algunas de las primeras grandes civilizaciones de América se desarrollaron en Mesoamérica (que significa 'América central'), siendo las más conocidas los mayas y los aztecas .

Los olmecas ( c. 1400–400 a. C.) fueron la primera gran civilización del actual México. Muchos elementos de las civilizaciones mesoamericanas, como la construcción de pirámides, el complejo calendario, el panteón de dioses y la escritura jeroglífica, tienen su origen en la cultura olmeca. Produjeron figurillas de jade y cerámica, cabezas colosales y pirámides con templos en la cima, todo ello sin la ventaja de las herramientas de metal. Para ellos, la jadeíta era una piedra más preciosa que el oro y simbolizaba poderes divinos y fertilidad. Se han descubierto 17 cabezas colosales olmecas , cada una con un peso de varias toneladas. Cada cabeza, con nariz achatada y labios gruesos, lleva un casco, similar a los que se usaban en los juegos de pelota oficiales, posiblemente representando a reyes o funcionarios.

La civilización maya surgió alrededor del año 1800 a. C. y se desarrolló hasta la llegada de los colonizadores españoles en el siglo XVI. Ocuparon el sureste de México, Guatemala , Belice y partes de Honduras y El Salvador . Los mayas comerciaban con ciudades como Teotihuacán , pero también con numerosas civilizaciones mesoamericanas, como los zapotecas y otros grupos de las zonas centrales y costeras de México, así como con poblaciones que no habitaban territorios mesoamericanos, como los taínos del Caribe . Produjeron impresionantes retratos de reyes, vasijas de cerámica policromada , figuras de barro, esculturas de madera y estelas , y construyeron ciudades complejas con pirámides. La mayoría de las vasijas de cerámica policromada mejor conservadas se descubrieron en las tumbas de la nobleza.

Surgidos de orígenes humildes como grupo nómada, los aztecas crearon el imperio más grande de la historia mesoamericana, que perduró desde 1427 hasta 1521. No se llamaban a sí mismos «aztecas», sino mexicas. El término «aztecas» fue acuñado por los historiadores. Transformaron la capital de su imperio, Tenochtitlán , en un lugar donde los artistas mesoamericanos crearon impresionantes obras de arte para sus nuevos amos. La actual Ciudad de México se construyó sobre la antigua capital azteca, Tenochtitlán. [ 67 ] [ 68 ] [ 69 ]

Colombia

De manera similar a Mesoamérica, el territorio actual de Colombia es una zona donde se desarrollaron múltiples culturas antes de la llegada de los colonizadores españoles. Allí se producían accesorios corporales de oro, muchos de ellos dorados, pero también muchos otros hechos de tumbaga , una aleación genérica de oro y cobre que los conquistadores españoles dieron a los metales compuestos por estos elementos, de uso generalizado en la Mesoamérica precolombina de América del Norte y del Sur .

Regiones andinas

Manto ( Paracas ); 50–100 d. C.; lana bordada; altura: 1,01 m; Museo de Bellas Artes ( Boston , EE. UU.) [ 75 ]

Las antiguas civilizaciones de Perú y Bolivia cultivaron tradiciones artísticas únicas, entre ellas una de las tradiciones de arte textil más impresionantes del mundo desde el punto de vista estético. Dos de las primeras culturas importantes de esta tierra son la cultura Chavín y la cultura Paracas .

La cultura Paracas de la costa sur de Perú es conocida principalmente por sus textiles con intrincados diseños, en particular sus mantos. La cultura Moche controlaba los valles fluviales de la costa norte, mientras que la cultura Nazca , del sur de Perú , dominaba los desiertos costeros y las montañas adyacentes. Los Nazca son famosos por las Líneas de Nazca , un conjunto de geoglifos en un desierto del sur de Perú. También produjeron cerámica y textiles policromados influenciados por la cultura Paracas, y utilizaron una paleta de al menos 10 colores para su alfarería. Ambas culturas florecieron entre los años 100 y 800  d. C. La cerámica Moche es una de las más variadas del mundo. En el norte, el Imperio Wari (o Huari) destaca por su arquitectura de piedra y sus logros escultóricos.

Los chimúes fueron precedidos por un estilo cerámico sencillo conocido como sicán (700-900  d. C.). Los chimúes produjeron excelentes retratos y obras decorativas en metal, especialmente oro, pero sobre todo plata. Posteriormente, el Imperio inca (1100-1533) se extendió por la cordillera de los Andes . Elaboraron figurillas de metales preciosos y, al igual que otras civilizaciones de la misma zona, textiles complejos. Las llamas eran animales importantes por su lana y para transportar cargas. [ 76 ] [ 77 ] [ 78 ]

asiático

La civilización oriental abarca, en términos generales, Asia, e incluye una compleja tradición artística. Un enfoque de la historia del arte oriental divide el campo por naciones, centrándose en el arte indio , el chino y el japonés . Debido a la extensión del continente, la distinción entre Asia oriental y Asia meridional en el ámbito artístico resulta evidente. En la mayor parte de Asia, la cerámica era una forma de arte predominante. Esta cerámica suele estar decorada con motivos geométricos o representaciones abstractas de animales, personas o plantas. Otras formas de arte muy extendidas fueron, y siguen siendo, la escultura y la pintura.

Asia Central

El arte de Asia Central se desarrolló en Asia Central , en áreas que corresponden a los actuales Kirguistán , Kazajistán , Uzbekistán , Turkmenistán , Azerbaiyán , Tayikistán , Afganistán , Pakistán y partes de la actual Mongolia, China y Rusia. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] El arte de la antigua y medieval Asia Central refleja la rica historia de esta vasta área, hogar de una enorme variedad de pueblos, religiones y formas de vida. Los restos artísticos de la región muestran una notable combinación de influencias que ejemplifican la naturaleza multicultural de la sociedad de Asia Central. La transmisión del arte a través de la Ruta de la Seda , el arte escita , el arte grecobudista , el arte serindio y, más recientemente, la cultura persa , son parte de esta compleja historia. Asia Central siempre ha sido una encrucijada de intercambio cultural, el centro de la llamada Ruta de la Seda , ese complejo sistema de rutas comerciales que se extendía desde China hasta el Mediterráneo. Ya en la Edad del Bronce (tercer y segundo milenio a. C.), los crecientes asentamientos formaban parte de una extensa red comercial que conectaba Asia Central con el valle del Indo , Mesopotamia y Egipto. [ 84 ]

indio

Los primeros budistas en la India desarrollaron símbolos relacionados con Buda . Las principales manifestaciones del arte budista comienzan en el período posterior a los Maurya , dentro del arte Kushan del norte de la India , el arte grecobudista de Gandhara y, finalmente, el período "clásico" del arte Gupta . Además, existió la escuela de Andhra, que apareció antes que la escuela de Gandhara y que tenía su sede en el sur de la India. [ 89 ] Se conservan buenas cantidades de esculturas de algunos sitios clave como Sanchi , Bharhut y Amaravati , algunas de las cuales permanecen in situ , mientras que otras se encuentran en museos de la India o de todo el mundo. Las estupas estaban rodeadas de cercas ceremoniales con cuatro toranas o puertas ornamentales profusamente talladas que miraban hacia los puntos cardinales. Estas son de piedra, aunque claramente adoptan formas desarrolladas en madera. Tanto ellas como las paredes de la estupa misma pueden estar profusamente decoradas con relieves, que en su mayoría ilustran la vida de Buda. Gradualmente se esculpieron figuras de tamaño natural, inicialmente en alto relieve, pero luego exentas. [ 90 ] El arte de Mathura fue el centro más importante en este desarrollo, que se aplicó al arte hindú y jainista, así como al budista. [ 91 ] Las fachadas e interiores de las salas de oración chaitya excavadas en la roca y los viharas monásticos se han conservado mejor que estructuras independientes similares en otros lugares, que durante mucho tiempo fueron mayoritariamente de madera. Las cuevas de Ajanta , Karle , Bhaja y otros lugares contienen esculturas tempranas, a menudo superadas en número por obras posteriores como figuras icónicas de Buda y bodhisattvas , que no se encuentran antes del año 100 d. C. como mínimo.

Chino

En Asia Oriental, la pintura se derivó de la caligrafía, y los retratos y paisajes se pintaban sobre tela de seda. La mayoría de las pinturas representan paisajes o retratos. Las esculturas más espectaculares son los bronces rituales y las esculturas de bronce de Sanxingdui . Un ejemplo muy conocido del arte chino es el Ejército de Terracota , que representa los ejércitos de Qin Shi Huang , el primer emperador de China. Se trata de un arte funerario que se enterraba con el emperador entre el 210 y el 209  a. C. con el propósito de protegerlo en el más allá.

El arte chino es una de las artes tradicionales más antiguas del mundo, caracterizada por una continuidad y una conciencia de la tradición sin precedentes, a diferencia del colapso y la recuperación gradual de los estilos clásicos en Occidente. Los medios que en Occidente se han clasificado como artes decorativas desde el Renacimiento son de suma importancia en el arte chino, y gran parte de las obras más exquisitas fueron producidas en grandes talleres o fábricas por artistas prácticamente desconocidos, especialmente en la cerámica china . La variedad y la calidad de los objetos que decoraban los palacios y hogares chinos, así como a sus habitantes, son deslumbrantes. Los materiales provenían de toda China y de lugares mucho más lejanos: oro y plata, nácar , marfil y cuerno de rinoceronte, madera y laca , jade y esteatita , seda y papel.

japonés

El arte japonés abarca una amplia gama de estilos y medios artísticos, que incluyen cerámica antigua , escultura , pintura con tinta y caligrafía sobre seda y papel, pinturas ukiyo-e y grabados en madera , cerámica, origami y, más recientemente, manga —dibujos animados y cómics japoneses modernos— junto con una miríada de otros tipos.

Los primeros pobladores de Japón fueron el pueblo Jōmon ( c. 11.000-300 a .  C.). Elaboraban vasijas de cerámica ricamente decoradas y figurillas de arcilla llamadas dogū . Japón ha estado sujeto a repentinas invasiones de nuevas ideas, seguidas de largos períodos de mínimo contacto con el mundo exterior. Con el tiempo, los japoneses desarrollaron la capacidad de absorber, imitar y finalmente asimilar aquellos elementos de la cultura extranjera que complementaban sus preferencias estéticas. El arte complejo más antiguo de Japón se produjo en los siglos VII y VIII en relación con el budismo . En el siglo IX, a medida que los japoneses comenzaron a alejarse de China y a desarrollar formas de expresión autóctonas, las artes seculares adquirieron cada vez más importancia; hasta finales del siglo XV, florecieron tanto las artes religiosas como las seculares. Después de la Guerra de Ōnin (1467-1477), Japón entró en un período de agitación política, social y económica que duró más de un siglo. En el estado que surgió bajo el liderazgo del shogunato Tokugawa , la religión organizada desempeñó un papel mucho menos importante en la vida de las personas, y las artes que sobrevivieron fueron principalmente seculares.

África subsahariana

El arte del África subsahariana incluye tanto la escultura , representada por las fundiciones de bronce del pueblo de Benín , Igbo Ukwu y el Reino de Ifẹ , como las terracotas de Djenné-Jeno , Ife y la cultura Nok , más antigua , además del arte popular . Paralelamente a la Edad Media europea, en el siglo XI  d. C. se fundó en Gran Zimbabue una nación que creó grandiosa arquitectura, esculturas de oro y joyería intrincada. Simultáneamente, el pueblo yoruba, en lo que hoy es Nigeria , fundía impresionantes esculturas de bronce . En el Reino de Benín , también del sur de Nigeria, que surgió aproximadamente en la misma época, se crearon elegantes colmillos de altar, cabezas de bronce, placas de bronce y arquitectura palaciega. El Reino de Benín fue disuelto por los británicos en 1897, y poco del arte de esta cultura se conserva en Nigeria. Hoy en día, el evento artístico más importante de África es la Bienal de Johannesburgo .

El África subsahariana se caracteriza por una alta densidad de culturas. Destacan los pueblos Dogon de Malí ; los pueblos Edo , Yoruba e Igbo y la civilización Nok de Nigeria ; los pueblos Kuba y Luba de África Central ; el pueblo Ashanti de Ghana ; el pueblo Zulú de África Meridional ; y el pueblo Fang de Guinea Ecuatorial (85%), Camerún y Gabón; la civilización Sao de Chad; y el pueblo Kwele del este de Gabón, la República del Congo y Camerún.

Las innumerables formas del arte africano constituyen algunas de las tradiciones artísticas más vibrantes y dinámicas del mundo, y son parte integral de la vida de los africanos. Creadas con propósitos específicos, las obras de arte pueden revelar su importancia a través de transformaciones físicas que realzan tanto su apariencia como su poder. Muchas formas de arte tradicional africano se crean como conductos hacia el mundo espiritual y cambian de aspecto a medida que se les añaden materiales para potenciar su belleza y poder. Cuanto más se usa y se bendice una obra, más abstracta se vuelve debido a la acumulación de elementos sacrificiales y al desgaste de los detalles originales.

Oceanía

El arte oceánico abarca las áreas geográficas de Micronesia , Polinesia , Australia, Nueva Zelanda y Melanesia . Un enfoque aborda la región temáticamente, centrándose en la ascendencia , la guerra, el cuerpo, el género, el comercio, la religión y el turismo . Desafortunadamente, se conserva poco arte antiguo de Oceanía. Los estudiosos creen que esto se debe probablemente a que los artistas utilizaban materiales perecederos, como madera y plumas, que no sobrevivían al clima tropical, y no existen registros históricos que hagan referencia a la mayor parte de este material. La comprensión de las culturas artísticas de Oceanía comienza, por lo tanto, con su documentación por parte de occidentales, como el capitán James Cook , en el siglo XVIII. A principios del siglo XX, el artista francés Paul Gauguin pasó una temporada considerable en Tahití, conviviendo con la población local y creando arte moderno, un hecho que se ha entrelazado con la cultura visual tahitiana hasta nuestros días. El arte indígena de Australia a menudo se asemeja al arte moderno abstracto, pero tiene profundas raíces en la cultura local.

El arte de Oceanía es la última gran tradición artística que ha sido reconocida mundialmente. A pesar de ser una de las tradiciones artísticas continuas más antiguas del mundo, con una antigüedad de al menos cincuenta milenios, permaneció relativamente desconocida hasta la segunda mitad del siglo XX.

Los materiales a menudo efímeros del arte aborigen australiano dificultan la determinación de la antigüedad de la mayoría de las formas artísticas que se practican hoy en día. Las formas más duraderas son la multitud de grabados y pinturas rupestres que se encuentran por todo el continente. En la escarpa de Arnhem Land, la evidencia sugiere que se realizaban pinturas hace cincuenta mil años, anteriores a las pinturas rupestres paleolíticas de Altamira y Lascaux en Europa.

europeo

Medieval

Con la decadencia del Imperio Romano alrededor del año 300 d . C. , comenzó un período posteriormente definido como la Edad Media . Duró aproximadamente un milenio, hasta el comienzo del Renacimiento alrededor del año 1400. El arte paleocristiano caracteriza las primeras etapas de este período, seguido por el arte bizantino , el arte anglosajón , el arte vikingo , el arte otoniano , el arte románico y el arte gótico , con el arte islámico dominando el Mediterráneo oriental. El arte medieval surgió de la herencia artística del Imperio Romano y de Bizancio , mezclada con la cultura artística "bárbara" del norte de Europa. [ 115 ]

En el arte bizantino y gótico de la Edad Media , el predominio de la Iglesia dio como resultado una gran cantidad de arte religioso . Se hizo un uso extensivo del oro en las pinturas, que presentaban figuras de formas simplificadas.

bizantino

Santa Sofía ( Estambul , Turquía), c. 532–537 a. C., por Antemio de Tralles e Isidoro de Mileto [ 116 ]

El arte bizantino comprende el conjunto de productos artísticos griegos cristianos del Imperio Romano de Oriente (Bizantino), [ 117 ] [ 118 ] así como de las naciones y estados que heredaron culturalmente de dicho imperio. Si bien el Imperio Bizantino surgió de la decadencia de Roma y perduró hasta la caída de Constantinopla en 1453, [ 119 ] la fecha de inicio del período bizantino es más clara en la historia del arte que en la historia política, aunque aún imprecisa. Muchos estados ortodoxos orientales de Europa Central y Oriental, así como, en cierta medida, los estados musulmanes del Mediterráneo oriental , conservaron muchos aspectos de la cultura y el arte del imperio durante siglos.

El arte bizantino que ha sobrevivido es mayoritariamente religioso y, con excepciones en ciertos periodos, está altamente convencionalizado, siguiendo modelos tradicionales que traducen la teología eclesiástica cuidadosamente controlada a términos artísticos. La pintura al fresco , en manuscritos iluminados y sobre paneles de madera, y (especialmente en los primeros periodos) el mosaico fueron los principales medios, y la escultura figurativa apareció muy raramente, salvo en pequeñas tallas de marfil . La pintura de manuscritos conservó hasta el final parte de la tradición realista clásica que faltaba en las obras de mayor tamaño. [ 120 ] El arte bizantino era muy prestigioso y codiciado en Europa Occidental, donde mantuvo una influencia continua en el arte medieval hasta casi el final del periodo medieval. Esto fue especialmente cierto en Italia, donde los estilos bizantinos persistieron de forma modificada durante el siglo XII y se convirtieron en influencias formativas del arte del Renacimiento italiano . Pero pocas influencias externas afectaron al estilo bizantino. Con la expansión de la Iglesia Ortodoxa Oriental, las formas y los estilos bizantinos se extendieron por todo el mundo ortodoxo y más allá. [ 121 ] Se pueden encontrar influencias de la arquitectura bizantina, particularmente en edificios religiosos, en diversas regiones desde Egipto y Arabia hasta Rusia y Rumania.

La arquitectura bizantina es famosa por el uso de cúpulas . También se caracterizaba por columnas de mármol, techos artesonados y una decoración suntuosa, incluyendo el uso extensivo de mosaicos con fondos dorados. El material de construcción empleado por los arquitectos bizantinos ya no era el mármol, tan apreciado por los antiguos griegos. Los bizantinos utilizaban principalmente piedra y ladrillo, así como finas láminas de alabastro para las ventanas. Los mosaicos se empleaban para cubrir muros de ladrillo y cualquier otra superficie donde el fresco no pudiera resistir. Buenos ejemplos de mosaicos de la época protobizantina se encuentran en Hagios Demetrios en Tesalónica (Grecia), la Basílica de Sant'Apollinare Nuovo y la Basílica de San Vitale (ambas en Rávena , Italia), y en Santa Sofía en Estambul . Los templos grecorromanos y las iglesias bizantinas difieren sustancialmente en cuanto a su aspecto exterior e interior. En la Antigüedad, el exterior era la parte más importante del templo, ya que en el interior, que contenía la estatua de culto de la deidad a la que estaba dedicado, solo el sacerdote tenía acceso. Las ceremonias del templo en la Antigüedad se realizaban en el exterior, y lo que los fieles veían era la fachada, compuesta por columnas, un entablamento y dos frontones. En contraste, las liturgias cristianas se desarrollaban en el interior de las iglesias, por lo que el exterior solía tener poca o ninguna ornamentación. [ 122 ] [ 123 ]

Carolingio y otoniano

Evangelios de Aquisgrán , alrededor del año 820. Códice Áureo de San Emmeram , 870. La cruz de Essen con grandes esmaltes con gemas y grandes esmaltes senkschmelz , c. 1000. Apoteosis de Otón III, Evangelios de Liuthar , alrededor del año 1000.

El arte carolingio (siglos VIII-IX) surgió bajo el reinado de Carlomagno, fusionando influencias romanas, paleocristianas y germánicas para crear un estilo distintivo. Marcó el Renacimiento carolingio, centrándose en la recuperación de las tradiciones artísticas clásicas romanas e incorporando elementos germánicos locales. Entre sus características principales destacan los manuscritos iluminados, como los Evangelios de Aquisgrán , la iconografía religiosa, la elaborada orfebrería y la arquitectura . Obras notables incluyen la capilla del palacio de Carlomagno en Aquisgrán. El arte carolingio enfatizó temas cristianos, con elaboradas representaciones de santos, escenas bíblicas y motivos clásicos, sentando las bases del arte medieval posterior en Europa occidental.

Ottonian art is a style in pre-romanesqueGerman art, covering also some works from the Low Countries, northern Italy and eastern France. It was named by the art historian Hubert Janitschek after the Ottonian dynasty which ruled Germany and northern Italy between 919 and 1024 under the kings Henry I, Otto I, Otto II, Otto III and Henry II.[130] With Ottonian architecture, it is a key component of the Ottonian Renaissance (circa 951–1024). However, the style neither began nor ended to neatly coincide with the rule of the dynasty. It emerged some decades into their rule and persisted past the Ottonian emperors into the reigns of the early Salian dynasty, which lacks an artistic "style label" of its own.[131] In the traditional scheme of art history, Ottonian art follows Carolingian art and precedes Romanesque art, though the transitions at both ends of the period are gradual rather than sudden. Like the former and unlike the latter, it was very largely a style restricted to a few of the small cities of the period, to important monasteries, as well as to the court circles of the emperor and his leading vassals.

After the decline of the 9th-century Carolingian Empire, the Holy Roman Empire was re-established under the Saxon Ottonian dynasty. From this emerged a renewed faith in the idea of Empire and a reformed Church, creating a period of heightened cultural and artistic fervour. In this atmosphere masterpieces were created that fused the traditions from which Ottonian artists derived their inspiration: models of Late Antique, Carolingian, and Byzantine origin. Surviving Ottonian art is very largely religious, in the form of illuminated manuscripts and metalwork, and was produced in a small number of centres for a narrow range of patrons in the circle of the Imperial court, as well as for important figures in the church. However much of it was designed for display to a wider public, especially to pilgrims.[132]

The style is generally grand and heavy, sometimes to excess, and initially less sophisticated than the Carolingian equivalents, with less direct influence from Byzantine art and less understanding of its classical models, but around 1000 a striking intensity and expressiveness emerge in many works, as "a solemn monumentality is combined with a vibrant inwardness, an unworldly, visionary quality with sharp attention to actuality, surface patterns of flowing lines and rich bright colours with passionate emotionalism".[133]

Romanesque

The Romanesque, the first pan-European style to emerge after the Roman Empire, spanned the mid-tenth century to the thirteenth. The period saw a resurgence of monumental stone structures with complex structural programmes.

Romanesque churches are characterized by rigid articulation and geometric clarity, incorporated into a unified volumetric whole. The architecture is austere but enlivened by decorative sculpting of capitals and portals, as well as frescoed interiors. Geometric and foliate patterning gives way to increasingly three-dimensional figurative sculpture.

St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim, Germany, 1001–1030, is seen by some as a Proto-Romanesque church.[134]

From the mid-eleventh to the early thirteenth centuries, Romanesque paintings were two-dimensional, defined by bold, linear outlines and geometry, particularly in the handling of drapery; painters emphasised symmetry and frontality. Virtually all Western churches were painted, but probably only a few wall-painters were monks; instead, itinerant artists carried out most of this work. Basic blocking-out was done on wet plaster with earth colours. A limited palette, dominated by white, red, yellow ochres and azure, was employed for maximum visual effect, with dense colouring forming a backdrop of bands, a practice that originated in late Classical art as an attempt to distinguish earth and sky.

During the later eleventh and twelfth centuries, the great age of Western monasticism, Europe experienced unprecedented economic, social and political change, leading to burgeoning wealth among landowners, including monasteries. There was increasing demand for books, and economic wealth encouraged the production of richly illuminated manuscripts.

One of the outstanding artefacts of the age is the 70 m long Bayeux Tapestry.[135][136][137] It depicts the events leading up to the Norman conquest of England with protagonists William, Duke of Normandy, and Harold, Earl of Wessex, later King of England, and culminating in the Battle of Hastings of 1066. It is thought to date from the 11th century. It tells the story from the point of view of the conquering Normans, but is now agreed to have been made in England - most likely by women, although the designer is unknown. It is housed in France.

Gothic

Gothic art developed in Northern France out of Romanesque in the 12th century AD, and led by the concurrent development of Gothic architecture. It spread to all of Western Europe, and much of Southern and Central Europe, never quite effacing more classical styles in Italy. In the late 14th century, the sophisticated court style of International Gothic developed, which continued to evolve until the late 15th century.

Brick Gothic was a specific style of Gothic architecture common in Northeast and Central Europe especially in the regions in and around the Baltic Sea, which do not have resources of standing rock. The buildings are essentially built using bricks.

The imposing Gothic cathedrals, with their sculptural programmes and stained glass windows, epitomize the Gothic style.[143] It differs from Romanesque through its rib-shaped vaults, and the use of ogives. Instead of the thick Romanesque walls, Gothic buildings are thin and tall. Spiral stairs in towers are specific to Gothic architecture.[144]

Gothic painting, much of it executed in tempera and, later, oils on panel, as well as fresco, and with an increasingly broad palette of secondary colours, is generally seen as more 'naturalistic' than Romanesque. The humanity of religious narrative was highlighted, and the emotional state of the characters individualized.[145] The increased urbanity of the medieval economy and the rise of the clerical and lay patron saw a change in the nature of the art market, which can be seen in developments in Gothic manuscript illumination. Workshops employed specialists for different elements of the page, such as figures or marginal vine motifs.[146]

Renaissance

Encompassing Early, Northern and High Renaissance, the term Renaissance describes the 'rebirth' in Europe of a new interest for Classical antiquity. For the first time since antiquity, art became convincingly lifelike. Besides the ancient past, Renaissance artists also studied nature, understanding the human body, animals, plants, space, perspective and the qualities of light. The most common theme were religious subjects, but depictions of mythological stories were produced as well. Also, there was no uniform Renaissance style. Each artist developed their own distinct visual language, influenced by their predecessors and contemporaries.

The Early Renaissance was a period of great creative and intellectual activity when artists broke away completely from the parameters of Byzantine art. It is generally accepted that it started in Florence in present-day Italy in the early 15th century. It is characterized by a surge of interest in classical literature, philosophy and art, the growth of commerce, the discovery of new continents, and new inventions. There was a revival of interest in the art and literature of ancient Rome, and the study of ancient Greek and Latin texts instigated concepts of individualism and reason, which became known as humanism. Humanists considered life in the present and emphasized the importance of individual thought, which affected artists' approaches.

Despite being highly associated with Italy, particularly with Florence, Rome, and Venice, the rest of Western Europe participated to the Renaissance as well.[150] The Northern Renaissance occurred in Europe north of the Alps from the early 15th century, following a period of artistic cross-fertilization between north and south known as 'International Gothic'. There was a big difference between the Northern and Italian Renaissance. The North artists did not seek to revive the values of ancient Greece and Rome like the Italians, while in the south Italian artists and patrons were amazed by the empirical study of nature and the human society, and by the deep colors that northern artists could achieve in the newly developed medium of oil paint. The Protestant Reformation increased the northern interest in secular painting, like portraits or landscapes. Two key northern artists are Hieronymus Bosch, known for his surreal paintings filled with hybrid creatures like The Garden of Earthly Delights, and Albrecht Dürer, who brought the new art of printmaking to a new level.

The High Renaissance took place in the late 15th-early 16th centuries and was influenced by the fact that as papal power stabilized in Rome, several popes commissioned art and architecture, determined to recreate the city's former glory. Raphael and Michelangelo produced vast and grandiose projects for the popes. The most famous artwork of this part of the Renaissance is probably the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.

Mannerism broke away from High Renaissance ideals of harmony and a rational approach to art, to embrace exaggerated forms, elongated proportions, and more vibrant colors. It developed in Italy between 1510 and 1520, among artists who prized originality above all. The name of this movement comes from the Italian maniera, meaning 'style' or 'manner'. The word was meant to describe the standard of excellence achieved during the High Renaissance, to which all art should now adhere, but in practice it led to stylization and art 'to show art', sometimes with great success, an example being Raphael's pupil Giulio Romano. Mannerism has also been used more generally to describe a period following the Renaissance and preceding the Baroque.[151]

Baroque

The Palace of Versailles (Versailles, France), one of the most iconic Baroque buildings, c.1660 – 1715, by Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart
The Marble Court
The Salon d'Hercule
The Royal Chapel
The Hall of Mirrors
The gardens

The 17th century was a period of volatile change, both in science, through inventions and developments, such as the telescope or the microscope, and in religion, as the Catholic Counter-Reformation contested the growing popularity of Protestant faith. After the Protestant Reformation the Catholic Church reacted with the Counter-Reformation, decreeing that art should inspire viewers with passionate religious themes.

Succeeding Mannerism, and developing as a result of religious tensions across Europe, Baroque art emerged in the late 16th century. The name may derive from 'barocco', the Portuguese word for misshaped pearl, and it describes art that combined emotion, dynamism and drama with powerful color, realism and strong tonal contrasts. Between 1545 and 1563 at the Council of Trent, it was decided that religious art must encourage piety, realism and accuracy, and, by attracting viewers' attention and empathy, glorify the Catholic Church and strengthen the image of Catholicism. In the next century the radical new styles of Baroque art both embraced and developed High Renaissance models, and broke new ground both in religious art and in new varieties of secular art – above all landscape. The Baroque and its late variant the Rococo were the first truly global styles in the arts, dominating more than two centuries of art and architecture in Europe, Latin America and beyond from circa 1580 to circa 1750. Born in the painting studios of Bologna and Rome in the 1580s and 1590s, and in Roman sculptural and architectural ateliers in the second and third decades of the 17th century, the Baroque spread swiftly throughout Italy, Spain and Portugal, Flanders, France, the Netherlands, England, Scandinavia, and Russia, as well as to central and eastern European centres from Munich (Germany) to Vilnius (Lithuania). The Portuguese, Spanish and French empires and the Dutch trading network had a leading role in spreading the two styles into the Americas and colonial Africa and Asia, to places such as Lima, Mozambique, Goa and the Philippines.

Just like paintings and sculptures, Baroque cathedrals and palaces are characterised by the use of illusion and drama as well. They also frequently use dramatic effects of light and shade, and have sumptuous, highly decorated interiors that blurred the boundaries between architecture, painting and sculpture. Another important characteristic of Baroque architecture was the presence of dynamism, done through curves, Solomonic columns and ovals. In France, Baroque is synonymous with the reign of Louis XIV between 1643 and 1715, since multiple monumental buildings were built in Paris, Versailles and other parts of France during his rule, such as the Palace of Versailles, the Château de Maisons, the Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte, the Louvre Colonnade or The Dôme des Invalides. Besides the building itself, the space where it was placed has a role too. Baroque buildings try to seize viewers' attention and to dominate their surroundings, whether on a small scale such as the San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome, or on a massive one, like the new facade of the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, designed to tower over the city. Applied arts prospered during this period as well. Baroque furniture could be as bombastic as the rooms they were meant to adorn, and their motifs and techniques were carefully calibrated to coordinate with the architect's overall decorative programme. One of the most prestigious furniture makers was André Charles Boulle, known for his marquetry technique, made by gluing sheets of tortoiseshell and brass together and cut to form the design. His works were also adorned with gilded bronze mounts. Complex Gobelins tapestries featured scenes inspired by classical antiquity, and the Savonnerie manufactory produced big highly detailed carpets for the Louvre. These carpets with black or yellow backgrounds had a central motif or a medallion. Chinese porcelain, Delftware and mirrors fabricated at Saint-Gobain (France) spread rapidly in all princely palaces and aristocratic residences in France. During the reign of Louis XIV, big mirrors are put above fireplace mantels, and this trend will last long after the Baroque period.[166]

Rococo

Coiffure à l’Indépendance ou Le Triomphe de la Liberté, 1778, depicting a fashionable aristocratic woman is applying the finishing touches to her toilette[175]

Originating in c.1720 Paris, Rococo is characterized by natural motifs, soft colours, curving lines, asymmetry and themes including love, nature and light-hearted entertainment. Its ideals were delicacy, gaiety, youthfulness and sensuality.

Beginning in France as a reaction against the heavy Baroque grandeur of Louis XIV's court at the Palace of Versailles, the rococo movement became associated particularly with the powerful Madame de Pompadour (1721–1764), the mistress of the new king Louis XV (1710–1774). Because of this, the style was also known as 'Pompadour'. The name of the movement derives from the French 'rocaille', or pebble, and refers to stones and shells that decorate the interiors of caves, as similar shell forms became a common feature in Rococo design. It began as a design and decorative arts style, and was characterized by elegant flowing shapes. Architecture followed and then painting and sculpture. The French painter with whom the term Rococo is most often associated is Jean-Antoine Watteau, whose pastoral scenes, or fêtes galantes, dominate the early part of the 18th century.

Although there are some important Bavarian churches in this style, such as the Wieskirche, Rococo is most often associated with secular buildings, principally great palaces and salons where educated elites would meet to discuss literary and philosophical ideas. In Paris, its popularity coincided with the emergence of the salon as a new type of social gathering, the venues for which were often decorated in the Rococo style. Among the most characteristically elegant and refined examples is the Salon Oval de la Princesse of the Hôtel de Soubise, one of the most beautiful 18th century mansions in Paris. The Rococo introduced dramatic changes to elite furniture, as it favoured smaller pieces with narrow, sinewy frames and more delicate, often asymmetrical decoration, often including elements of chinoiserie. The taste for Far Eastern objects (mainly Chinese) lead to the use of Chinese painted and lacquered panels for furniture.

The movement spread quickly throughout Europe and as far as Ottoman Turkey and China thanks to ornament books featuring cartouches, arabesques and shell work, as well as designs for wall panels and fireplaces. The most popular were made by Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier (1695–1750), Jacques-François Blondel (1705–1774), Pierre-Edmé Babel (1720–1775) and François de Cuvilliés (1695–1768).[176]

Neoclassicism

Oath of the Horatii, by Jacques-Louis David, 1784, oil on canvas, Louvre[181]

Inspired by the excavations of the ancient Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum from 1748, a renewed interest in the arts of antiquity occurred. Neoclassicism dominates Western art from the mid to late 18th century until the 1830s. Embracing order and restraint, it developed in reaction to the perceived frivolity, hedonism and decadence of Rococo and exemplifying the rational thinking of the 'Age of Enlightenment' (aka the 'Age of Reason'). Initially, the movement was developed not by artists, but by Enlightenment philosophers. They requested replacing Rococo with a style of rational art, moral and dedicated to the soul.[182] This fit well with a perception of Classical art as the embodiment of realism, restraint and order. Inspired by ancient Greek and Roman art, the classical history paintings of the French artist Nicolas Poussin (1594–1665) and the ideas of the German writer Anton Raphael Mengs (1728–1779) and the German archaeologist and art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–1768), Neoclassicism began in Rome, but soon spread throughout Europe. Rome had become the main focus of the Grand Tour by the mid-18th century, and aristocratic travellers went there in search of Classical visions to recreate on their country estates, thus spreading the style across Europe, particularly in England and France. The tour was also an opportunity for collecting Classical antiquities. Neoclassical paintings tended to be populated with figures posed like Classical statues or reliefs, set in locations filled with archaeological details. The style favoured Greek art over Roman, considering it purer and more authentically classical in its aesthetic goal.

In 1789, France was on the brink of its first revolution and Neoclassicism sought to express their patriotic feelings. Politics and art were closely entwined during this period. They believed that art should be serious, and valued drawings above painting; smooth contours and paint with no discernible brushstrokes were the ultimate aim. Both painting and sculpture exerted calmness and restraint and focused on heroic themes, expressing such noble notions as self-sacrifice and nationalism.

This movement paved the way for Romanticism, that appeared when the idealism of the revolution faded away and after the Napoleonic period came to an end in the early 19th century. Neoclassicism should not be seen as the opposite of Romanticism, however, but in some ways an early manifestation of it.[183][184]

Western art after 1770

The Ghost of a Flea; by William Blake; 1819; tempera with gold on panel; Tate Britain, London

Many art historians place the origins of modern art in the late 18th century, others in the mid 19th century. Art historian H. Harvard Arnason stated "a gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years."[192] Events such as the Age of Enlightenment, revolutions and democracies in America and France, and the Industrial Revolution had far reaching affects in western culture. People, commodities, ideas, and information could travel between countries and continents with unprecedented speed and these changes were reflected in the arts. The invention of photography in the 1830s further altered certain aspects of art, particularly painting. By the dawn of the 19th century, a long and gradual paradigm shift was complete, from the Gothic when artists were viewed as craftsmen in the service of the church and monarchies, to the idea of art for art's sake, where the ideas and visions of the individual artist were held in the high regard, with patronage from an increasingly literate, affluent, and urban middle and upper class population that had been emerging for 200 years (particularly in Paris and London). A dichotomy began in the late 18th century between neoclassicism and romanticism that subdivided and continued to run through virtually every new movement in modern art: "Spreading like waves, these "isms" defy national, ethnic, and chronological boundaries; never dominant anywhere for long, they compete or merge with each other in endlessly shifting patterns."[193]

Modern art has consistently moved toward international influences and exchanges, from the exotic curiosity of Orientalism, the deeper influence of Japonisme, to the arts of Oceania, Africa, and the Americas. Conversely modern art has increasingly extended beyond western Europe. In Russia and the US the arts were developing to a degree that rivaled the leading European countries by the end of the 19th century. Many of the major movements appeared in Latin America, Australia, and Asia too and geography and nationality became increasingly insignificant with each passing decade. By the 20th century important and influential artists were emerging around the world: e.g. Foujita (Japan), Arshile Gorky (Armenia), Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo (Mexico), Wifredo Lam (Cuba), Edvard Munch (Norwegian), Roberto Matta (Chilean), Mark Rothko (Lithuanian-American), Fernando Botero Angulo (Colombia), Constantin Brâncuși and Victor Brauner (Romania).[194][195][196][197][198]

19th century

Romanticism (c. 1790–1880)

English landscape garden at Stourhead (the UK), the 1740s, by Henry Hoare[199]
Wanderer above the Sea of Fog, 1818, by Caspar David Friedrich

Romanticism emerged in the late 18th century out of the German Sturm und Drang movement and flourished in the first half of the 19th century with significant and international manifestations in music, literature, and architecture, as well as the visual arts. It grew from a disillusionment with the rationalism of 18th century Enlightenment. Despite being often viewed as the opposite of Neoclassicism, there were some stylistic overlapping with both movements, and many Romantic artists were excited by classicism. The movement focused on intense emotions, imagination, and on the impressive power of nature, a bigger and more powerful force than the one of men, with its potential for disaster. "Neoclassicism is a new revival of classical antiquity... while Romanticism refers not to a specific style but to an attitude of mind that may reveal itself in any number of ways."[200]

One of the earliest expressions of romanticism was in the English landscape garden, carefully designed to appear natural and standing in dramatic contrast to the formal gardens of the time. The concept of the "natural" English garden was adopted throughout Europe and America in the following decades. In architecture, the romantics frequently turned to alternative sources other than the Greek and Roman examples admired by the neo-classicist. Romantic architecture often revived Gothic forms and other styles such as exotic eastern models. The Palace of Westminster (Houses of Parliament), London is an example of romantic architecture that is also referred to as Gothic Revival.[200] In painting romanticism is exemplified by the paintings of Francisco Goya in Spain, Eugène Delacroix and Théodore Géricault in France, William Blake, Henry Fuseli, Samuel Palmer, and William Turner in England, Caspar David Friedrich and Philipp Otto Runge in Germany, Francesco Hayez in Italy, Johan Christian Claussen Dahl in Norway, and Thomas Cole in America. Examples of sculptors of the romantic period include Antoine-Louis Barye, Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux, Auguste Préault, and François Rude. As romanticism ran its course, some aspects of the movement evolved into symbolism.[201][202][197][203][204]

Academism

Academism is the codification of art into rules that can be learned in art academies. It promotes the Classical ideals of beauty and artistic perfection. There was also a very strict hierarchy of subjects. At the top, there were paintings that depicted historic events, including the biblical and Classical ones, followed by the portrait and by the landscape. At the bottom of the hierarchy were still life and genre painting. Nicolas Poussin was the artist whose works and theories played the most significant role in the development of academism. The values of academism were situated in the centre of the Enlightenment project of discovering the basic principles and ideals of art.

During the 18th century, across all Europe, many academies were founded, that will later dominate the art of the 19th century. In order to study at an art academy, young artists had to take an admission exam, and after being admitted, they would study there for multiple years. Most of the 19th century French art movements were exterior or even opposing the values of academism.

Some of the most important artists of the French academy were William Bouguereau (1825–1905), Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904), Alexandre Cabanel (1823–1889) and Thomas Couture (1815–1879). Academic art is closely related to Beaux-Arts architecture, which developed in the same place and holds to a similar classicizing ideal. The Beaux-Arts style takes its name from the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied.[210][211]

Revivalism and Eclecticism

When it comes to architecture and applied arts, the 19th century is best known as the century of revivals. One of the most well-known revivalist styles is the Gothic Revival or Neo-Gothic, which first appeared in the mid-18th century in a few houses in England, like the Strawberry Hill House in London. However, these houses were isolated cases, since the beginning of the 19th century was dominated by Neoclassicism. Later, between 1830 and 1840, a taste and nostalgia for the rediscovery of past styles, ranging from the Middle Ages to the 18th century, developed under the influence of romanticism. Approximatively until World War I, rehashes of the past dominated the world of architecture and applied arts. Associations between styles and building types appeared, for example: Egyptian for prisons, Gothic for churches, or Renaissance Revival for banks and exchanges. These choices were the result of other associations: the pharaohs with death and eternity, the Middle Ages with Christianity, or the Medici family with the rise of banking and modern commerce. Sometimes, these styles were also seen in a nationalistic way, on the idea that architecture might represent the glory of a nation. Some of them were seen as 'national styles', like the Gothic Revival in the UK and the German states or the Romanian Revival in Romania. Augustus Pugin called the Gothic style the 'absolute duty'[216] of the English architect, despite the fact that the style is of French origin. This way, architecture and the applied arts were used to grant the aura of a highly idealized glorious past. Some architects and designers associated historic styles, especially the medieval ones, with an idealized fantasy organic life, which they put in comparison with the reality of their time.[217]

Despite revivalism being so prevalent, this doesn't mean that there was no originality in these works. Architects, ébénistes and other craftsmen, especially during the second half of the 19th century, created mixes of styles, by extracting and interpreting elements specific to certain eras and areas. This practice is known as eclecticism. This stylistic development occurred during a period when the competition of World's Fairs motivated many countries to invent new industrial methods of creation.

Realism (c. 1830–1890)

Realism emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, c. 1840, and had counterparts in sculpture, literature, and drama, often referred to as Naturalism in literature. In nineteenth-century painting, the term Realism refers more to the subject matter depicted than to the style or technique. Realist paintings typically represent ordinary places and people engaged in everyday activities, as opposed to grand, idealized landscapes, mythological gods, biblical subjects, and historical figures and events that had often dominated painting in western culture. Courbet said "I cannot paint an angel because I have never seen one".[200]

Realism was also in part a reaction to the often dramatic, exotic, and emotionally charged work of romanticism. The term realism is applied relative to the idealized imagery of neo-classicism and the romanticized imagery of romanticism. Artists such as Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot and Honoré Daumier had loose associations with realism, as did members of the Barbizon School, particularly Jean-François Millet, but it was perhaps Gustave Courbet who was the central figure in the movement, self identifying as a realist, advocating realism, and influencing younger artists such as Édouard Manet. One significant aspect of realism was the practice of painting landscapes en plein air and its subsequent influence on impressionism.

Beyond France, realism is exemplified by artists such as Wilhelm Leibl in Germany, Ford Madox Brown in England, and Winslow Homer in the United States. Art historian H. H. Arnason wrote, "The chronological sequence of neo-classicism, romanticism, and realism is, of course, only a convenient stratification of movements or tendencies so inextricably bound up with one another and with the preceding movements that it is impossible to tell where one ended and another began",[218] and this becomes even more pertinent and complex as one follows all of the movements and "isms" into the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[219][220][221][222]

Impressionism (c. 1865–1885)

Impression, Sunrise; by Claude Monet; 1872; oil on canvas; 48.1 x 62.8 cm; Musée Marmottan Monet (Paris)[225]

Impressionism emerged in France, under the influences of Realism, the Barbizon School, and en plein air painters like Eugène Boudin, Camille Corot, Charles-Francois Daubigny, and Johan Barthold Jongkind. Starting in the late 1850s, several of the impressionists had made acquaintances and friendships as students in Paris, notably at the free Académie Suisse and Charles Gleyre's studio. Their progressive work was frequently rejected by the conservative juries of the prestigious Académie des Beaux Arts salons, a forum where many artist turned to establish their reputations, and many of the young artist were included in a highly publicized, but much ridiculed Salon des Refusés in 1863. In 1874 they formed the Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs, independent of the academy, and mounted the first of several impressionist exhibitions in Paris, through to 1886 when their eighth and final exhibition was held. Important figures in the movement included Frédéric Bazille, Gustave Caillebotte, Mary Cassatt, Paul Cézanne, Edgar Degas, Armand Guillaumin, Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Berthe Morisot, Camille Pissarro, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Alfred Sisley. Although impressionism was primarily a movement of painters, Degas and Renoir also produced sculptures and others like Auguste Rodin and Medardo Rosso are sometimes linked to impressionism. By 1885 impressionism had achieved some prominence, and yet a younger generation were already pushing the limits beyond impressionism. Artist from Russia, Australia, America and Latin America soon adopted impressionist styles. A few of the original impressionist continued producing significant work into the 1910s and 1920s.[220][226][227]

Although not unprecedented, many of the techniques used were in contrast to traditional methods. Paintings were often completed in hours or days with wet paint applied to wet paint (opposed to wet on dry paint, completed in weeks and months). Rather than applying glazes and mixed colors, pure colors were often applied side by side, in thick, opaque, impasto strokes; blending in the eye of the viewer when observed from a distance. Black was used very sparingly, or not at all, and defining lines replaced with nuanced strokes of color forming the subjects, contours, and shapes. Art historian H. W. Janson said "instead of adding to the illusion of real space, it strengthens the unity of the actual painted surface."[200] Impressionist paintings typically depict landscapes, portraits, still lifes, domestic scenes, daily leisure and nightlife, all treated in a realist manner. Compositions were often based on unusual perspectives, appearing spontaneous and candid. The paintings were usually void of didactic, symbolic, or metaphoric meanings, and rarely addressed the biblical, mythological, and historical subjects that were so highly regarded by the academies or the darker and psychological interest explored by the symbolist. The nuances of light, shadow, atmosphere, and reflections of colors from surfaces were examined, sometimes emphasizing changes of these elements in time. The painting itself was the subject of the painting. It was art for art's sake, an idea that had been floating around for a few of decades but it perhaps reached a new high and consistency in impressionism.[196][220][226][227]

Symbolism (c. 1860–1915)

Symbolism emerged in France and Belgium in the 3rd quarter of the nineteenth century and spread throughout Europe in the 1870s, and later to America to a lesser extent. It evolved from romanticism without a clear or defining demarcation point, although poetry, literature, and specifically the publication of Charles Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil) in 1857 were significant in the development of symbolism. It had international expression in poetry, literature, drama, and music. In architecture, the applied arts, and decorative arts symbolism closely paralleled and overlapped into Art Nouveau. Symbolism is often inextricably linked to other contemporary art movements, surfacing and finding expression within other styles like Post-Impressionism, Les Nabis, the Decadent Movement, the Fin-de Siecle, Art Nouveau, The Munich Secession, The Vienna Secession, Expressionism, and even the Pre-Raphaelites, which had formed before and influenced symbolism as well. Artist as diverse as James McNeill Whistler, Eugène Carrière, Ferdinand Hodler, Fernand Khnopff, Giovanni Segantini, Lucien Lévy-Dhurmer, Jean Delville, and James Ensor all had varying degrees of association with symbolism. Art historian Robert L. Delevoy wrote "Symbolism was less a school than the atmosphere of a period."[230] It quickly began to fade with the onset of Fauvism, Cubism, Futurism and had largely dissipated by the outbreak of the First World War, however it did find some sustained development and relevance in the metaphysical school, which in turn had a profound influence on surrealism.[230][196][231]

The subjects, themes, and meanings of symbolist art are frequently veiled and obscure, but at its best still manage to resonate deeply on psychological or emotional levels. The subjects are often presented as metaphors or allegories, aiming to evoke highly subjective, personal, introspective emotions and ideas in the viewer, without clearly defining or addressing the subject directly. The poet Stéphane Mallarmé wrote "depict not the thing but the effect it produces"[232] and "To name an object is to suppress three quarters of the pleasure of the poem which is made to be understood little by little".[231] The English painter George Frederic Watts stated "I paint ideas, not things."[230][196][231]

Post-Impressionism (c. 1885–1910)

A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte; by Georges Seurat; 1884–1886; oil on canvas; 2.08 x 3.08 m; Art Institute of Chicago[235]

Post-Impressionism is a rather imprecise term applied to a diverse generation of artists. In its strictest sense, it pertains to four highly influential artists: Paul Cézanne,[236][237]Paul Gauguin,[238][239]Georges Seurat,[240][241] and Vincent van Gogh.[242][243] Each passed through an impressionist phase, but ultimately emerged with four very original but different styles. Collectively, their work anticipated, and often directly influenced, much of the avant-garde art that appeared before the First World War including fauvism, cubism, expressionism, and early abstraction. Cézanne (particularly influential on cubism) and Van Gogh worked in relative isolation, away from Paris, at critical points in their careers, while Seurat and Gauguin worked in groups, more collaboratively, at key points in their development. Another important artist of the period is Toulouse-Lautrec, an influential painter as well as graphic artist.[244][245] In a broader sense, post-impressionism includes a generation of predominantly French and Belgian artists who worked in a range of styles and groups. Most had come under the sway of impressionism at some point, but pushed their work beyond it into a number of factions as early as the mid-1880s, sometimes as a logical development of impressionism, other times as a reaction against it. Post-Impressionists typically depicted impressionist subjects, but the work, particularly synthetism, often contained symbolism, spiritualism, and moody atmospheres that rarely appeared in impressionism. Unnatural colors, patterns, flat plains, odd perspectives and viewpoints pushed to extremes, all moved the center of modernism a step closer to abstraction with a standard for experimentation.[218][246][247]

Neo-Impressionism (Divisionism or Pointillism, c. 1884–1894) explored light and color based on scientific color theories, creating mosaics of brush strokes in pure colors, sometimes laid out in rhythmic patterns with lines influenced by Art Nouveau. The leading artists were Georges Seurat and Paul Signac, others include Henri-Edmond Cross, Maximilien Luce, Albert Dubois-Pillet, and for a period Pissarro and Van Gogh. It was influential on fauvism, and elements of the style appeared in expressionism, cubism, and early abstraction. Synthetism (Cloisonnism c. 1888–1903) Cloisonnism was conceived by Émile Bernard and immediately taken up and developed by Paul Gauguin and others while at an artists' colony in Pont-Aven (Brittany, France). The style resembled cloisonné enamel or stained glass, with flat, bold colors outlined in black or dark colors. Synthetism, exemplified in the work of Gauguin and Paul Sérusier, is slightly a broader term with less emphasis on dark outlines and cloisonné qualities. Other artist include Cuno Amiet, Louis Anquetin, Charles Filiger, Jacob Meyer de Haan, Charles Laval, and Armand Seguin. Their work greatly influenced fauvism and expressionism. Les Nabis (c. 1890–1905: Hebrew for prophets or illuminati) was a larger movement in France and Belgium that eclectically drew on progressive elements in synthetism, neo-impressionism, symbolism, and Art Nouveau. Perhaps more influential than the art, were the numerous theories, manifestoes, and infectious enthusiasm for the avant-garde, setting the tone for the proliferation of movements and "isms" in the first quarter of the 20th century. La Revue Blanche often published Les Nabis and symbolist content. The work of Édouard Vuillard,[248][249] and Pierre Bonnard,[250][251] ca. 1890–1910 is exemplary of Les Nabis, though both evolved in their styles and produced significant work into the 1940s. Other artist include Maurice Denis, Maxime Dethomas, Meyer de Haan, Henri-Gabriel Ibels, Georges Lacombe, Aristide Maillol, Paul Ranson, Ker-Xavier Roussel, Armand Séguin, Paul Sérusier, Félix Vallotton, Jan Verkade, and others.[218][246][247]

Early 20th century

The history of 20th-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. The art movements of Fauvism, Expressionism, Cubism, abstract art, Dadaism and Surrealism led to further explorations of new creative styles and manners of expression. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art, such as Pablo Picasso being influenced by Iberian sculpture, African sculpture and Primitivism. Japonism, and Japanese woodcuts (which had themselves been influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on Impressionism and subsequent artistic developments. The influential example set by Paul Gauguin's interest in Oceanic art and the sudden popularity among the cognoscenti in early 20th century Paris of newly discovered African fetish sculptures and other works from non-European cultures were taken up by Picasso, Henri Matisse, and many of their colleagues. Later in the 20th century, Pop Art and Abstract Expressionism came to prominence.

Art Nouveau (c. 1890–1914)

Porte Dauphine Métro Station (Paris), by Hector Guimard, 1900[252]
Ernst Ludwig House in Darmstadt Artists' Colony, Darmstadt, Germany, by Joseph Maria Olbrich (1900)

Art Nouveau (French: new art) was an international and widespread art and design movement that emerged in the final decades of the 19th century until the First World War in 1914. It was catapulted into international prominence with the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris. Developing almost simultaneously in parts of Europe and the US, it was an attempt to create a unique and modern form of expression that evoked the spirit of the new century. It manifested in painting, illustration, sculpture, jewellery, metalwork, glass, ceramics, textiles, graphic design, furniture, architecture, costume design and fashion. Art Nouveau artists aimed to raise the status of craft and design to the level of fine art.

The movement is highly associated with sinuous organic forms, such as flowers, vines and leaves, but also insects and animals, through the works of artists like Alphonse Mucha, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, Antoni Gaudí, René Lalique, Otto Eckmann or Émile Gallé. Art Nouveau designs and buildings can often be asymmetrical. Although there are identifying characteristics, the style also displayed many regional and national interpretations.

Despite being a short-lived fashion, it paved the way for the modern architecture and design of the 20th century. It was the first architectural style without historic precedent, the 19th century being notorious for a practice known as Historicism, which is the use of visual styles that consciously echo the style of a previous artistic era. Between c.1870 and 1900, a crisis of historicism occurred, during which the historicist culture was critiqued, one of the voices being Friedrich Nietzsche in 1874, who diagnosed 'a malignant historical fervour' as one of the crippling symptoms of a modern culture burdened by archaeological study and faith in the laws of historical progression. Despite this, Art Nouveau was also heavily influenced by styles from the past such as Celtic, Gothic and Rococo art, and also by the Arts and Crafts movement, Aestheticism, Symbolism and especially by Japanese art.[253][254]

Fauvism (c. 1898–1909)

Fauvism emerged from post-impressionism, gradually developing into the first major movement of the 20th century. Its genesis was in 1895 when Henri Matisse, the oldest and central figure, entered the studio of Gustave Moreau at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. There he met Georges Rouault, Charles Camoin, Henri Manguin, and Albert Marquet. Marquet said "As early as 1898 Matisse and I were working in what was later to be called the Fauve manner. The first exhibitions at the Indepéndants in which we were, I believe, the only ones to paint in pure tones, go back to 1901."[255] By 1902–03 the circle of like-minded artist had grown to include Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy, Othon Friesz, Jean Metzinger, Jean Puy, Louis Valtat, Kees van Dongen, and Maurice de Vlaminck. During this period a number of influential retrospective exhibitions were held in Paris: Seurat (1900, 1905), Van Gogh (1901, 1905), Toulouse-Lautrec (1902), Gauguin (1906), Cézanne (1907), all relatively unknown to the public at that time. Matisse and Derain collected African carvings, a novel but growing curiosity of the time. Matisse spent the summer of 1904 in Saint-Tropez painting with the neo-impressionist Paul Signac and Henri-Edmond Cross, followed in 1905 by Camoin, Manguin, and Marquet. The artists exhibited regularity at the Salon des Indepéndants and the Salon d'Automne 1903–1908 and in 1905 their work created a sensation and a scandal. Matisse stated "We were exhibiting at the Salon d'Automne, Derain, Manguin, Marquet, Puy, and a few others were hung together in one of the larger galleries. In the center of this room the sculptor Marque exhibited a bust of a child very much in the Italian style. Vauxcelles [art critic for Gil Blas] entered the room and said, Well! well! Donatello in the mist of wild beasts! [Donatello chez les fauves]."[256] The movement had not been perceived as an entity by the public, but once published the name stuck. Unlike the impressionist and their long struggle for acceptance, the avant-garde had an eager audience by 1906–1907 and the fauvist were attracting collectors from America to Russia. However fauvism largely dissolved in 1908, as cubism appeared, most of the artist began exploring other styles and moving in different directions. Only Matisse and Dufy continued to explore fauvism into the 1950s.[255][257][258][259][260]

The fauvist painted landscapes en plein air, interiors, figures, and still lifes, following examples of realism, impressionism, and post-impressionism. They applied paint with loose brushstrokes, in thick, unnatural, often contrasting, vibrant colors, at times straight from the tube. Gauguin's influence, with his exploration of the expressive values and spatial aspects of patterning with flat, pure colors, as well as his interest in primitivism were significant, as was neo-impressionism. Matisse explained – for a long time color served as a complement of design, the painters of the Renaissance constructed the picture by line, adding local color afterwards – writing: "From Delacroix to Van Gogh and chiefly to Gauguin, by way of the Impressionist, who cleared the ground, and Cézanne, who gave the final impulse and introduced colored volumes, we can follow this rehabilitation of color's function, this restoration of its emotive power."[255] Fauvism was the culmination in a shift, from drawing and line as the fundamental foundations of design in painting to color, and they depicted their subjects on the verge of abstraction.[255][257][258][259][260]

Expressionism (c. 1905–1930)

Street, Berlin; by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner; 1913; oil on canvas; 1.21 x 0.91 m; Museum of Modern Art (New York City)[262]

Expressionism was an international movement in painting, sculpture, the graphic arts, poetry, literature, theater, film, and architecture. Some associate the Second Viennese School and other music of the period with the movement. Most historians place the beginning of expressionism in 1905 with the founding of Die Brücke ("The Bridge") in Dresden, Germany. However, several artists were producing influential work in the spirit of expressionism c. 1885–1905 including Lovis Corinth, James Ensor, Käthe Kollwitz, Paula Modersohn-Becker, Edvard Munch, Emil Nolde, and Christian Rohlfs among others. Many of these artists later exhibited and associated with various expressionist groups. Expressionist painting is characterized by loose, spontaneous, often thick, impasto brushwork. It often conveyed how the artist felt about their subject, opposed to what it looked like, putting intuition and gut feelings over realistic representations or art theories. Expressionism was frequently infused with an angst or joy, and an overall engagement with contemporary life and social issues that was often absent from fauvism's focus on design and color applied to neutral subjects. Woodcut prints are particularly noteworthy in expressionism. Expressionism can sometimes overlap and integrate with other styles and movements, such as symbolism, fauvism, cubism, futurism, abstraction, and dada. Several groups and factions of expressionists appeared at various times and places.[218][247][263][264]

Die Brücke aspired to connect "all revolutionary and surging elements."[263] It was founded by four architectural students Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Erich Heckel, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, and Fritz Bleyl. Sharing a studio in Dresden they produced paintings, carvings, prints, and organized exhibitions, separating in the summer to work independently. Their first exhibit was in 1905, later joined by Emil Nolde and Max Pechstein in 1906, and Otto Mueller in 1910 among others. Influences included Gothic art, primitivism, Art Nouveau, and developments in Paris, particularly Van Gogh and fauvism. The group shifted to Berlin in 1911 and later dissolved in 1913. Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider: 1911–1914), founded by Wassily Kandinsky and Franz Marc, was a relatively informal group that organized exhibitions of art from Paris and Europe, as well their own. It was one in a series of increasingly progressive groups splitting from the Art Academy in Munich including The Munich Secession in 1892 (realist and impressionist), Phalanx in 1901 (postimpressionist), Neue Kunstler Vereiningung in 1909, and The Blue Rider in 1911. Artist associated with the latter two groups included the Burliuk brothers, Heinrich Campendonk, Alexej von Jawlensky, Paul Klee, August Macke, Gabriele Münter, and Marianne von Werefkin. The euphonious almanac Der Blaue Reiter, a collection of influential essays, and Kandinsky's Concerning the Spiritual in Art with his ideas on non-objective art were both published in 1912. The Blue Rider ended with the outbreak of World War I in which Macke and Marc both died.[218][247][265][263][264]

Other artists such as Oskar Kokoschka, Egon Schiele, and Richard Gerstl emerged in Austria. French artist Georges Rouault and Chaïm Soutine had affinities with the movement. Sculptors include Ernst Barlach, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Gerhard Marcks, and William Wauer. Architects associated with expressionism include Max Berg, Hermann Finsterlin, Johann Friedrich Höger, Michel de Klerk, Erich Mendelsohn, Hans Poelzig, Hans Scharoun, Rudolf Steiner, and Bruno Taut. Der Sturm (The Storm 1910–1932) was a magazine with much expressionist content founded by Herwarth Walden, with an associated gallery in Berlin opened in 1912 and a theater company and school opened in 1918. Films regarded as expressionistic, some considered as classics, include The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (Robert Wiene, 1920), Nosferatu (F. W. Murnau, 1922), and Metropolis (Fritz Lang, 1927).[218][247][265][263][264]

After World War I a tendency to withdraw from the avant-garde by many artist occurred, seen in the work of the original fauvists during the 1920s, Picasso and Stravinsky's neoclassical periods, and De Chirico's late work. This tendency was called New Objectivity (ca. 1919–1933) in Germany, and in contrast to the nostalgic nature of this work elsewhere, it was characterized by disillusionment and ruthless social criticisms. New objectivity artists mostly emerged from expressionist and dada milieus including Otto Dix, Christian Schad, Rudolf Schlichter, Georg Scholz, and Jeanne Mammen. Max Beckmann and George Grosz also had some association with new objectivity for a period. Although not intrinsically expressionistic, the Staatliches Bauhaus (School of Building: 1919–1933) was an influential German school merging crafts, decorative, and fine arts. Moving from Weimar, to Dessau, to Berlin, it changed and evolved in focus with time. Directors included architects Walter Gropius (1919–1928), Hannes Meyer (1928–1930), and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1930–1933). At various points the faculty included Josef Albers, Theo van Doesburg, Lyonel Feininger, Johannes Itten, Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky, El Lissitzky, Gerhard Marcks, László Moholy-Nagy, Oskar Schlemmer. Bauhaus architects greatly influenced the International Style, which was characterized by simplified forms, a lack of ornamentation, a union of design and function, and the idea that mass production could be compatible with personal artistic vision. As the Nazi Party rose to power, modern art was dubbed "degenerate art" and the Bauhaus was closed in 1933, subduing modernism in Germany for several years.[218][247][265][263][264]

Cubism (c. 1907–1914)

Cubism consisted in the rejection of perspective, which leads to a new organisation of space where viewpoints multiply producing a fragmentation of the object that renders the predilection for form over the content of the representation obvious. Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque and other Cubist artists, were inspired by the sculptures of Iberia, Africa and Oceania exhibited in the Louvre and the ethnographic museum in the Trocadéro, and which were being offered at flee markets and in sale rooms.

'A Picasso studies an object the way a surgeon dissects a corpse,' wrote the critic and poet Guillaume Apollinaire in 1913. Five years earlier, Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque – friends, colleagues and rivals – had begun to reject perspectival realism for a form of artistic autopsy: an utterly revolutionary painting style that looked inside and around objects, presenting them analytically, objectively and completely impersonally.[270]

Art Deco (c. 1920–1940)

Art Deco appeared in France as a style of luxury and modernity. Soon, it spread quickly throughout the world, most dramatically in America, becoming more streamlined through the 1930s. The style was named after the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts held in Paris in 1925. Its exuberance and fantasy captured the spirit of the 'roaring 20s' and provided an escape from the realities of the Great Depression during the 1930s. It had ancient Greek, Roman, African, Aztec and Japanese influences, but also Futurist, Cubist and Bauhaus ones. It sometimes blended with the Egyptian Revival style, due to the discovery in 1922 of the Tomb of Tutankhamun and the Egyptomania that it caused. Two examples of this are Le Louxor Cinema in Paris, 1919–1921, by Henri Zipcy, and the Egyptian Theatre in DeKalb (Illinois, US), 1929–1930, by Elmer F. Behrns. In decorative arts, including architecture, low-relief designs, and angular patterns and shapes were used. Predominant materials include chrome, brass, polished steel and aluminum, inlaid wood, stone and stained glass.

Some of the most important Art Deco artists are the Paris-based Polish painter Tamara de Lempicka, the Ukrainian-born French poster artist Adolphe Jean-Marie Mouron, known as Cassandre, and the French furniture designer and interior decorator Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann.[272][273]

Surrealism (c. 1924–1966)

Surrealism emerged as a faction of Dada, formally announcing its inception in 1924 with André Breton's Manifesto of Surrealism.[274] Originally a literary group of poets and writers in Paris, it soon developed into an international movement that included painters, sculptors, photographers, and filmmakers. A Second Manifeste du Surréalisme was published in 1929.[275] Surrealism did not have significant expression in applied or decorative arts, architecture, or music, although a few isolated examples could be identified (e.g. chess sets, furniture, and Las Pozas). The small and short lived Metaphysical School (c. 1910–1921), with Giorgio de Chirico as its principal figure, was highly influential on surrealism. The surrealist explored a myriad of innovative techniques, some had recently been developed in Cubism and Dada, others were new, including collage, found objects, assemblage, random chance, rayographs (photograms), painting on sand, dripping and flinging paint, decalcomania, frottage, fumage, and raclage. Two fundamental approaches predominate surrealist art. Automatism dominated in the early years which can be seen in the work of artist like André Masson and Joan Miró. Other artists, swayed by work of Giorgio de Chirico, used more traditional methods and mediums to illustrate unfiltered thoughts and incongruous juxtapositions, including Salvador Dalí and René Magritte. Significant artist include Jean Arp, Hans Bellmer, Victor Brauner, Luis Buñuel, Joseph Cornell, Óscar Domínguez, Max Ernst, Wifredo Lam, Yves Tanguy, Man Ray, Alberto Giacometti, Méret Oppenheim, and Roberto Matta. Other important artist informally accosted with surrealism include Marcel Duchamp, Pablo Picasso, and Frida Kahlo. Surrealist ideas and theories were discussed in a successive series of journals, La Révolution Surréaliste (1924–1929), Le Surrealisme au service de la revolution (1930–1933), Minotaure (1933–1939), VVV (1942–1944). The automatic paintings produced by André Masson and Joan Miró, as well as latecomers to surrealism like Roberto Matta and Arshile Gorky had a considerable influence on the abstract expressionist in the late 1940s.[276][277][278][279][280][281]

With a measure of Dada's irreverence and contempt for the traditional political, religious, and bourgeois values of western culture that they believed had led the world into the First World War (Breton and other founding members were veterans); the surrealist explored the possibilities that had been opened up by Sigmund Freud regarding the subconscious mind: "Pure psychic automatism, by which one intends to express verbally, in writing or by any other method, the real functioning of the mind. Dictation by thought, in the absence of any control exercised by reason, and beyond any aesthetic or moral preoccupation."[274] Surrealism sought to express pure thought, unfiltered and uncensored by political, religious, moral, or rational principles.[276][277][278][279][280][281]

Mid and late 20th century

As Europe struggled to recover from World War II, America moved into a position of political, economic and cultural strength. During the 1940s and 1950s, Abstract Expressionism emerged as the first specifically American art movement to have an international impact. In consequence, the art world's focus shifted from Europe to New York. Abstract Expressionists were a small group of loosely associated artists who had similar outlooks but different approaches. They were influenced by Surrealism, and believed in spontaneity, freedom of expression and abandonment of the themes of American life that had characterized national art of recent decades. One of the most famous representatives of this movement was Jackson Pollock, known for his painting made by pouring, flicking and dripping paint on to huge canvases on the ground. Other artists include Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Robert Motherwell, Barnett Newman, Mark Rothko and Clyfford Still.

After World War II, consumerism and the mass media surged, and as a result, Pop art developed in both London and New York. In a London exhibition in 1956, the word 'Pop' was used in a collage created by Richard Hamilton (1922–2011) made of American magazines. Pop art was a reaction against Abstract Expressionism, and interpreted ideas of pop culture. In celebrating and commenting on consumerism, pop artists, as they became known, produced colorful images based on advertising, the media and shopping, featuring film stars, comic strips, flags, packaging and food – things that everyone, rather than just a highbrow few, could relate to.

The term Minimalism was not new, but it gained momentum in the 1960s, specifically describing a style of art characterized by detached restraint. Originating in New York, it was a reaction against Abstract Expressionism, but it also embraced Constructivist ideas that art should be made of modern materials. Thus, Minimalist artists, primarily sculptors, often used non-traditional materials and production methods, often employing industrial or specialist fabricators to produce works to their specifications. The term was chiefly used to describe a group of American sculptors who re-evaluated the space around them, aiming to challenge assumptions and present familiar objects in new ways. Their artworks don't have any symbolism or hidden meaning, as they try to enable viewers to re-evaluate art and space around forms. Unlike a figural sculpture on which the viewer focuses to the exclusion of the room in which it stands, Minimalist art becomes one with its space. By focusing on the effects of context and the theatricality of the viewing experience, Minimalism exerted an indirect but powerful influence on later developments in Conceptual and Performance art, as well as providing a foil for the rise of Postmodernism.

Despite developing almost 50 years after Marcel Duchamp's ideas, Conceptual art showed that art does not always have to be judged aesthetically. It was never a single, cohesive movement, but an umbrella term that now covers several types of art and emerged more or less concurrently in America and Europe, first defined in New York. Conceptual artists promote the art of ideas, or concepts, suggesting that they can be more valid in the modern world than technical skill or aesthetics. No matter the art media of an artwork, it is considered as no more than a vehicle for presenting the concept. At its most extreme, Conceptual art foregoes the physical object completely, using verbal or written message to convey the idea.[283][284][285]

Traditionally, many creative acts such as sewing, weaving, and quilting have been considered as women's work, described as crafts, and denied the cachet and public recognition of so-called high or fine arts such as sculpture and painting. Many artists have now challenged this hierarchy by either expanding the scope of a fine art such as sculpture, by creating soft sculptures using unconventional materials and practices, or by reclaiming and redefining the materials and methods of so-called craftwork, publicly exhibiting their work in museums and galleries and thus elevating the status of the decorative and applied arts.[286] Artists of the twentieth and twenty first centuries effecting this radical change include Maria Martinez, Anni Albers, Lucie Rie, Lenore Tawney, Louise Bourgeois, Miriam Schapiro, Faith Ringgold, Magdalena Abakanowicz, Sheila Hicks, Marva Lee Pitchford-Jolly, Judy Chicago, and Dindga McCannon.

See also

Notes

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  10. ↑Fortenberry 2017, p. 3.
  11. ↑Fortenberry 2017, p. 4, 5, 6, 9, 12, 13.
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  14. 12Fortenberry 2017, p. 4.
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  20. ↑Fortenberry 2017, p. 19.
  21. ↑10,000 YEARS OF ART. Phaidon. 2009. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-7148-4969-0.
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  23. ↑Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014, p. 30.
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  55. 12Croke 2003, p. 349.
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Further reading

  • 30,000 Years of Art: The Story of Human Creativity Across Time & Space (2nd ed.). London: Phaidon Press. 2015.
  • Adams, Laurie (2007). Art across Time (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
  • Andrew, Graham-Dixon (2018). Art : the definitive visual guide. Dorling Kindersley Limited. ISBN 978-0-241-25710-4.
  • Bar-Yosef, Ofer (2016). "The Archaeological Framework of the Upper Paleolithic Revolution". Diogenes. 54 (2): 3–18. doi:10.1177/0392192107076869. ISSN 0392-1921. S2CID 145584993.
  • Belfer-Cohen, Anna; Bar-Yosef, Ofer (1981). "The Aurignacian at Hayonim Cave". Paléorient. 7 (2): 19–42. doi:10.3406/paleo.1981.4296. Archived from the original on 2019-05-05. Retrieved 2019-05-05.
  • Bell, Julian (2010). Mirror of the World: A New History of Art (2nd ed.). London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28754-5.
  • Benson, Elizabeth P. (1996). "110. Votive Axe". In Elizabeth P. Benson; Beatriz de la Fuente (eds.). Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico (To accompany an exhibition at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, 30 June to 20 October 1996 ed.). Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art. ISBN 0-89468-250-4.
  • Blundell, Geoffrey (2006). Origins: The Story of the Emergence of Humans and Humanity in Africa. Juta and Company Ltd. ISBN 9781770130401. Archived from the original on 2020-01-24. Retrieved 2019-05-11.
  • Boardman, John; Johnston, Alan; Smith, R. R. R.; Pollitt, Jerome Jordan; Huskinson, Janet (1993). The Oxford History of Classical Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814386-9. Archived from the original on 2021-09-13. Retrieved 2019-08-20.
  • Bouillon, Jean-Paul (1985). Journal de l'art nouveau : 1870–1914[Journal of Art Nouveau: 1870-1914]. Genèva: Skira. ISBN 2-605-00069-9. Archived from the original on 2021-04-30. Retrieved 2021-04-30.
  • Branan, Nicole (2010). "Neandertal Symbolism: Evidence Suggests a Biological Basis for Symbolic Thought". Scientific American Mind. 21 (2). doi:10.1038/scientificamericanmind0510-7c. ISSN 1555-2284. Archived from the original on 2018-06-14. Retrieved 2019-05-13.
  • Dissanayake, Ellen (1974). "A Hypothesis of the Evolution of Art from Play". Leonardo. 7 (3): 211–217. doi:10.2307/1572893. ISSN 0024-094X. JSTOR 1572893. S2CID 49569697.
  • Drimba, Ovidiu (1985). Istoria Culturii și Civilizației[History of Culture and Civilization]. Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică. ISBN 973-44-0118-1. OCLC 20934624.
  • Gombrich, E.H. (1990). The Story of Art (15th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
  • Grau, Oliver, ed. (2007). MediaArtHistories. Cambridge, MA: MIT-Press.
  • Haidle, M.N. (2014). "Examining the evolution of artistic capacities: searching for mushrooms?". In Sütterlin, Christa; Schiefenhövel, Wulf; Lehmann, Christian; Forster, Johanna; Apfelauer, Gerhard (eds.). Art as behaviour. An ethological approach to visual and verbal art, music and architecture. Oldenburg: Bis-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg. pp. 237–251. Archived from the original on 2021-09-13. Retrieved 2021-02-22.
  • Hitti, Philip K. (2002). History of The Arabs (10th ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-03982-8. Archived from the original on 2021-04-30. Retrieved 2021-04-30.
  • Honour, Hugh; Fleming, John (2002). A World History of Art (Fifth ed.). London: Laurence King. ISBN 978-1-85669-314-1. Archived from the original on 2021-04-23. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
  • Honour, H.; Fleming, J. (2005). A World History of Art. Laurence King. ISBN 978-1-85669-451-3. Archived from the original on 2021-09-13. Retrieved 2020-09-04.
  • Janson, H.W.; Davies, Penelope J.E. (2007). Janson's History of Art: The Western Tradition (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
  • Joordens, Josephine C. A.; d'Errico, Francesco; Wesselingh, Frank P.; Munro, Stephen; de Vos, John; Wallinga, Jakob; Ankjærgaard, Christina; Reimann, Tony; Wijbrans, Jan R.; Kuiper, Klaudia F.; Mücher, Herman J. (2015). "Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving". Nature. 518 (7538): 228–231. Bibcode:2015Natur.518..228J. doi:10.1038/nature13962. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 25470048. S2CID 4461751. Archived from the original on 2021-03-02. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  • Keay, John (2000). India: A History (1st ed.). New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-87113-800-X. Archived from the original on 2021-04-23. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
  • La Plante, John D. (1992). Asian Art (3rd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
  • Laing, Lloyd Robert (2001). The Picts and the Scots (Rev. pbk. ed.). Stroud: Sutton Pub. ISBN 0-7509-2873-5. Archived from the original on 2021-04-23. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
  • Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (2002). "Archaeology and Language: The Indo-Iranians". Current Anthropology. 43 (1). doi:10.1086/324130. hdl:1808/21124. ISSN 0011-3204. S2CID 162536112. Archived from the original on 2021-04-30. Retrieved 2021-04-30.
  • Lipiński, Edward; Lerberghe, Karel van (1995). Immigration and Emigration Within the Ancient Near East: Festschrift E. Lipiński. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-6831-727-5. Archived from the original on 2021-09-13. Retrieved 2020-09-04.
  • MacKenzie, Andrew (1986). Archaeology in Romania: The Mystery of the Roman Occupation. London: Hale. ISBN 0-7090-2724-9.
  • Marshall, John (1931). Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927. Arthur Probsthain.
  • Mattinson, Lindsay (2019). Understanding Architecture: A Guide To Architectural Styles. London: Amber Books. ISBN 978-1-78274-748-2.
  • Megaw, M. Ruth (2001). Celtic art: From Its Beginnings to the Book of Kells (Rev. and expanded ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28265-X. Archived from the original on 2021-04-23. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
  • McCoid, Catherine Hodge; McDermott, Leroy D. (1996). "Toward Decolonizing Gender: Female Vision in the Upper Paleolithic". American Anthropologist. 98 (2): 319–326. doi:10.1525/aa.1996.98.2.02a00080. JSTOR 682890.
  • McIntosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.
  • Miller, Mary Ellen (2006). The Art of Mesoamerica: From Olmec to Aztec. World of Art (4th ed.). London: Thames & Hudson.
  • Molina, Antonio Luis Ramos. La magia de la química fotográfica: El quimigrama. Conceptos, técnicas y procedimientos del quimigrama en la expresión artística, In: Tesis Doctoral, Universidad de Granada 2018.
  • Morriss-Kay, Gillian M. (2010). "The evolution of human artistic creativity". Journal of Anatomy. 216 (2): 158–176. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01160.x. ISSN 0021-8782. PMC 2815939. PMID 19900185.
  • Mountain, Harry (1998). The Celtic encyclopedia (1 ed.). Parkland, Fla.: Universal Publishers. ISBN 1-58112-889-4.
  • Mura, Andrea (2012). "The Symbolic Function of Transmodernity"(PDF). Language and Psychoanalysis. 1 (1): 68–87. doi:10.7565/landp.2012.0005 (inactive 1 July 2025). Archived from the original(PDF) on 8 October 2015.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
  • Onians, John (2004). Atlas of World Art. London: Laurence King Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85669-377-6.
  • Petrie, Milton; Rose, Frederick; Tisch, Laurence A.; Grant, Eugene M.; Zuckerman, Mortimer B. (1986). O'Neill, John Patrick; Howard, Kathleen (eds.). Treasures of the Holy Land: Ancient Art from the Israel Museum. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-470-8. Archived from the original on 2021-04-23. Retrieved 2019-05-05.
  • Pevsner, Nikolaus (2005). Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius (4th ed.). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10571-1.
  • Pierce, James Smith; Janson, H.W. (2004). From Abacus to Zeus: A Handbook of Art History (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
  • Piper, David, ed. (1981). The Random House Library of Painting and Sculpture: Vol. 2, The History of Art: I - From the Beginnings to the Late 18th Century / Vol. 3, The History of Art II - From the French Revolution to the Present. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0394500928.
  • Pohl, Frances K. (2002). Framing America: A Social History of American Art. New York: Thames & Hudson.
  • Stokstad, Marilyn (2008). Art History (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education.
  • Thomas, Nicholas (1995). Oceanic Art. World of Art. New York: Thames and Hudson.
  • Thuillier, Jacques (2002). Histoire de l'art. Paris: Flammarion. ISBN 2-08-012535-4.
  • Wilkins, David G.; Schultz, Bernard; Linduff, Katheryn M. (2008). Art Past, Art Present (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education.
  • "Art: The history of ideas in literature and the arts in aesthetic theory and literary criticism"Archived 2009-03-25 at the Wayback Machine – The Dictionary of the History of Ideas
  • Art History resources
  • Ars Summum Project

Timelines