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Lista de afecciones cutáneas

Erupción cutánea debida al sarampión Muchas afecciones cutáneas afectan al sistema tegumentario humano , el sistema de órganos que cubre toda la superficie del cuerpo y está com...

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Niño pequeño con sarpullido rojo que cubre la cara, el pecho, los hombros y los brazos.
Erupción cutánea debida al sarampión

Muchas afecciones cutáneas afectan al sistema tegumentario humano , el sistema de órganos que cubre toda la superficie del cuerpo y está compuesto por piel , pelo , uñas y músculos y glándulas relacionados . [ 1 ] La función principal de este sistema es la de barrera contra el entorno externo. [ 2 ] La piel pesa un promedio de cuatro kilogramos, cubre un área de dos metros cuadrados y está formada por tres capas distintas: la epidermis , la dermis y el tejido subcutáneo . [ 1 ] Los dos tipos principales de piel humana son: la piel glabra , la piel sin pelo de las palmas y las plantas de los pies (también denominada superficie "palmoplantar"), y la piel con pelo. [ 3 ] Dentro de este último tipo, los pelos se encuentran en estructuras llamadas unidades pilosebáceas , cada una con folículo piloso , glándula sebácea y músculo erector del pelo asociado . [ 4 ] En el embrión , la epidermis, el pelo y las glándulas se forman a partir del ectodermo , que está químicamente influenciado por el mesodermo subyacente que forma la dermis y los tejidos subcutáneos. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ]

La epidermis es la capa más superficial de la piel, un epitelio escamoso con varios estratos : el estrato córneo , el estrato lúcido , el estrato granuloso , el estrato espinoso y el estrato basal . [ 8 ] La nutrición de estas capas se proporciona por difusión desde la dermis ya que la epidermis no tiene irrigación sanguínea directa. La epidermis contiene cuatro tipos de células: queratinocitos , melanocitos , células de Langerhans y células de Merkel . De estas, los queratinocitos son el componente principal, constituyendo aproximadamente el 95 por ciento de la epidermis. [ 3 ] Este epitelio escamoso estratificado se mantiene por división celular dentro del estrato basal, en el que las células diferenciadas se desplazan lentamente hacia afuera a través del estrato espinoso hasta el estrato córneo, donde las células se desprenden continuamente de la superficie. [ 3 ] En la piel normal, la tasa de producción es igual a la tasa de pérdida; Se necesitan aproximadamente dos semanas para que una célula migre desde la capa de células basales hasta la parte superior de la capa de células granulares, y otras dos semanas para cruzar el estrato córneo. [ 9 ]

La dermis es la capa de piel entre la epidermis y el tejido subcutáneo, y comprende dos secciones, la dermis papilar y la dermis reticular . [ 10 ] La dermis papilar superficial se interdigita con las crestas de la rete suprayacentes de la epidermis, entre las cuales las dos capas interactúan a través de la zona de la membrana basal. [ 10 ] Los componentes estructurales de la dermis son el colágeno , las fibras elásticas y la sustancia fundamental . [ 10 ] Dentro de estos componentes se encuentran las unidades pilosebáceas, los músculos erectores del pelo y las glándulas ecrinas y apocrinas . [ 8 ] La dermis contiene dos redes vasculares que corren paralelas a la superficie de la piel —un plexo superficial y un plexo profundo— que están conectados por vasos comunicantes verticales. [ 8 ] [ 11 ] La función de los vasos sanguíneos dentro de la dermis es cuádruple: suministrar nutrientes, regular la temperatura, modular la inflamación y participar en la cicatrización de heridas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ]

El tejido subcutáneo es una capa de grasa entre la dermis y la fascia subyacente . [ 14 ] Este tejido se puede dividir a su vez en dos componentes: la capa grasa propiamente dicha, o panículo adiposo , y una capa muscular vestigial más profunda, el panículo carnoso . [ 3 ] El principal componente celular de este tejido es el adipocito , o célula grasa. [ 14 ] La estructura de este tejido está compuesta por compartimentos septales (es decir, hebras lineales) y lobulares , que difieren en su aspecto microscópico. [ 8 ] Funcionalmente, la grasa subcutánea aísla el cuerpo, absorbe los traumatismos y sirve como fuente de energía de reserva. [ 14 ]

Las afecciones del sistema tegumentario humano constituyen un amplio espectro de enfermedades, también conocidas como dermatosis , así como muchos estados no patológicos (como, en ciertas circunstancias, la melanoniquia y las uñas de raqueta ). [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Si bien solo un pequeño número de enfermedades de la piel representan la mayoría de las visitas al médico , se han descrito miles de afecciones de la piel. [ 14 ] La clasificación de estas afecciones a menudo presenta muchos desafíos nosológicos , ya que las etiologías y patogenias subyacentes a menudo no se conocen. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] Por lo tanto, la mayoría de los libros de texto actuales presentan una clasificación basada en la ubicación (por ejemplo, afecciones de la membrana mucosa ), morfología ( afecciones ampollosas crónicas ), etiología ( afecciones de la piel resultantes de factores físicos ), etc. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] Clínicamente, el diagnóstico de cualquier afección cutánea particular se realiza recopilando información pertinente sobre la (s) lesión(es) cutánea (s) que se presenta(n), incluyendo la ubicación (como brazos, cabeza, piernas), síntomas ( prurito , dolor), duración (aguda o crónica), disposición (solitaria, generalizada, anular, lineal), morfología ( máculas , pápulas , vesículas ) y color (rojo, azul, marrón, negro, blanco, amarillo). [ 21 ] El diagnóstico de muchas afecciones a menudo también requiere una biopsia de piel que proporciona información histológica [ 22 ] [ 23 ] que puede correlacionarse con la presentación clínica y cualquier dato de laboratorio. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ]

Erupciones acneiformes

Frente de adulto con granos rojos dispersos
Acné vulgar
Nódulo blando y supurativo con pérdida de cabello irregular, típico de la celulitis disecante del cuero cabelludo.
Celulitis disecante del cuero cabelludo
Macho adulto con una nariz grande, roja y bulbosa.
Rinofima

Las erupciones acneiformes son causadas por cambios en la unidad pilosebácea . [ 27 ] [ 28 ]

síndromes autoinflamatorios

Los síndromes autoinflamatorios son un grupo de trastornos hereditarios caracterizados por episodios de lesiones cutáneas inflamatorias y fiebres periódicas . [ 29 ] [ 30 ]

Ampollas crónicas

Las afecciones cutáneas ampollosas crónicas tienen un curso prolongado y se presentan con vesículas y ampollas . [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ]

Condiciones de las membranas mucosas

Las afecciones de las membranas mucosas incluyen los revestimientos húmedos de los ojos, la nariz, la boca, los genitales y el ano. [ 34 ]

Condiciones de los apéndices cutáneos

Las afecciones de los anexos cutáneos son aquellas que afectan a las glándulas de la piel, el pelo , las uñas y los músculos erectores del pelo . [ 1 ] [ 35 ]

Condiciones de la grasa subcutánea

Las afecciones de la grasa subcutánea son aquellas que afectan la capa de tejido adiposo que se encuentra entre la dermis y la fascia subyacente . [ 36 ] [ 37 ] [ 38 ] [ 39 ]

Anomalías congénitas

Las anomalías congénitas cutáneas son un grupo diverso de trastornos que resultan de una morfogénesis defectuosa , el proceso biológico que da forma al cuerpo humano . [ 35 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ]

Enfermedades del tejido conectivo

Las enfermedades del tejido conectivo son causadas por una compleja serie de respuestas autoinmunes que atacan o afectan al colágeno o a la sustancia fundamental . [ 35 ] [ 43 ]

Anomalías del tejido fibroso y elástico dérmico

Líneas rojas difusas en el abdomen
Estrías distensas

Las anomalías del tejido fibroso y elástico dérmico son causadas por problemas en la regulación de la síntesis o degradación del colágeno . [ 35 ] [ 44 ]

Tumores dérmicos y subcutáneos

Los crecimientos dérmicos y subcutáneos resultan de (1) proliferación reactiva o neoplásica de componentes celulares de la dermis o del tejido subcutáneo , o (2) neoplasias que invaden o se presentan de forma aberrante en la dermis. [ 1 ] [ 35 ]

Dermatitis

La dermatitis es un término general para " inflamación de la piel". [ 45 ]

Atópico

La dermatitis atópica es una dermatitis crónica asociada a una predisposición hereditaria a desarrollar alergias a alimentos y sustancias inhaladas. [ 46 ] [ 47 ] [ 48 ]

  • Dermatitis atópica (eccema atópico, neurodermatitis diseminada, eccema flexural, eccema infantil, prurigo diathsique)

Contacto

La dermatitis de contacto es causada por ciertas sustancias que entran en contacto con la piel. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] [ 51 ]

Eczema

El eccema se refiere a una amplia gama de afecciones que comienzan como dermatitis espongiótica y pueden progresar a una etapa liquenificada . [ 26 ] [ 52 ]

Pequeñas ampollas y costras en las puntas de los dedos.
Dishidrosis

Pustuloso

La dermatitis pustulosa es una inflamación de la piel que se presenta con lesiones pustulosas . [ 26 ] [ 53 ]

Seborreico

La dermatitis seborreica es una enfermedad inflamatoria crónica y superficial caracterizada por descamación sobre una base eritematosa . [ 54 ]

Alteraciones de la pigmentación

Las alteraciones de la pigmentación humana, ya sea pérdida o reducción, pueden estar relacionadas con la pérdida de melanocitos o la incapacidad de los melanocitos para producir melanina o transportar melanosomas correctamente. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ]

erupciones cutáneas inducidas por fármacos

Las erupciones cutáneas son reacciones adversas a medicamentos que se presentan con manifestaciones cutáneas. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] [ 60 ]

Las afecciones endocrinas a menudo presentan manifestaciones cutáneas, ya que la piel interactúa con el sistema endocrino de muchas maneras. [ 61 ] [ 62 ]

Eosinófilo

Las afecciones cutáneas eosinofílicas abarcan una amplia variedad de enfermedades que se caracterizan histológicamente por la presencia de eosinófilos en el infiltrado inflamatorio o por evidencia de degranulación de eosinófilos . [ 63 ] [ 64 ]

Nevos epidérmicos, neoplasias y quistes

Los nevos epidérmicos , las neoplasias y los quistes son lesiones cutáneas que se desarrollan a partir de la capa epidérmica de la piel. [ 8 ] [ 26 ]

Erythemas

Large erythematous patch in the pattern of a "bull's-eye" on a woman's posterior upper arm
Erythema migrans

Erythemas are reactive skin conditions in which there is blanchable redness.[1][9]

Genodermatoses

Genodermatoses are inherited genetic skin conditions often grouped into three categories: chromosomal, single gene, and polygenetic.[67][68]

Infection-related cutaneous conditions may be caused by bacteria, fungi, yeast, viruses, or parasites.[26][69]

Bacterium-related cutaneous conditions often have distinct morphologic characteristics that may be an indication of a generalized systemic process or simply an isolated superficial infection.[69][70]

Mycobacterium-related cutaneous conditions are caused by Mycobacterium infections.[69][71]

Mycosis-related cutaneous conditions are caused by fungi or yeasts, and may present as either a superficial or deep infection of the skin, hair, or nails.[69]

Parasitic infestations, stings, and bites

Parasitic infestations, stings, and bites in humans are caused by several groups of organisms belonging to the following phyla: Annelida, Arthropoda, Bryozoa, Chordata, Cnidaria, Cyanobacteria, Echinodermata, Nemathelminthes, Platyhelminthes, and Protozoa.[69][72]

Virus-related cutaneous conditions are caused by two main groups of viruses–DNA and RNA types–both of which are obligatoryintracellularparasites.[69][73]

Lichenoid eruptions

Lichenoid eruptions are dermatoses related to the unique, common inflammatory disorder lichen planus, which affects the skin, mucous membranes, nails, and hair.[74][75][76]

Lymphoid-related cutaneous conditions are a group of disorders characterized by collections of lymphocyte cells within the skin.[77]

Melanocytic nevi and neoplasms

Melanocytic nevi and neoplasms are caused by either a proliferation of (1) melanocytes, or (2) nevus cells, a form of melanocyte that lack dendritic processes.[78][79]

Melanoma

Melanoma is a malignant proliferation of melanocytes and the most aggressive type of skin cancer.[80][81][82]

Monocyte- and macrophage-related

Monocyte- and macrophage-related cutaneous conditions are characterized histologically by infiltration of the skin by monocyte or macrophage cells,[10] often divided into several categories, including granulomatous disease,[83]histiocytoses,[84] and sarcoidosis.[85]

Mucinoses

Mucinoses are a group of conditions caused by dermalfibroblasts producing abnormally large amounts of mucopolysaccharides.[34]

Neurocutaneous

Neurocutaneous conditions are due organicnervous system disease or are psychiatric in etiology.[86][87]

Noninfectious immunodeficiency-related cutaneous conditions are caused by T-cell or B-cell dysfunction.[88][89]

Nutrition-related cutaneous conditions are caused by malnutrition due to an improper or inadequate diet.[90][91]

Papulosquamous hyperkeratotic

Papulosquamoushyperkeratotic cutaneous conditions are those that present with papules and scales caused by a thickening of the stratum corneum.[9]

Multiple, red, well demarcated papules and plaques on the flank of an adult male
Pityriasis rosea

Palmoplantar keratodermas

Palmoplantar keratodermas are a diverse group of hereditary and acquired keratodermas in which there is hyperkeratosis of the skin of the palms and soles.[92]

Bottom of an adult's foot with a thickened and scaling surface
Palmoplantar keratoderma
  • Acrokeratoelastoidosis of Costa (keratoelastoidosis marginalis)
  • Aquagenic keratoderma (acquired aquagenic palmoplantar keratoderma, aquagenic syringeal acrokeratoderma, aquagenic wrinkling of the palms, transient reactive papulotranslucent acrokeratoderma)
  • Bart–Pumphrey syndrome (palmoplantar keratoderma with knuckle pads and leukonychia and deafness)
  • Camisa disease
  • Carvajal syndrome (striate palmoplantar keratoderma with woolly hair and cardiomyopathy, striate palmoplantar keratoderma with woolly hair and left ventricular dilated cardiomyopathy)
  • Corneodermatoosseous syndrome (CDO syndrome)
  • Diffuse epidermolytic palmoplantar keratoderma (palmoplantar keratoderma cum degeneratione granulosa Vörner, Vörner's epidermolytic palmoplantar keratoderma, Vörner keratoderma)
  • Diffuse nonepidermolytic palmoplantar keratoderma (diffuse orthohyperkeratotic keratoderma, hereditary palmoplantar keratoderma, keratosis extremitatum progrediens, keratosis palmoplantaris diffusa circumscripta, tylosis, Unna–Thost disease, Unna–Thost keratoderma)
  • Erythrokeratodermia variabilis (erythrokeratodermia figurata variabilis, keratosis extremitatum progrediens, keratosis palmoplantaris transgrediens et progrediens, Mendes da Costa syndrome, Mendes da Costa type erythrokeratodermia, progressive symmetric erythrokeratoderma)
  • Focal acral hyperkeratosis (acrokeratoelastoidosis lichenoides, degenerative collagenous plaques of the hand)
  • Focal palmoplantar and gingival keratosis
  • Focal palmoplantar keratoderma with oral mucosal hyperkeratosis (focal epidermolytic palmoplantar keratoderma, hereditary painful callosities, hereditary painful callosity syndrome, keratosis follicularis, keratosis palmoplantaris nummularis, nummular epidermolytic palmoplantar keratoderma)
  • Haim–Munk syndrome (palmoplantar keratoderma with periodontitis and arachnodactyly and acro-osteolysis)
  • Hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia (alopecia congenita with keratosis palmoplantaris, Clouston syndrome, Clouston's hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia, Fischer–Jacobsen–Clouston syndrome, keratosis palmaris with drumstick fingers, palmoplantar keratoderma and clubbing)
  • Howel–Evans syndrome (familial keratoderma with carcinoma of the esophagus, focal non-epidermolytic palmoplantar keratoderma with carcinoma of the esophagus, palmoplantar ectodermal dysplasia type III, palmoplantar keratoderma associated with esophageal cancer, tylosis, tylosis–esophageal carcinoma)
  • Hystrix-like ichthyosis–deafness syndrome (HID syndrome)
  • Keratoderma climactericum (acquired plantar keratoderma, climacteric keratoderma, Haxthausen's disease)
  • Keratosis punctata palmaris et plantaris (Buschke–Fischer–Brauer disease, Davis Colley disease, keratoderma disseminatum palmaris et plantaris, keratosis papulosa, keratoderma punctatum, keratodermia punctata, keratoma hereditarium dissipatum palmare et plantare, palmar and plantar seed dermatoses, palmar keratoses, papulotranslucent acrokeratoderma, punctate keratoderma, punctate keratoses of the palms and soles, maculosa disseminata)
  • Keratitis–ichthyosis–deafness syndrome (erythrokeratodermia progressiva Burns, ichthyosiform erythroderma with corneal involvement and deafness, KID syndrome)
  • Mal de Meleda (acral keratoderma, Gamborg–Nielsen keratoderma, mutilating palmoplantar keratoderma of the Gamborg–Nielsen type, palmoplantar ectodermal dysplasia type VIII, palmoplantar keratoderma of the Norrbotten type)
  • Naxos syndrome (diffuse non-epidermolytic palmoplantar keratoderma with woolly hair and cardiomyopathy, diffuse palmoplantar keratoderma with woolly hair and arrythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy of Naxos, Naxos disease)
  • Olmsted syndrome (mutilating palmoplantar keratoderma with periorificial keratotic plaques, mutilating palmoplantar keratoderma with periorificial plaques, polykeratosis of Touraine)
  • Pachyonychia congenita type I (Jadassohn–Lewandowsky syndrome)
  • Pachyonychia congenita type II (Jackson–Lawler pachyonychia congenita, Jackson–Sertoli syndrome)
  • Palmoplantar keratoderma and spastic paraplegia (Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease with palmoplantar keratoderma and nail dystrophy)
  • Palmoplantar keratoderma of Sybert (Greither palmoplantar keratoderma, Greither syndrome, keratosis extremitatum hereditaria progrediens, keratosis palmoplantaris transgrediens et progrediens, Sybert keratoderma, transgrediens and progrediens palmoplantar keratoderma)
  • Papillon–Lefèvre syndrome (palmoplantar keratoderma with periodontitis)
  • Porokeratosis plantaris discreta
  • Punctate palmoplantar keratoderma
  • Schöpf–Schulz–Passarge syndrome (eyelid cysts with palmoplantar keratoderma and hypodontia and hypotrichosis)
  • Scleroatrophic syndrome of Huriez (Huriez syndrome, palmoplantar keratoderma with scleroatrophy, palmoplantar keratoderma with sclerodactyly, scleroatrophic and keratotic dermatosis of the limbs, sclerotylosis)
  • Striate palmoplantar keratoderma (acral keratoderma, Brünauer–Fuhs–Siemens type of palmoplantar keratoderma, focal non-epidermolytic palmoplantar keratoderma, keratosis palmoplantaris varians, palmoplantar keratoderma areata, palmoplantar keratoderma striata, Wachter keratoderma, Wachters palmoplantar keratoderma)
  • Spiny keratoderma (porokeratosis punctata palmaris et plantaris, punctate keratoderma, punctate porokeratosis of the palms and soles)
  • Tyrosinemia type II (oculocutaneous tyrosinemia, Richner–Hanhart syndrome)
  • Vohwinkel syndrome (keratoderma hereditaria mutilans, keratoma hereditaria mutilans, mutilating keratoderma of Vohwinkel, mutilating palmoplantar keratoderma)
Linear, vertical brown patch inferior to umbilicus on the abdomen of a pregnant woman
Linea nigra

Pregnancy-related cutaneous conditions are a group of skin changes observed during pregnancy.[93][94]

Pruritic

Pruritus, commonly known as itchiness, is a sensation exclusive to the skin, and characteristic of many skin conditions.[95][96]

Psoriasis

Psoriasis is a common, chronic, and recurrent inflammatory disease of the skin characterized by circumscribed, erythematous, dry, scaling plaques.[97][98][99]

Large, red, scaly plaque
Psoriasis vulgaris

Reactive neutrophilic

Reactive neutrophilic cutaneous conditions constitute a spectrum of disease mediated by neutrophils, and typically associated with underlying diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease and hematologicmalignancy.[100][101]

Multiple ulcerations with undermined edges on the adult back and upper, posterior arm
Pyoderma gangrenosum

Recalcitrant palmoplantar eruptions

Recalcitrant palmoplantar eruptions are skin conditions of the palms and soles which are resistant to treatment.[34]

  • Dermatitis repens (acrodermatitis continua, acrodermatitis continua of Hallopeau, acrodermatitis continua suppurativa Hallopeau, acrodermatitis perstans, dermatitis repens Crocker, Hallopeau's acrodermatitis, Hallopeau's acrodermatitis continua, pustular acrodermatitis)
  • Infantile acropustulosis (acropustulosis of infancy)
  • Palmoplantar pustulosis (persistent palmoplantar pustulosis, pustular psoriasis of the Barber type, pustular psoriasis of the extremities, pustulosis of palms and soles, pustulosis palmaris et plantaris)
  • Pustular bacterid

Resulting from errors in metabolism

Skin conditions resulting from errors in metabolism are caused by enzymatic defects that lead to an accumulation or deficiency of various cellular components, including, but not limited to, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.[16]

Resulting from physical factors

Skin conditions resulting from physical factors occur from a number of causes, including, but not limited to, hot and cold temperatures, friction, and moisture.[34][102][103]

Ionizing radiation-induced

Ionizing radiation-induced cutaneous conditions result from exposure to ionizing radiation.[104]

Urticaria and angioedema

Urticaria is a vascular reaction of the skin characterized by the appearance of wheals, which are firm, elevated swellings of the skin.[105]Angioedema, which can occur alone or with urticaria, is characterized by a well-defined, edematous swelling that involves subcutaneous tissues, abdominal organs, or upper airway.[106]

Raised, edematous, red skin lesions on the abdomen
Acute urticaria

Vascular-related cutaneous conditions result from dysfunction of the blood or blood vessels in the dermis, or lymphatics in the subcutaneous tissues.[9][107][108]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑Any given cutaneous condition is only included once within this list.
  2. ↑Parentheticals are used to indicate other names by which a condition is known. If there are multiple alternative names for a condition, they are separated by commas within the parenthetical.
  3. ↑Citations for any given condition name and/or alternative name(s) may be found within the condition's respective article.
  4. ↑This list uses American English; therefore, the symbols æ and œ, which are common to British English, are not used, but, rather, simplified to a single e. For example, the spelling of nevus is favored over nævus, edema over œdema, and so forth. For more information, see American and British English differences.
  5. ↑Non-English names are included within this list when those terms are found in English medical literature. Inclusion of acne excoriée des jeunes filles (French), Frambösie (German), and parangi (Malay) represent examples of this convention.
  6. ↑Abbreviations for condition names commonly described in medical literature with an acronym or initialism are included within this list.
  7. ↑Within this list, the term immunoglobulin is abbreviated to Ig when used as a prefix to a specific antibody isotype (i.e. IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM).
  8. ↑Within this list, the terms human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome are abbreviated to HIV and AIDS, respectively.

References

  1. 12345Miller, Jeffrey H; Marks, James G (2006). Lookingbill and Marks' Principles of Dermatology. Saunders. ISBN 978-1-4160-3185-7.
  2. ↑Lippens S, Hoste E, Vandenabeele P, Agostinis P, Declercq W (April 2009). "Cell death in the skin". Apoptosis. 14 (4): 549–69. doi:10.1007/s10495-009-0324-z. PMID 19221876. S2CID 13058619.
  3. 1234Burns, Tony; et al. (2006) Rook's Textbook of Dermatology CD-ROM. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-3130-6.
  4. ↑Paus R, Cotsarelis G (1999). "The biology of hair follicles". N Engl J Med. 341 (7): 491–7. doi:10.1056/NEJM199908123410706. PMID 10441606. S2CID 35532108.
  5. ↑Goldsmith, Lowell A. (1983). Biochemistry and physiology of the skin. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-261253-3.
  6. ↑Fuchs E (February 2007). "Scratching the surface of skin development". Nature. 445 (7130): 834–42. Bibcode:2007Natur.445..834F. doi:10.1038/nature05659. PMC 2405926. PMID 17314969.
  7. ↑Fuchs E, Horsley V (April 2008). "More than one way to skin". Genes Dev. 22 (8): 976–85. doi:10.1101/gad.1645908. PMC 2732395. PMID 18413712.
  8. 12345Freedberg, Irwin M; et al. (2003). Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in General Medicine. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-138076-8.
  9. 1234Bolognia, Jean L; et al. (2007). Dermatology. St. Louis: Mosby. ISBN 978-1-4160-2999-1.
  10. 1234Rapini, Ronald P (2005). Practical dermatopathology. Elsevier Mosby. ISBN 978-0-323-01198-3.
  11. ↑Grant-Kels JM (2007). Color Atlas of Dermatopathology (Dermatology: Clinical & Basic Science). Informa Healthcare. pp. 163. ISBN 978-0-8493-3794-9.
  12. ↑Ryan, T (1991). "Cutaneous Circulation". In Goldsmith, Lowell A (ed.). Physiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology of the skin (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1019. ISBN 978-0-19-505612-9.
  13. ↑Swerlick RA, Lawley TJ (January 1993). "Role of microvascular endothelial cells in inflammation". J. Invest. Dermatol. 100 (1): 111S–115S. doi:10.1038/jid.1993.33. PMID 8423379.
  14. 1234Lynch, Peter J (1994). Dermatology. Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-683-05252-7.
  15. ↑King, LS (1954). "What Is Disease?". Philosophy of Science. 21 (3): 193–203. doi:10.1086/287343. S2CID 120875348.
  16. 12Bluefarb, Samuel M (1984). Dermatology. Upjohn Co. ISBN 978-0-89501-004-9.
  17. ↑Tilles G, Wallach D (1989). "[The history of nosology in dermatology]". Ann Dermatol Venereol (in French). 116 (1): 9–26. PMID 2653160.
  18. ↑Lambert WC, Everett MA (October 1981). "The nosology of parapsoriasis". J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 5 (4): 373–95. doi:10.1016/S0190-9622(81)70100-2. PMID 7026622.
  19. ↑Jackson R (1977). "Historical outline of attempts to classify skin diseases". Can Med Assoc J. 116 (10): 1165–68. PMC 1879511. PMID 324589.
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Further reading

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  • Asra Ali (2007). Dermatology: a pictorial review. New York: McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division. ISBN 978-0-07-142293-2.
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  • Callen, Jeffrey (2000). Color atlas of dermatology. Philadelphia: WB Saunders. ISBN 978-0-7216-8256-3.
  • Cox, Neil; White, Gary (2000). Diseases of the skin: a color atlas and text. St. Louis: Mosby. ISBN 978-0-7234-3155-8.
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