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Clasificación de los pueblos indígenas de América

América , hemisferio occidental Regiones culturales de los pueblos norteamericanos en el momento del contacto. Lenguas indígenas tempranas en los Estados Unidos Históricamente, ...

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América , hemisferio occidental
Regiones culturales de los pueblos norteamericanos en el momento del contacto.
Lenguas indígenas tempranas en los Estados Unidos

Históricamente, la clasificación de los pueblos indígenas de América se basa en regiones culturales, geografía y lingüística. Los antropólogos han nombrado diversas regiones culturales, con límites difusos, que generalmente son aceptadas, aunque con algunas variaciones. Estas regiones culturales se basan, en líneas generales, en la ubicación de los pueblos indígenas de América desde los primeros contactos con europeos y africanos, a partir de finales del siglo XV. Cuando los pueblos indígenas han sido desplazados por la fuerza por los estados-nación, conservan su clasificación geográfica original. Algunos grupos abarcan varias regiones culturales. Los pueblos también pueden clasificarse según su genética, tecnología y estructura social.

Canadá, Groenlandia, Estados Unidos y el norte de México

En Estados Unidos y Canadá , los etnógrafos suelen clasificar a los pueblos indígenas en diez regiones geográficas con rasgos culturales compartidos, denominadas áreas culturales. [ 1 ] Groenlandia forma parte de la región ártica . Algunos estudiosos combinan las regiones de la Meseta y la Gran Cuenca en el Oeste Intermontano, otros separan a los pueblos de las praderas de los pueblos de las Grandes Llanuras, mientras que otros separan a las tribus de los Grandes Lagos de los Bosques del Noreste.

Ártico

mapa del dialecto inuktitut
Lenguas indígenas antiguas en Alaska

Subártico

costa del Pacífico Noroeste

Entre los pueblos indígenas de la costa noroeste, existe un amplio consenso entre los estudiosos en que la zona al norte de los haisla constituye una subzona cultural denominada "Norte" o "Marítima del Norte". Sin embargo, al sur de esta, existe un amplio desacuerdo sobre la existencia de subzonas, especialmente al sur de la isla de Vancouver . [ 4 ] A efectos de organización, al sur de la subzona norte, las tribus se agrupan por familia lingüística.

Subárea norte

Wakashan

Nuxalk ( Salishan )

  • Nuxalk (también conocida como Bella Coola)

Pueblos Coast Salish del norte de la costa

Salish de la Costa Central

Salish de la costa sur

Salish de la costa suroeste

Chimakuan

Chinookanos

Salish de Oregón

Alseanos

Siuslawanos

Coosans

Kalapuyanos

Atabascanos

Meseta del Noroeste

  • Pueblos Chinook
  • Pueblo Sahaptin
  • Otro o ambos

Grandes Llanuras

Los pueblos indígenas de las Grandes Llanuras suelen dividirse en tribus de las Llanuras del Norte y del Sur.

Bosques del este

Bosques del noreste

Bosques del sureste

La mayoría de ellas ya no existen como tribus.

Gran Cuenca

California

Nota bene: El área cultural de California no se ajusta exactamente a los límites del estado de California, y muchas tribus en la frontera oriental con Nevada se clasifican como tribus de la Gran Cuenca y algunas tribus en la frontera con Oregón se clasifican como tribus de la Meseta . [ 58 ]

Suroeste

Esta región también se llama "Oasisamérica" ​​e incluye partes de lo que ahora es Arizona , el sur de Colorado , Nuevo México , el oeste de Texas , el sur de Utah , Chihuahua y Sonora.

México y Mesoamérica

Las regiones de Oasisamérica , Aridoamérica y Mesoamérica abarcan varios países y se superponen.

América

Región aridoamericana de América del Norte

Mesoamérica

Mapa de Mesoamérica

Circuncaribeño

Regiones culturales de América del Sur y Central en el momento del contacto (en español)

Parcialmente organizado según el Manual de Indios Sudamericanos . [ 67 ]

caribe

El antropólogo Julian Steward definió el área cultural de las Antillas, que incluye todas las Antillas y Bahamas , excepto Trinidad y Tobago . [ 67 ]

América Central

El área cultural centroamericana incluye parte de El Salvador , la mayor parte de Honduras , toda Nicaragua , Costa Rica y Panamá , y algunos pueblos en o cerca de las costas del Pacífico de Colombia y Ecuador . [ 67 ]

Colombia y Venezuela

El área cultural de Colombia y Venezuela abarca la mayor parte de Colombia y Venezuela . El sur de Colombia se encuentra en el área cultural andina, al igual que algunos pueblos del centro y noreste de Colombia, que están rodeados por pueblos de la cultura colombiana y venezolana. El este de Venezuela se encuentra en el área cultural de las Guayanas , y el sureste de Colombia y el suroeste de Venezuela se encuentran en el área cultural amazónica. [ 67 ]

Guayanas

Las Guayanas en el norte de Sudamérica
La posición de las Guayanas en el reino neotropical del norte de Sudamérica.

Esta región comprende las zonas septentrionales de Colombia , la Guayana Francesa , Guyana , Surinam , Venezuela y partes de los estados de Amazonas , Amapá , Pará y Roraima en Brasil.

Este de Brasil

Esta región incluye partes de los estados de Ceará , Goiás , Espírito Santo , Mato Grosso , Mato Grosso do Sul , Pará y Santa Catarina de Brasil.

Andes

El Tawantinsuyu , o extensión total del Imperio Inca , que incluye gran parte de la región cultural andina.

Pacific lowlands

Amazon

Northwestern Amazon

This region includes Amazonas in Brazil; the Amazonas and Putumayo Departments in Colombia; Cotopaxi, Los Rios, Morona-Santiago, Napo, and Pastaza Provinces and the Oriente Region in Ecuador; and the Loreto Region in Peru.

Eastern Amazon

This region includes Amazonas, Maranhão, and parts of Pará States in Brazil.

Southern Amazon

This region includes southern Brazil (Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, parts of Pará, and Rondônia) and Eastern Bolivia (Beni Department).

Southwestern Amazon

This region includes the Cuzco, HuánucoJunín, Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali Regions of eastern Peru, parts of Acre, Amazonas, and Rondônia, Brazil, and parts of the La Paz and Beni Departments of Bolivia.

Gran Chaco

Approximate region of the Gran Chaco

Southern Cone

Patagonian languages at the time of European/African contact

Fjords and channels of Patagonia

Languages

Indigenous languages of the Americas (or Amerindian languages) are spoken by Indigenous peoples from the southern tip of South America to Alaska and Greenland, encompassing the land masses which constitute the Americas. These Indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct language families as well as many language isolates and unclassified languages. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made. According to UNESCO, most of the Indigenous American languages in North America are critically endangered and many of them are already extinct.[76]

Writing

Before European contact:

After European contact, some distinct writing systems have been used for Indigenous languages:

Genetic classification

The haplogroup most commonly associated with Indigenous Americans is Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA).[77] Y-DNA, like (mtDNA), differs from other nuclear chromosomes in that the majority of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine during meiosis. This has the effect that the historical pattern of mutations can more easily be studied.[78] The pattern indicates Indigenous peoples of the Americas experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas.[79][80] The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous American populations.[79]

Human settlement of the Americas occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with an initial 20,000-year layover on Beringia for the founding population.[81][82] The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.[83] The Na-Dené, Inuit and Alaska Native populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other Indigenous Americans with various mtDNA mutations.[84][85][86] This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later populations.[87]

Empires

Arising before European contact:

Comancheria (1770-1850) has also been described by some scholars as a Native American empire which arose after European contact.

Civilizations

These complex societies developed cities before European contact.

Technological and social periods

The Andes, Mesoamerica, and eastern North America are considered centers that independently developed agriculture, a process known globally as the Neolithic Revolution.

The technological and social development of pre-Columbian cultures are conventionally classified into five archaeological stages:

In North America, the later stages are grouped instead into the Woodland period and Mississippian culture.

Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America included for some cultures equivalents to Eurasian Copper Age and Bronze Age technology:

The Iron Age in Eurasia is defined by the production of iron tools via smelting; iron smelting was never developed natively in the Americas. Unsmelted iron was used Andeana and Mesoamerican cultures for mirrors, decorative and ceremonial items, starting fires, and small hammers. Iron magnets were apparently used by the Olmec and Chavin to align monuments. Smelted iron from shipwrecked East Asian vessels was used in the Pacific Northwest before European contact.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑"Culture Areas Index". the Canadian Museum of Civilization. Archived from the original on 2013-11-04. Retrieved 2009-08-18.
  2. ↑"Dena'ina."Archived 2016-11-15 at the Wayback Machine Alaska Native Language Center. Accessed December 10, 2016.
  3. ↑"Slavey". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
  4. ↑Suttles, Wayne (1990). "Introduction". Northwest Coast. Vol. 7. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 9–12.
  5. ↑Krauss, Michael E. (1970). Eyak Dictionary. University of Alaska and Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
  6. ↑Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages : The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 396 n. 29. ISBN 978-0-19-514050-7.
  7. 12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334Sturtevant and Trigger ix
  8. 1234"Preamble." Constitution of the Pawnee Nation of OklahomaArchived 2013-10-07 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 5 Dec 2012.
  9. 123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233"Cultural Thesaurus"Archived 2010-06-24 at the Wayback Machine. National Museum of the American Indian. Accessed 8 April 2014.
  10. 123456Sturtevant and Trigger 241
  11. 1234Sturtevant and Trigger 198
  12. 12345Goddard 72
  13. ↑Goddard 72 and 237
  14. 12345Goddard 237
  15. ↑Goddard 72, 237–38
  16. 123Goddard 238
  17. ↑Goddard 72 and 238
  18. 12Sturtevant and Fogelson, 290
  19. 123456789Sturtevant and Trigger 161
  20. 12345678910Sturtevant and Fogelson, 293
  21. 1234567891011Sturtevant and Fogelson, 81–82
  22. 12Sturtevant and Fogelson, 291
  23. 1234Vest, Jay Hansford C. (Winter–Spring 2005). "An Odyssey among the Iroquois: A History of Tutelo Relations in New York". American Indian Quarterly. 29 (1/2): 124–55. doi:10.1353/aiq.2005.0072. JSTOR 4138803.
  24. ↑Brooks, Rebecca Beatrice. "Native American Tribes in Massachusetts". History of Massachusetts. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  25. ↑Sturtevant and Trigger 255
  26. 12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334353637Sturtevant and Fogelson, 69
  27. 123456Sturtevant and Fogelson, 205
  28. 12345678910111213Sturtevant and Fogelson, 214
  29. ↑Sturtevant and Fogelson, 673
  30. 123456789101112131415161718192021222324Sturtevant and Fogelson, ix
  31. 123456789Sturtevant and Fogelson, 374
  32. 1234567891011121314151617181920Sturtevant, 617
  33. ↑Folgelson, ed. (2004), p. 315
  34. 1234Frank, Andrew K. "Indian Removal". The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Retrieved 28 April 2024.
  35. ↑Hann, John H. (2006). The Native American World Beyond Apalachee. University Press of Florida. pp. 53–56. ISBN 978-0-8130-2982-5.
  36. 12Sturtevant and Fogelson, 188
  37. 12Sturtevant and Fogelson, 598–99
  38. 12345Hann, John H. (2006). The Native American World Beyond Apalachee. University Press of Florida. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-8130-2982-5.
  39. 123Sturtevant and Fogelson, 302
  40. ↑Hann 1993
  41. ↑Sturtevant and Fogelson, 78, 668
  42. 123456789101112131415Hann 1996, 5–13
  43. ↑Milanich 1999, p. 49.
  44. ↑Milanich 1996, p. 46.
  45. ↑Hann 2003:11
  46. ↑Sturtevant and Fogelson, 190
  47. 123456D'Azevedo, ix
  48. ↑D'Azevedo, 161–62
  49. 123Loether, Christopher. "Shoshones"Archived 2014-11-10 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. Retrieved 20 Oct 2013.
  50. 123Shimkin 335
  51. 123456Murphy and Murphy 306
  52. 123Murphy and Murphy 287
  53. 1234567891011121314Thomas, Pendleton, and Cappannari 280–83
  54. 1234567Pritzker, 230
  55. 123456D'Azevedo, 339
  56. 1234D'Azevedo, 340
  57. ↑Nicholas, Walter S. "A Short History of Johnsondale". RRanch.org. Archived from the original on 2010-10-31. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
  58. ↑Pritzker 112
  59. 1234567891011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132333435363738394041424344454647Heizer ix
  60. ↑Heizer 205–07
  61. ↑Heizer 190
  62. ↑Heizer 593
  63. ↑Heizer 769
  64. ↑Heizer 249
  65. 123456789"Mexico: Map". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  66. ↑"Paipai Language (Akwa'ala)"Archived 2010-09-26 at the Wayback Machine. Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 10 Sept 2010.
  67. 1234Steward, Julian H. (1948) Editor. Handbook of South American Indians. Volume 4 The Circum-Caribbean Tribes. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 143.
  68. ↑"Aboriginal Roots of Cuban Culture"Archived 2012-03-26 at the Wayback Machine. (retrieved 9 July 2011)
  69. 1234"Prehistory of the Caribbean Culture Area"Archived 2011-08-05 at the Wayback Machine. Southeast Archaeological Center. (retrieved 9 July 2011)
  70. ↑"Cacaopera"Archived 2019-09-13 at the Wayback Machine. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (retrieved 1 Dec 2011)
  71. 123456789101112131415161718192021222324"Languages of Bolivia"Archived 2012-10-02 at the Wayback Machine. Ethnologue. Retrieved 23 Oct 2012.
  72. ↑"Apiaká: Introduction"Archived 2012-03-30 at the Wayback Machine. Instituto Socioambiental: Povos Indígenas no Brasil. Retrieved 28 March 2012
  73. ↑"Huachipaeri"Archived 2011-11-16 at the Wayback Machine. Ethnologue. Retrieved 18 Feb 2012.
  74. 12345678910111213"Cultural Thesaurus"Archived 2011-04-29 at the Wayback Machine. National Museum of the American Indian. (retrieved 18 Feb 2011)
  75. ↑"Puelche". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 1 December 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
  76. ↑Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: .
  77. ↑"Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas"(PDF). Department of Biology, University College, London; Departamento de Gene´tica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientı´ficas, Caracas, Venezuela; Departamento de Gene´tica, Universidade Federal do Parana´, Curitiba, Brazil; 5Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque; 6Laboratorio de Gene´tica Humana, Universidad de los Andes, Bogota´; Victoria Hospital, Prince Albert, Canada; Subassembly of Medical Sciences, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; Laboratorio de Gene´tica Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellı´n, Colombia; Université de Montréal. University College London 73:524–539. 2003. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2019-04-30. Retrieved 2010-01-22.
  78. ↑Orgel L (2004). "Prebiotic chemistry and the origin of the RNA world"(PDF). Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol. 39 (2): 99–123. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.537.7679. doi:10.1080/10409230490460765. PMID 15217990. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2018-11-13. Retrieved 2010-01-19.
  79. 12Tymchuk, Wendy (2008). "Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q". Genebase Systems. Archived from the original(Verbal tutorial possible) on 2010-06-22. Retrieved 2009-11-21. Haplogroups are defined by unique mutation events such as single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs. These SNPs mark the branch of a haplogroup, and indicate that all descendants of that haplogroup at one time shared a common ancestor. The Y-DNA SNP mutations were passed from father to son over thousands of years. Over time, additional SNPs occur within a haplogroup, leading to new lineages. These new lineages are considered subclades of the haplogroup. Each time a new mutation occurs, there is a new branch in the haplogroup, and therefore a new subclade. Haplogroup Q, possibly the youngest of the 20 Y-chromosome haplogroups, originated with the SNP mutation M242 in a man from Haplogroup P that likely lived in Siberia approximately 15,000 to 20,000 years before present
  80. ↑Wells, Spencer; Read, Mark (2002). The Journey of Man – A Genetic Odyssey(Digitised online by Google books). Random House. ISBN 0-8129-7146-9. Archived from the original on 2016-05-18. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
  81. ↑"First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover – Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News". Archived from the original on 2012-10-10. Retrieved 2009-11-18. Archaeological evidence, in fact, recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally brokenpage 2Archived March 13, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  82. ↑Than, Ker (2008). "New World Settlers Took 20,000-Year Pit Stop". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 2011-01-19. Retrieved 2010-01-23. Over time descendants developed a unique culture—one that was different from the original migrants' way of life in Asia but which contained seeds of the new cultures that would eventually appear throughout the Americas
  83. ↑"Summary of knowledge on the subclades of Haplogroup Q". Genebase Systems. 2009. Archived from the original on 2011-05-10. Retrieved 2009-11-22.
  84. ↑Ruhlen M (November 1998). "The origin of the Na-Dene". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (23): 13994–96. Bibcode:1998PNAS...9513994R. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994. PMC 25007. PMID 9811914.
  85. ↑Zegura SL, Karafet TM, Zhivotovsky LA, Hammer MF (January 2004). "High-resolution SNPs and microsatellite haplotypes point to a single, recent entry of Native American Y chromosomes into the Americas". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 21 (1): 164–75. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh009. PMID 14595095.
  86. ↑Juliette Saillard; Peter Forster; Niels Lynnerup; Hans-Jürgen Bandelt; Søren Nørby (2000). "mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos. The Edge of the Beringian Expansion". Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, University of Hamburg, Hamburg. Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-11-22. The relatively lower coalescence time of the entire haplogroup A2 including the shared sub-arctic branches A2b (Siberians and Inuit) and A2a (Eskimos and Na-Dené) is probably due to secondary expansions of haplogroup A2 from the Beringia area, which would have averaged the overall internal variation of haplogroup A2 in North America.
  87. ↑A. Torroni; T. G. Schurr; C. C. Yang; EJE. Szathmary; R. C. Williams; M. S. Schanfield; G. A. Troup; W. C. Knowler; D. N. Lawrence; K. M. Weiss; D. C. Wallace (January 1992). "Native American Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Indicates That the Amerind and the Nadene Populations Were Founded by Two Independent Migrations". Center for Genetics and Molecular Medicine and Departments of Biochemistry and Anthropology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia. 130 (1). Genetics Society of America: 153–62. Archived from the original on 2009-02-20. Retrieved 2009-11-28. The divergence time for the Nadene portion of the HaeIII np 663 lineage was about 6,000–10,000 years. Hence, the ancestral Nadene migrated from Asia independently and considerably more recently than the progenitors of the Amerinds

References

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